1. Sequential Rules [s?'kwen?(?)l] 序列规则Sequential Rules are rules that
govern the combination of sounds in particular language.
e.g. If a word begins with a /l/ or /r/, then the next sound must be a vowel（元音）.
2. Prototype ['pr??t?ta?p]原型
What members of a particular community think of as the typical instance of a lexical category.
e.g. F or some English speakers “cabbage”(rather than say carrot) might be the
prototypical vegetable.
3. Presuppositional Trigger 预设触发语
A presupposition trigger is a construction or item that signals the existence of a
presupposition in an utterance.
e.g.” Jane had another date with John.” It presupposes the fact that Jane has had one
date with John before. Apparently, the use of “another” called a presupposition trigger.
4. Possessor [p?'zes?] 所有人
Refers to one who has something
e.g. Jane’s doll. The first noun is the possessor.
5. Positive Face 积极面子
The positive consistent self-image or “personality”(including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of)claimed by interactants.
e.g.: You are excellent.
6. Phoneme ['f??ni?m] 音位The smallest unit in the sound system
of a language
e.g. the two words peak and speak, we are aware that the sound /p/ is pronounced
differently
7. Performative Utterance 言有所为
It is a sentence which is not true or false but instead 'happy' or 'unhappy', and which is uttered in the performance of an illocutionary (语内表现行为的) act rather than used to state something.
e.g. "I swear to do that", "I promise to be there"
8. Negative Face 消极面子
The basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction. i.e. to freedom of action and freedom from imposition.
e.g.: You’d better not smoke here.
9. Morpheme ['m?:fi:m] 词素
The smallest meaningful unit of language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.
e.g. the English word unkindness consists of three morphemes: the S TEM1 kind, the
negative prefix un-, and the noun-forming suffix -ness.
10. Metonymic Reasoning [,met?'nimik] 转喻推理
Metonymic Reasoning is a figure of speech used in rhetoric(修辞) in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by the name of something intimately(密切地) associated with that thing or concept.
For instance, "London", as the capital of the United Kingdom, can be used as a metonym (an instance of metonymy) for the British government
e.g:silk suits you.”silk stands for the cloth made of silk.
11. Truth-conditional Semantics 语义真值条件
Truth-conditional Semantics is an approach to semantics(语义学) of natural language that sees the meaning of assertions as being the same as, or reducible to, the truth conditions of that sentence..
For example, 'snow is white'.
12. Theme [θi?m] 主题
Refers to one or thing that undergoes an action
e.g.sam found the dog.
13. Synonymy [s?'n?n?m?] 近义词/同义词
Synonyms are words which have different forms but similar meanings.
e.g. Start, begin, commenc e
14. Syllable ['s?l?b(?)l] 音节
Syllable is phonological unit which is composed of one or more phonemes.. Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.
For example, /let/ consists of one syllable, whereas /ri’ga:d/ consists of two syllables. 15. Source 来源
Refers to the place from which an action originates.
For example, Sam left Beijing for Nanjing.
16. Metaphoric Reasoning 隐喻性思维
A word or phrase which is used for special effect, and which does not have its usual or literal meaning
e.g. My hands are as cold as ice.
17. Location 位置
Refers to the place where an action happens,
e.g. Jane put the magazines on the table. The table is location.
18. Instrument 工具
Refers to the means by which an action is performed.
For example, the key opened the door.
19. Indirect Speech Act 间接言语行为
A speech act in which the communicative intention is not reflected in the linguistic form of the utterance
For example, “It is very hot in here” may be used to e xpress a request to turn on the air conditioner.
20. Impersonalization [im,p?:s?n?lai'zei??n] 非人格化
A device used either to avoid mentioning oneself or the interlocutor(对话者), or to appeal to public rule or institutional regulation, which helps to gain successful interpersonal communication.
e.g. (1)I don’t think you can smoke in the waiting room, sir. (2)Smoking is not allowed in the waiting room, sir. Obviously, (2) is more polite than (1).
21. Hyponymy [ha?'p?n?m?] 下义词
A relationship between two words, in which the meaning of one word includes the meaning of the other words.
e.g. tiger, lion, elephant and dog are hyponyms of the word animal.
22. Goal 目标
Refers to the place to which an action is directed.
For example, Sam left Beijing for Nanjing.
23. Functional Shift 词性转换
Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.
e.g. noun to verb, to knee, to tape, to break.
