中国地质大学长城学院
本科毕业设计外文资料翻译
系别：工程技术系
专业：机械设计制造及其自动化
姓名：吴宝生
学号： 05211615
2015 年 1 月 22 日
国内外小型挖掘机发展综述
1液压挖掘机简介
液压挖掘机是由发动机、液压系统、工作装置、行走装置和电气控制等部分组成。液压系统由液压泵、控制阀、液压缸、液压马达、管路、油箱等组成。电气控制系统包括监控盘、发动机控制系统、泵控制系统、各类传感器、电磁阀等。液压挖掘机一般由工作装置、回转装置和行走装置三大部分组成。根据其构造和用途可以区分为：履带式、轮胎式、步履式、全液压、半液压、全回转、非全回转、通用型、专用型、铰接式、伸缩臂式等多种类型。
工作装置是直接完成挖掘任务的装置。它由动臂、斗杆、铲斗等三部分铰接而成。动臂起落、斗杆伸缩和铲斗转动都用往复式双作用液压缸控制。为了适应各种不同施工作业的需要，液压挖掘机可以配装多种工作装置，如挖掘、起重、装载、平整、夹钳、推土、冲击锤等多种作业机具。
回转与行走装置是液压挖掘机的机体，转台上部设有动力装置和传动系统。发动机是液压挖掘机的动力源，大多采用柴油要在方便的场地，也可改用电动机。
液压传动系统通过液压泵将发动机的动力传递给液压马达、液压缸等执行元件，推动工作装置动作，从而完成各种作业。以工地使用较多的PV-200型液压挖掘机为例。该机采用改进型的开式中心负荷传感系统（OLSS）。该系统用控制斜盘式变量柱塞泵斜盘角（输出流量）的方法，减少了发动机的功率输出，从而减少燃油消耗，是一种节能型系统。这种液压系统的特点是：定转矩控制，能维持液压泵驱动转矩不变，载断控制，可以减少作业时间的卸荷损失；油量控制，可减少空挡和小调控制时液压泵的输出流量，减少功率损失。
械到电力驱动和内燃机驱动回转挖掘机、应用机电液一体化技术的全自动液压挖掘机的逐步发展过程。由于液压技术的应用，20世纪40年代有了在拖拉机上配装液压反铲的悬挂式机械，20世纪50年代初期和中期相继研制出拖式全回转液压挖掘机和履带式全液压机械。初期试制的液压挖掘机是采用飞机和机床的液压技术，缺少适用于机械各种工况的液压元件，制造质量不够稳定，配套件也不齐全。从20世纪60年代起，液压挖掘机进入推广和蓬勃发展阶段，各国机械制造厂和品种增加很快，产量猛增。1968-1970年间，液压挖掘机产量已占机械总产量的83%，目前已接近100%。
2小型挖掘机的发展及其趋势
20 世纪80～90 年代小型挖掘机在市政工程、交通、管道等施工中发挥了较大优势并得以迅速发展。它在城市的土建施工工程中为节省人力、物力出了较大贡献 , 逐步成为城市施工中具有代表性的施工机械。
小型挖掘机的发展主要依赖于城市建设的发展,由于城市的改造、建设施工较多,要求施工时间短、施工机械对周围环境影响小、安全、低污染、回转半径小、便于运输以
及具有与城市景色相协调的外观,小型挖掘机满足了城市各种作业要求，在城市狭窄的工作空间内能够最大限度地发挥其生产能力,因此具有独特的优越性。
1. 小型挖掘机的发展
小型挖掘机在城市中主要用于土建施工及一般住宅修整等工作,要求具有良好工作性能和回转性能。最初的小型挖掘机以轮胎式为主,由于轮胎式在软地面的行走性和通过性差,后来逐渐被履带式替代,并在动臂支撑机构处增加了回转机构,使整个工作装置能相对机体进行左右摆动,以完成沟道侧壁挖掘整修工作,但这种小型挖掘机挖掘范围小、不能实现后部卸料。此后,小型挖掘机增加了上部回转机构,解决了后部卸料等问题,提高了挖掘机的工作性能,形成小型挖掘机的基本结构。后来,小型挖掘机在回转半径、后部视野、动臂仰角、机械性能等方面得到进一步改善,发展为现在的标准型。
2. 技术的进步
小型挖掘机工作环境大部分在城市,为了防止行走时损坏路面,从 80 年代开始使用橡胶履带 ,并逐步得到普及。橡胶履带的支重轮是在内部铁芯板上运动 , 铁芯板接缝处与支重轮接触落地时,成为行走破坏路面的主要原因。以前使用宽形铁芯板,橡胶履带的支重轮直径较大,因此在接近地面时,这个缝隙变大,造成履带对路面的破坏。超级小型挖掘力小,减小了对地面的损坏。
后方小回转型挖掘机的回转尾部尺寸非常小,为了确保挖掘机工作的稳定性,必须有足够的配重,并在不增加机械重量的前提下,采用增大履带长度及加宽车体等有效方法。但是,车体宽度受运输卡车宽度的限制,为解决这个问题,在超级小型挖掘机中采用ViCTAS (Vio - Crawler Technology by Advanced Stability )技术。
3. 舒适性
小型挖掘机大部分没有封闭的驾驶室, 下雨时座椅常常被雨淋湿而渗水。为了解决这一问题,使用表面与内部聚安脂橡胶一体制作的没有缝制缝的座椅 ,不会再从缝制缝处破坏 ,耐久性也得以提高,成为完全防水型座椅。
3推动小型挖掘机市场快速发展的因素
(1) 小型挖掘机具有的广泛适用性小型挖掘机体积小、机动灵活,非常适用于城镇的各种管道铺设、基础施工、公用事业以及房屋维修等作业。小型挖掘机紧凑的体积、特殊的设计使其能够在大型挖掘机无法施工的环境中进行作业。
(2) 小型挖掘机具有的多功能性小型挖掘机的真正优点是它具有多功能性。小型挖掘机能够安装许多辅助作业机具,如安装破碎锤、液压钳用于轻量级的拆除作业,安装夹钳用于清除作业,安装滚筒、平板夯用于沟槽的填埋压实,安装旋挖钻具用于钻孔,吊钩用于起吊重物等等。