24. Family Resemblance 家族类似性
That a lexical category(词汇范畴) resembles another one can be called family resemblance.
e.g. the notion概念of game. One game may resemble类似at least one game, although not all of them have to be alike at the same time.
25. Experiencer 感受者
One who perceives something. Example: Sam was sad．
26. Exophoric Reference [,eks?u'f?rik] 外指
Refers to the relation between an entity in the situational context and a linguistic item in the text
e.g. he is the man you want to see, said when the mentioned person comes up to the speaker.
27. Entailment 限定关系
The relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second is inferred from the truth of the first
e.g. john has a boy”entailing”john has a child”.
28. Endophoric Reference 内指照应
Refers to a relation between two linguistic items in the same text
e.g. John loves Jane, he takes great care of her. This is known to all.
29. Deictic Exprseeion ['daiktik] 指代表达（指示语）
Deictic Exprseeion are linguistic items used to anchor these specific points in the communication event.
e.g. here and there, which refer to a place in relation to the speaker: The letter is here. (near the speaker). The letter is over there. (further away from the speaker)
30. Coordinate Sentence 并列句
contains two or more clauses(从句) are conjoined by a linking word, such as “and”, “or”, “so”, or “but”.
e.g. here a star, and there a star
31. Constative Utterance [k?n'steitiv] ['?t?r?ns] 表述句
It’s the descriptions of facts or states of affairs. For example, The earth is round.”
32. Componential Analysis 语义成分分析
The process that breaks down the meaning of a word into its minimal distinctive features or properties using feature symbols is called componential analysis.
For example, boy may be shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult]
33. Complex Sentence 复合句
A sentence which contains one or more clauses are embedded(嵌) into a main clause to communicate purpose, reason, time, place, manner, or concession.
e.g.this is the place where my father worked 10 years ago.
34. Clause 从句
A clause in English is one unit of organization that contains a subject-predicate structure..
A clause may be finite or non-finite.
e.g. I hurried home. / Because I was late, they went without me.
35. Causative ['k?:z?tiv] 成为..的原因/使动词
A natural force that causes a change
For example, The flood killed 25.
36. Cataphoric Reference [,k?t?'f?:rik] 后指照应
Donates a relation between the current pronominal item and the later occurring expression
e.g. This is what John does for Jane, he sends a bunch of roses to her every day.
37. Blending ['blendi?]混成法
Blending s a word formed by combining parts of other words
e.g. smog (formed from smoke and fog)
38. Back-formation 逆构（逆成法）
New words may be created from already existing words by subtracting a real or supposed affix.
e.g. the word “edit” from the pre-existing word “editor” by deleting the assumed suffix “-or”
39. Antonymy [?n't?nimi] 反义
Antonyms are words which are opposite in meaning.
e.g. Dead and alive; male and female
40. Anaphoric Reference [,?n?'f?rik] 前指
Involves a relation between a preceding referential expression and the current pronominal item
e.g. John loves Jane, he takes great care of her. This is known to all.
41. Analogy [?'n?l?d?i] 类比
The process by which words are reformed or created on the model of existing grammatical terms
For example, zipper-gate, football-gate, Watergate
42. Allophone ['?l?uf?un] 音位变体
Allophone is the phonetic variants of a phoneme in a particular language.
e.g. the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark/l/, clear /l/.
43. Agent 人物，主格
Refers to the one who performs an action
For example, Sam opened the door.
44. Affixation [,?fik'sei??n] 词缀
A bound morpheme that is joined before, after, or within a root or stem
It mainly includes prefixes, suffixes, infixes
e.g. prefix un-, suffix –ness；infix –foot
45. Adjacency Pair [?'d?eis?nsi] 相邻语对
An initiation, say a question or a request, by the first speaker and the response by the second speaker, like an answer to the question or compliance with the request, form an adjacency pair.
For example, “what’s your name?”“My name is Tom.”