(3) 小型挖掘机便于运输和转移作业场地小型液压挖掘机市场迅速扩张的原因之一应归于它的尺寸和重量。小型挖掘机能方便地在各个施工现场间转移,小型挖掘机无需大型拖车或是重型卡车进行运输,小型的运输工具就可运载。这样不但能够方便运输,还可以大大降低机器的运输费用。
(4) 小型挖掘机鲜明的作业特点:尾部旋转半径为零的设计,使得小型挖掘机在作
业空间有限的环境下作业时挖掘机操作人员无须考虑施工现场是,从而使操作人员能否有障碍物阻碍挖掘机的转动够更专心于铲斗的操作,这也防止了施工现场周围建筑物以及挖掘机自身的损坏。
(5) 投资回报率高、成本回收快
小型挖掘机的价格便宜,成本回收快。以6t级小挖为例,美、欧日品牌机的价格在四十万元左右,韩国的机器价格在三十二万元左右,国产机器价格为30～32 万元，一些品牌价格较低；但20t级中心挖掘机价格在70 万~100万元。较高的投资回报率使得小型挖掘机深受广大中小土方工程施工承包人的欢迎。
4小型挖掘机的技术发展趋势
小型挖掘机的技术发展顺应全球多样化的工作位置要求，经历了超过30年的历史成功的变化过程，经过不断的改进完善，在技术性能等方面，工作职能，工作效率，安全，环保，节能，维修保养有了大幅度的提高，形成了比较一致的技术标准和工作标准。主要体现在以下几个方面：（1）无尾的旋转和移动臂偏转技术把小挖的基本概念动臂偏转和无尾旋转的功能，促进在上世纪90年代后期，面对世界市场。动臂偏转在机体前部，但没有组织能够实现位于壁直接开挖工作要经常移动机身下部附近。无尾回转结构的应用，使土地工作时颈部不必担心后部碰撞。无尾回转结构设计的难点在于在平台总布置的旋转时，动力系统热平衡的解决方案以及整机的稳定的解决方案。但动臂偏转机构的设计难点在于发音位置和铰链体制造技术的测定。
（2）适用性好，具有良好的效率，可以进行效率高，强大的工作。新的流体环境兼容机系统不承担尺寸的影响，需要液压系统油，根据控制处理范围分布点的电流容量，完全可以按照操作者的意图，轻松完成工作。同时，由于发动机负荷小可以避免无谓的损失电流的能力，可以实现轻微移动操作和复合操作。新型液压控制技术的应用还可以增加动力输出，提高了工作速度，降低燃料消耗。
（3）安全性能
在欧洲市场，严格的法律规则和北美国市场的安全，设备安全性能可以给经营者提供安心的工作环境，安全。在驾驶室ROPS／FOPS设计以下的小型挖掘机主要应满足安全性能，驾驶室中的实验性能要求：
①可满足必须的能量吸收；
②可以满足一定抗负荷；
③乘员安全区足够大。
（4）环境保护技术
主要体现在功率，低油耗，清洁排放发动机的应用。新的发动机应该满足美国epatier2标准及欧洲欧盟标准，会造成环境污染的化合物在阈值控制放电。新的引擎的同时减少振动和噪声，有利于保护环境和操作者的健康。
（5）人机工程技术
驾驶室符合人机工程学原理，内部宽敞，视野开阔，场造型美观，操作方便，省力的仪表显示直观，准确，能提供一种舒适的操作环境为先导，充分降低了驾驶员的疲劳。
（6）服务维修技术
从目前的维修维护定期检查服务，简化操作是非常必要的，可以提高机器的可靠性，使机器始终保持良好的状态。要使日常检查侧操作。维修然后迅速而快速的进行内部零部件与系统的检查与维修。此外，在设计中必须充分考虑防止机器损坏的事故。
如罩，护板的防碰撞结构设计；动臂液压缸护板设计；燃料油罐排水阀；独立的推土板液压软管设计；防水电气系统设计工作；在安装设置在设计；X架和半山腰侧卡特彼勒带设计；发动机机油滤芯的更换时间延长；具有先进的系统，管道过滤器；双空间滤波器的结构设计等。
5结论
小型挖掘机对社会的发展有较大影响，目前海外小型挖掘机有了相当大的发展，像卡特其军队，日立公司等，小松树，三菱，小型挖掘机产品已形成系列，并在不断进行发展，扩大使用，增加附录型。国内小型挖掘机的发展也取得了一定的效果，但都需要进一步改进和完善的技术和生产。
外文原文
A Summary of Small-size Excavators Home and Abroad
1 The brief introduction of hydraulic excavator
Parts such as the hydraulic excavator is by engine, hydraulic system and works device and walks device and electric control etc are formed. The hydraulic system is formed by hydraulic pump, control valve, hydraulic cylinder, hydraulic pressure motor, pipe route and fuel tank etc. The electric control system includes supervision dish, motor control system, pump brain and various kinds of sensor and solenoid valves etc. The hydraulic excavator is general by the work device and turns round the device and walks device three is mostly formed. According to his construction and use, we can differentiate : many kinds of types such as caterpillar tread type, walk type, full hydraulic pressure, half hydraulic pressure, turns round entirely, not turns round entirely, utility version, mould for a special purpose, the joining with a hinge type and arm type stretched out and drawn back etc.
The work device is directly accomplishing the device that excavates the assignment. It has been joined with a hinge by moves the arm, fights the pole and shovels the fill etc three parts. Moving that the arm rises and falls and the pole fought stretches out and draws back and shoveling fighting moves all with moving back and forth type two effect hydraulic cylinders control. In order to suit the needs of various difference construction school assignments, the hydraulic pressure excavator can be joined in marriage loading many kinds of work devices, if excavating and many kinds of school assignment machines and tools such as lifting job, loading, leveling, clamp and pushes soil and shock hammer etc.
Turning round and walks the device is the organism of hydraulic pressure excavator, upper setting up power-on device and transmission system of turntable. The engine is the power supply of hydraulic pressure excavator, and adopts diesel oil will also can modify the motor in the convenient place mostly.
The hydraulic drive system by way of the hydraulic pump with the engine the motive promotion work device moves, thus accomplishes the various school assignments. Take more PV-200's could hydraulic pressure excavators of use in building site as the example. This machine adopts the type the opening center load of advanced version to be passed feeling system (OLSS). This system is with oblique of control type oblique the method of angle (export volume of flow ) variable plunger pump, and reduced the power delivery of engine,
thus reduces the oil consumption burnt, and is one kind of saving energy could system. The characteristic of this kind of hydraulic system is: the fixed torque is controlled, and it is unchangeable to keep the hydraulic pump drive torque, and year absolutely control can reduce the off-loading loss of school assignment time; Oil capacity is controlled, and the export volume of flow of hydraulic pump in the time of can reducing neutral gear and fine control reduces the power loss.