1. Sequential Rules [s?'kwen?(?)l] 序列规则Sequential Rules are rules that govern the combination of sounds in particular language. e.g. If a word begins with a /l/ or /r/, then the next sound must be a vowel（元音）. 2. Prototype ['pr??t?ta?p]原型 What members of a particular community think of as the typical instance of a lexical category. e.g. F or some English speakers “cabbage”(rather than say carrot) might be the prototypical vegetable. 3. Presuppositional Trigger 预设触发语 A presupposition trigger is a construction or item that signals the existence of a presupposition in an utterance. e.g.” Jane had another date with John.” It presupposes the fact that Jane has had one date with John before. Apparently, the use of “another” called a presupposition trigger. 4. Possessor [p?'zes?] 所有人 Refers to one who has something e.g. Jane’s doll. The first noun is the possessor. 5. Positive Face 积极面子 The positive consistent self-image or “personality”(including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of)claimed by interactants. e.g.: You are excellent. 6. Phoneme ['f??ni?m] 音位The smallest unit in the sound system of a language e.g. the two words peak and speak, we are aware that the sound /p/ is pronounced differently 7. Performative Utterance 言有所为 It is a sentence which is not true or false but instead 'happy' or 'unhappy', and which is uttered in the performance of an illocutionary (语内表现行为的) act rather than used to state something. e.g. "I swear to do that", "I promise to be there" 8. Negative Face 消极面子 The basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction. i.e. to freedom of action and freedom from imposition. e.g.: You’d better not smoke here. 9. Morpheme ['m?:fi:m] 词素 The smallest meaningful unit of language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning. e.g. the English word unkindness consists of three morphemes: the S TEM1 kind, the negative prefix un-, and the noun-forming suffix -ness. 10. Metonymic Reasoning [,met?'nimik] 转喻推理 Metonymic Reasoning is a figure of speech used in rhetoric(修辞) in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by the name of something intimately(密切地) associated with that thing or concept.
现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
国家《英语课程标准》的基本理念 新一轮课程改革对英语教育教学理念产生了重大影响，最主要的一点是 明确了关于英语课程的功能的新理念“义务教育阶段英语课程具有工具性和人文性双重性质”。这是语言课程改革中的最重大的成就。 1、注重素质教育，体现语言学习对学生发展的价值。义务教育阶段英语课程的主要目的是为学生发展综合语言运用能力打基础，为他们继续学习英语和未来发展创造有利条件。语言既是交流的工具，也是思维的工具。学习一门外语能够促进人的心智发展，有助于学生认识世界的多样性，在体验中外文化的异同中形成跨文化意识，增进国际理解，弘扬爱国主义精神，形成社会责任感和创新意识，提高人文素养。 2、面向全体学生，关注语言学习者的不同特点和个体差异。义务教育是全民教育的重要组成部分，义务教育阶段的英语课程应面向全体学生，体现以学生为主体的思想, 在教学目标、教学内容、教学过程、教学评价和教学资源的利用与开发等方面都应考虑全体学生的发展需求。课程应成为学生在教师的指导下构建知识、发展技能、拓展视野、活跃思维、展现个性的过程。由于学生在年龄、性格、认知方式、生活环境等方面存在差异，他们具有不同的学习需求和学习特点。只有最大限度地满足个体需求才有可能获得最大化的整体教学效益。 3、整体设计目标，充分考虑语言学习的渐进性和持续性。英语学习具有明显的渐进性和持续性特点。语言学习持续时间长，而且需要逐渐积累。《义务教育英语课程标准》旨在体现小学、初中和高中各学段课程的有机衔接和各学段学生英语语言能力循序渐进的发展特点，保证英语课程的整体性、渐进性和持续性。英语课程应按照学生的语言水平及相应的等级要求组织教学和评价活动。 4、强调学习过程，重视语言学习的实践性和应用性。现代外语教育注重语言学习的过程，强调语言学习的实践性，主张学生在语境中接触、体验和理解真实语言并在此基础上学习和运用语言。英语课程提倡采用既强调语言学习过程又有利于提高学生学习成效的语言教学途径和方法尽可能多地为学生创造在真实语境中运用语言的机会。鼓励学生在教师的指导下，通过体验、
Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain 1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludes research into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use Ian guage. 2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion. 3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cog nitive fun cti on. 5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage. 6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies. 7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on. 8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is called non-flue nt aphasia. 9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results in a type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia. 10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte n causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia. 11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems to have lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules. 12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un able to recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so und rules. 13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips. 14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ng of letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word. 15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used words tha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.