The history of the first hand excavator was published up to now to have more than 130 years, and went through from the steam drive fill to turn round that the machinery turns round the developing the course step by step of the complete automatic hydraulic pressure excavator of excavator and application mechanical and electrical liquid integration technology to power drive and the internal-combustion engine drive in the time. The application owing to the hydraulic technique had to join in marriage on the tractor loading hydraulic pressure to anti- the type hanging which shoveled machinery in the 1940’s, and developing out the pulling type at the initial stage of in the 1950’s with middle period in succession, to turn round the full hydraulic pressure of hydraulic pressure excavator and caterpillar tread type entirely mechanical. Initial stage the trial hydraulic pressure excavator is the hydraulic technique that adopts plane and machine tool, lacking the hydraulic pressure component that is suitable in the mechanical various operating modes, it is stable inadequately to make the quality, and necessary is not completely yet. From in the 1960’s, the hydraulic pressure excavator is entered the popularization and in vigorous development stage, and mechanical manufacturing plant and the breed of each country increases very fast, and the output is rapidly increased. 83% of the mechanical gross output was occupied to hydraulic pressure excavator output, and is close to 100% at present 1968-1970 certain period.
2 Small excavator development and its tendency
20th century 80 ~ 90's small mechanical device in construction and soon in municipal engineering, transportation, pipeline has displayed a bigger superiority and can rapidly makes the small excavator mainly to use in the city the construction and generally left a bigger contribution,gradually became in the city construct into have the representative construction machinery.
The small excavator development mainly relies on the urban construction development, because city transformation, construction more, the request construction time short, the construction machinery affects small, safe, the low pollution, the radius of gyration to the environment is small, is advantageous for transports as well as has with the city scenery
appearance coordination outward appearance, the small excavator has satisfied the city each kind of work request, can maximum limit display its productivity in the city narrow working space, therefore has the unique superiority.
1. The development of small excavators
The small excavator mainly uses in the city the construction and the general housing repairs and maintains and so on the work, the request has the good operating performance and the rotation performance.Initial small excavator by tire type primarily, because the tire type walks the natural in the soft ground and the passing difference,afterwards gradually by the marching substitution, and in moved them strut organization place to increase the rotation organization about, enabled the entire work equipment the relative organism to carry on swings, completed the trench sidewall excavation renovation work behind, but this kind of small excavator excavation scope was small, cannot realize the material. Hereafter, the small excavator increased upside has rotated the organization, has solved behind the metial and so on the problem, enhanced the excavator operating performance, formed the small excavator the basic structure. Afterwards, the small excavator in the radius of gyration, behind the field of vision, moved aspect and so on arm elevation angle, machine capability has the further improvement,develops for the present standard type.
2.Technical progresses
Small excavator working conditions majority of in city, in order top revent walks when damages the road surface, starts from the 80's to use the rubber caterpillar band, and gradually obtains the popularization. A rubber caterpillar band heavy wheel is when the internal iron circuit board the movement, the hard circuit board join place and the heavy wheel contact falls to the ground, becomes walks the destruction road surface main reason. Before uses the width shape iron circuit board, a rubber caterpillar band heavy wheel diameter is bigger, therefore when approaches the ground, this slit changes in a big way, creates the caterpillar heavy wheel, only was the hard circuit board which in the caterpillar band used changes narrowly, therefore when contacted the ground the slit changes slightly, reduced to the damage of ground.
Rear area the small rotation excavator rotation rear part size is extremely small, in order to guarantee the excavator work the stability, must have the enough counterweight, and in does the mechanical weight under the premise, uses increases the caterpillar band length and widens the chassis and so on the effective method.But, the chassis width is transported the truck width the limit, for solves this problem, has used VCTAS in the super small excavator (Vio- Crawler Technology by Advanced Stability) the technology.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/044629776.html,fortableness
The small excavator majority of seals cab, has not rained when the chair frequently drips wet by the rain seeps. In order to solve this problem, the use surface and the interior gather a peaceful fat rubber body to manufacture has not sewn the seam the chair, cannot again from sew the seam place destruction, the durability also can enhance,becomes the complete waterproofing chair.
3 Impels the small excavator market fast development the factor
(1) The small excavator has the widespread serviceable small excavator volume small, mobile is flexible, extremely is suitable for work and so on cities each kind of pipe , foundation construction, public utilities as well as house service. The small excavator compact volume, the special design enable its to carry on the work in the environment which the large-scale excavator is unable to construct.
(2) The small excavator has the multi-purpose small excavator true merit is it has multi-purpose. The small excavator can install man works machines and tools, like the installment broken hammer, the hydraulic pressure pliers use in the lightweight on work, installs a clamp to use in to eliminate the work,installs the drum, the plate uses in the trench to fill in buries the compaction, the installment turns on lathe digs drills uses in the drill hole, the lift hook uses in to hoist up heavy item and so on.
(3)The small excavator is advantageous for the transportation and one of shift work location small hydraulic pressure excavator market rapid expansion reasons should belong to its size and the weight. The small excavation function conveniently shifts in each job location, the small excavator does not need the large-scale trailer perhaps the heavy-duty truck carries on the transportation, the small transport means may deliver. Like this not only can facilitate
(4) Small excavator bright work characteristic: The rear part turn for the zero design, causes the small excavator not to need in the work space limited environment mean industry time excavator operator to consider the job location is, whether thus enable the operator to have the obstacle to hinder the excavator the rotation to suffice wholly absorbed to the scoop operation, this has also prevented around the job location the building as well as the excavator own damage.
(5) Invests the repayment rate to be high, the cost recycles quickly
The small excavator price is cheap, the cost recycles quickly.Slightly digs take the 6t level as the example, American, the European date brand machine price about 400,000 Yuan, South Korea's machine price about 320,000 Yuan, the domestically produced machine price is30 ~ 320,000 Yuan some brands is lower; But the 20t level center digs the price in 70 ~ 1
million Yuan. The higher investment repayment rate causes the small excavator deeply the general center small earth work construction to contract owner's welcome.
4 Small excavators technological development tendencies
The small excavator technological development complied with the global diversification job location the demand, has experienced more than 30years history success variation process, passes through the unceasing improvement consummation, in aspect and so on technical performance, job function, work efficiency, security, environmental protection, energy conservation and maintenance maintenance had the large scale enhancement, has formed the quite consistent technical standard and the work standard. Mainly manifests in following several aspects:
(1) The tailless rotation and moves the arm deflection technology to take slightly digs the basic concept to move the arm deflection and the tailless rotation function later period promotes in the 1990s face the world market. Moves the arm deflection in the organism front part,but does not have the organization to be able to realize is located nearby the lower part of wall the direct excavation work to have frequently to move the fuselage. The tailless rotation structure application, causes it when the neck of land work does not need to worry the rear part the collision. The tailless rotation structural design difficulty lies in rotates in the platform the general arrangement, the dynamic system thermal equilibrium solution as well as the entire machine stable solution. But moves the arm deflection organization the design difficulty to lie in an articulation position the determination and the hinge body manufacture technology.
(2) Serviceability is good, has the good efficiency, may carry on the high efficiency, the powerful work. The new fluid environment compatibility presses the system not to shoulder the size the influence, completely needs the oil of the hydraulic pressure system, the current capacity according to the control handle scope distribution point, definitely may defer to operator's intention with ease to complete the work. At the same time, because the engine load is small may avoid the current capacity the senseless loss, can realize slightly moves the operation and the compound operation. The new hydraulic control technology application also can increase the dynamic output, enhances the work speed, reduces the fuel consumption.
(3)Security performance
Has the strict legal rule in the European market and the North America market to the security, the equipment security performance can give the operator to provide the relieved
work the environment, security. The small excavator security performance main in the cab ROPS/FOPS design below, should satisfy the performance requirement in the cab experiment:
①May satisfy must energy absorption;
②May satisfy must anti- load;
③The crew member safety zone enough is big.
(4) Environmental protection technology
Mainly manifests in the power, the low oil consumption, cleanly discharges the engine in the application. The new engine should satisfy the American EPATier2 standard and the European EU standard,will cause the environmental pollution the compound to discharge the control in the threshold. The new engine simultaneously reduced the vibration and the noise, is beneficial to the environmental protection and operator's health.