Morphology 形态学，研究词的内部结构和构造规则 如colorful,由color和-ful两部分构成，由此概括出一条规则：名词词尾加上-ful可构成形容词 Morpheme, 语素，不能再简化的有意义的语言单位。如boys,由boy和-s构成 Morph 语素的具体形态 Allomorph 语素变体 英文单词illogical,imbalance,irregular和inactive有着共同的语素in-。换句话说，im-,ir-是语素in-的变体。 Free morphemes 能单独出现，独立构词的语素称为自由语素。如work,boy Bound morphemes 不能独立出现，必须附着在其他语素后才能构词的语素。如distempered中，dis-和-ed是黏着语素，temper是自由语素 Bound roots 不能独立出现，只能被词缀附着后出现 如refer中的-fer,consist中的-sist Content morphemes 包含语义内容的语素（包含简单词和能改变词根意义的词缀），如名词、动词、形容词、副词。如work Function morphemes 通过联系一个句子中的其他词提供语法功能的语素 如介词、连词、冠词 at，for，a,but Inflectional 曲折，生成同一语素的不同形式 -s,-‘s,-ing,-en,-er,-est，-s Derivational 派生，生成新词，通常可以改变词汇意义 Cat,caty Compounding合成 如Girlfriend Reduplication 重复 Abbreviation or shortening 简写 Blending 混合 Motor+hotel=motel Breakfast+lunch=brunch Alternation Man men Suppletion不规则 Go went Syntax句法
1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole. 3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. 4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say). 5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C) 6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04) 7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C) 8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence: universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C) 15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users. 16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.
序论部分 语言学：是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；从方法上分为历史语言学、比较语言学、历史比较语言学、描写语言学；从研究对象上可分为个别语言学和普通语言学；19C 初的历史比较语言学标志着语言学的诞生。 历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学。 比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的 语言学。表层结构、深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音 形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 语言的社会功能语言的依存性（强制性）：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约 定俗成后,音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。 语言层级性：语言是一种分层装置。语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的 音节，为语言符号准备了形式部分；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。 语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创 造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。 语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的 发展速度是不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。 组合关系：构成线性序列的语言成分之间前后相继的关系。语言单位顺着时间的线条前后相继，好像一根链条，一环扣着一环，处于这个组合链中的两个符号或符号序列之间的关系就 叫组合关系。如：主谓、动宾等都是具体的组合关系类型。 聚合关系：在线性序列的某一结构位置上语言成分之间相互替换的关系。在同一位置上能够相互替换的语言单位具有相同的语法功能。在这个线性序列中，每一个语言单位都占有一个 特定的位置，在这个位置上它可以被其他语言单位替换下来，犹如一根链条，某一环可以被另一环替换下来，从而形成一根新的链条。 语言习得性：是指虽然人类先天就具有潜在的语言能力，但要掌握一门语言，必须通过后天的学习，没有现实的语言环境，不能掌握任何一种语言。 语言能力：抽象思维能力和发音能力的结合，即，掌握语言需要有发达的大脑和灵活的发音 器官。征候：是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。如：炊烟 代表人家。语音部分语音：即语言的声音，由人的发音器官发出，负载一定的意义，是语 言的物质外壳，语言依靠语音来实现其社会交际功能。 音素：从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位，分为元音和辅音。 国际音标：由国际语音学会于1888年制定的一套记音符号，它根据“一个音素只用一个音标 表示，一个音标只表示一个音素”的原则，主要使用拉丁字母和各种变形符号，是国际上通 用的记音符号。语音的生理属性：指语音的动力、发音体和发音方法。 语音的物理属性：是指物体受到外力作用而发生振动，从而使周围的空气也发生振动，形成音波，音波传入人耳，使鼓膜发生振动，刺激听觉神经，于是人们产生了声音的感觉。语音 的物理属性包括音高、音长、音重、音质。 语音的社会属性：指同一个音素在不同的语言或方言中具有不同的作用，执行不同的交际功能，是语音的本质属性。 音高：指声音的高低，取决于发音体振动的频率，具有区别意义的作用。如汉语的声调。 音重：指声音的强弱，取决于振幅，具有区别意义的作用。语音的强弱与气流量的大小和发
现代语言学 1 language: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 1 interlanguage:The type of language produced by nonnative speakers in the process of learning a second language or foreign language. 1 Linguistics : Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants 3 Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology 形态学:The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax 句型: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics语义学: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worr ied.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics语用学: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme音素: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone同位音: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 10 intonation朗诵: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation. 3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation. 4 morpheme词素: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. 5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes. 6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. 7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be