(5) Man-machine project technology
The cab conforms to the man-machine engineering principle,internal spacious, field of vision open, modeling artistic, the ease of operation, reduces effort the measuring appliance demonstration direct-viewing, is accurate, can provide one kind of comfortable operating environment to the pilot, fully reduces pilot's weariness.
(6) Services the maintenance technology
Maintains from the current maintenance to the regular inspection service, the simplification operation is extremely essential, can enhance the machine the reliability, makes the machine throughout to maintain the good condition. Must cause the daily inspection side operation.Maintenance repair then quickly but fast carries on the internal spare part and the system inspection and the service. Moreover, in the design must fully consider prevents the machine the accident damage.
Such as the cowling, the guard plate guards against the collision structural design;Moves the arm hydraulic cylinder guard plate design; Fuel oil tank draw-off valve; The independence bulldozes the board hydraulic pressure hose design; Waterproofing electric system design; In the work install sets at the design; X frame and halfway up the mountain side caterpillar band design; The engine machine oil filter element replacement time lengthens; Has forerunner system which the pipeline filters; Dual spatially filters structure design and so on.
5 Conclusions
Society's development has a more tremendous influence to the small excavator, at present the overseas small excavator had the suitable development, like Carter other forces, company and so on Hitachi,small pine, Mitsubishi, the small excavator product has formed
the series, and in unceasingly carries on the development, the expanded use, the increase appendix type. The domestic small excavator development has also obtained the certain result, but all needs further to improve and the consummation in the technology and the production.
红外数据通信技术外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译) Infrared Remote Control System Abstract Red outside data correspondence the technique be currently within the scope of world drive extensive usage of a kind of wireless conjunction technique, drive numerous hardware and software platform support. Red outside the transceiver product have cost low, small scaled turn, the baud rate be quick, point to point SSL, be free from electromagnetism thousand Raos
etc. characteristics, can realization information at dissimilarity of the product fast, convenience, safely exchange and transmission, at short distance wireless deliver aspect to own very obvious of advantage. Along with red outside the data deliver a technique more and more mature, the cost descend, red outside the transceiver necessarily will get at the short distance communication realm more extensive of application. The purpose that design this system is transmit customer’s operation information with infrared rays for transmit media, then demodulate original signal with receive circuit. It use coding chip to modulate signal and use decoding chip to demodulate signal. The coding chip is PT2262 and decoding chip is PT2272. Both chips are made in Taiwan. Main work principle is that we provide to input the information for the PT2262 with coding keyboard. The input information was coded by PT2262 and loading to high frequent load wave whose frequent is 38 kHz, then modulate infrared transmit dioxide and radiate space outside when it attian enough power. The receive circuit receive the signal and demodulate original information. The original signal was decoded by PT2272, so as to drive some circuit to accomplish customer’s operation demand. Keywords: Infrared dray；Code；Decoding；LM386；Red outside transceiver 1 Introduction 1.1 research the background and significance Infrared Data Communication Technology is the world wide use of a wireless connection technology, by the many hardware and software platforms supported. Is a data through electrical pulses and infrared optical pulse switch between the wireless data transceiver technology.