一、填空 1、根据小学生的生理和心理特点以及发展要求， 小学教师阶段英语课程的目的是激发学生学习英语的，培养 他们英语学习的积极态度。使他们建立初步的学习英语的自信心，培养学生一定的语感和良好的语音语 调、基础，使他们形成初步用英语进行简单日常 交流的能力，为进一步学习打下基础。 3、根据小学生学习的特点，小学英语教学要创建活动课课 为主的教学模式，教学重点是培养学生用语言进行交流的能力。 小学英语教学不讲解语法概念。要充分利用教学资源，采用 听、做、说、唱、玩、演的方式，鼓励学生积极参与、大胆表达，侧重 提高明小学生对语言的感受和初步用英语进行听、说、唱、 演、、、的能力。小学五、六年级的英语教学，在 进一步加强学生听说能力的同时，发展初步的读写能力，为进一步学习打好基础。 4、小学英语教材应符合儿童的认知特点，有利于培养他们 的兴趣1 与语感；要有利于学生了解英语国家 的文化、习俗，培养他们对异国文化的正确态度。教材还应 有利于培养学生用英语进行交流和做事情的能力，提 高他们的思维能力和认知世界的能力。小学英 语教学应尽量采用多种媒体的现代化教学手段，充分利录音机，VCD机、广播，电视，网络等设备和技术，创设良好语言环境和充 分的语言实践机会。 6、三、四年级的期末或学年评价基本不采用书面测试 方式，应采用与平时教学活动相近的方式进行，通过对学生的观察 和与学生交流等方式评价学生。五、六年级的期末或学年考试可采用口笔结合的方式。口试要考查学生实际运用 所学语言的能力，考查要贴近学生学生生活i 。笔试主要考查 和听和读的技能。 7、终结性评价可采用等级制或达标的方法记成 绩，不用百分之。 一、选择题：根据新课程标准，选择正确答案（20分） 8、语言技能一级目标中玩演的要求：能用英语做游戏并在游戏 用 A——————————；能做简单的角色表演；能表演英文歌曲及简单的童话剧等。 A、英语进行简单的交际 B、用简单的英语讲简单的故事 C、表演小故事或童话剧 D、能看懂英文动画片
自己整理的，供参考。↖(^ω^)↗↖(^ω^)↗↖(^ω^)↗↖(^ω^)↗↖(^ω^)↗↖(^ω^)↗1Duality(二元性): each human language is organized into two basic seystems: a system of sounds and a system of meaning. This is called the duality of language. 2.connotative meaning（内涵意义）: the additional meanings that a word or a phrase has beyond its central meaning. 3. minimal pair（最小对立体）: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are called minimal pairs. 4. Affix（词缀）: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem).(词缀是一个构词成分的集合,它们只能附加于另一个语素词根或词干上.) 5. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）studies the interaction between language and the structure and functioning of society. 6. lingua franca（通用语)the general term for a language that serves as a means of communication between different groups of speakers. 7. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）studies how humans learn language and the relationship of linguistic behavoir and the psychological processes in producing and understanding language. 8. diachronic linguistics（历时语言学）: The description of the historical development of a language is a diachronic study. 9. immidiate constituent analysis（直接成分分析）is the technique of breaking up sentences into word groups by making successive binary cuttings until the level of single words is reached.(when constituents(i.e. Structural units) are considered as part of the successive unraveling of a sentence, they are known as its immidiate constituents.) 10. Euphemism（委婉语）：a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects,e.g. powder room for toilet. 11. Taboo（禁忌语）：words that are offensive or embarrassing, considered inappropriate for “polite society”, thus to be avoided in conversation. 12. structural linguistics（结构语言学）it is based on the assumption that grammatical categories, should be definede not in terms of meaning, but in terms of distribution and that the structure of each language should be focused on description. 13. Semantic triangle（语义三角） One best known example to illustrate this view is the Semantic Triangle . Thought or Reference( concept) Symbol Referent (Linguistic elements) ( object in the world) 14. Morphology（形态学）refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 15. Presupposition（预设）refers to the conditions that must be met in order for the intended meaning of a sentence to be regarded as acceptable. 16. Overgeneralization（过分概括）the process of extending the application of a rule to items that are excluded from it in the language norm. 17. Fossilization（僵化现象）It is a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.