文献综述怎么写 1) 什么是文献综述? 文献综述是研究者在其提前阅读过某一主题的文献后，经过理解、整理、融会贯通，综合分析和评价而组成的一种不同于研究论文的文体。 2) 文献综述的写作要求 1、文献综述的格式 文献综述的格式与一般研究性论文的格式有所不同。这是因为研究性的论文注重研究的方法和结果，而文献综述介绍与主题有关的详细资料、动态、进展、展望以及对以上方面的评述。因此文献综述的格式相对多样，但总的来说，一般都包含以下四部分：即前言、主题、总结和参考文献。撰写文献综述时可按这四部分拟写提纲，再根据提纲进行撰写工作。 前言，要用简明扼要的文字说明写作的目的、必要性、有关概念的定义，综述的范围，阐述有关问题的现状和动态，以及目前对主要问题争论的焦点等。前言一般200-300字为宜，不宜超过500字。 正文，是综述的重点，写法上没有固定的格式，只要能较好地表达综合的内容，作者可创造性采用诸多形式。正文主要包括论据和论证两个部分，通过提出问题、分析问题和解决问题，比较不同学者对同一问题的看法及其理论依据，进一步阐明问题的来龙去脉和作者自己的见解。当然，作者也可从问题发生的历史背景、目前现状、发展方向等提出文献的不同观点。正文部分可根据内容的多少可分为若干个小标题分别论述。 小结，是结综述正文部分作扼要的总结，作者应对各种观点进行综合评价，提出自己的看法，指出存在的问题及今后发展的方向和展望。内容单纯的综述也可不写小结。 参考文献，是综述的重要组成部分。一般参考文献的多少可体现作者阅读文献的广度和深度。对综述类论文参考文献的数量不同杂志有不同的要求，一般以30条以内为宜，以最近3-5年内的最新文献为主。 2、文献综述规定 1. 为了使选题报告有较充分的依据，要求硕士研究生在论文开题之前作文献综述。 2. 在文献综述时，研究生应系统地查阅与自己的研究方向有关的国内外文献。通常阅读文献不少于30篇，且文献搜集要客观全面 3. 在文献综述中，研究生应说明自己研究方向的发展历史，前人的主要研究成果，存在的问题及发展趋势等。 4. 文献综述要条理清晰，文字通顺简练。 5. 资料运用恰当、合理。文献引用用方括号[ ]括起来置于引用词的右上角。 6. 文献综述中要有自己的观点和见解。不能混淆作者与文献的观点。鼓励研究生多发现问题、多提出问题、并指出分析、解决问题的可能途径，针对性强。 7. 文献综述不少于3000字。 3、注意事项 ⒈搜集文献应尽量全。掌握全面、大量的文献资料是写好综述的前提，否则，随便搜集一点资料就动手撰写是不可能写出好的综述。 ⒉注意引用文献的代表性、可靠性和科学性。在搜集到的文献中可能出现观点雷同，有的文献在可靠性及科学性方面存在着差异，因此在引用文献时应注意选用代表性、可靠性和科学性较好的文献。 ⒊引用文献要忠实文献内容。由于文献综述有作者自己的评论分析，因此在撰写时应分清作者的观点和文献的内容，不能篡改文献的内容。引用文献不过多。文献综述的作者引用间接文献的现象时有所见。如果综述作者从他人引用的参考文献转引过来，这些文献在他人
零售企业营销策略中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
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外文资料译文及原文 译文(一) 消费者体验旅游和品牌的结合 米契尔罗伯特 定义消费者体验旅游 制造工厂参观，公司博物馆和公司访客中心表现为被不同名字已知的观光事业片段：制造业观光事业，工业的吸引、工业的观光事业和工业的遗产观光事业。在每一个描述性的长期的共同目标是在消费者学习品牌，其运作，生产过程，历史和历史意义的时候建立一个消费者和品牌之间的纽带。有人建议在这里CET代表一个统一的主题的旅游。这个术语捕捉消费者的消费能力发现更多关于他们所消费的品牌，而制造商可以在与该工厂的客人接触的30-120分钟时间里建立与这些消费者更密切的关系。 参与的品牌 品牌经理寻求解决在三个层次消费者的需求： （1）功能（对消费者提供解决问题的办法）; （2）符号（提供心理欲望满意度）; （3）经历（提供感官快乐，品种，认知，刺激） CET可以通过视觉地介绍品牌，运作，生产工艺，历史和历史意义加强消费者和品牌之间的纽带。这种纽带可以被看作是个人品牌参与和品牌忠诚度的提高。认知参与反映了消费者对产品的兴趣（或学习更多）。CET可以通过刺激消费者对于品牌和生产过程的想象提高消费者的认知水平。此外，积极口碑沟通刺激满足旅客可能会比其他形式的促销更可信。 缺乏现有的直接研究关注 迄今为止，CET已经在行销文学中受到一点注意。米契尔和米契尔（2001年）对此内容这种的旅游网站进行了评估。此外，这些相同的作者已经评估食物和饮料工业中的现象（米契尔和米契尔，2000年），非营利部门（米契尔和米契尔，2001年b），和整体经济（米契尔等， 2001）。米契尔和米契尔（2002）为学者提出了格式，用来评估在当地的服务领域这些设施的地方利益。该主题通常包括对整合营销的简要讨论，但已收到直接研究的关注很有限。
用于多跳认知无线电网络的分布式网络编码控制信道 Alfred Asterjadhi等著 1 前言 大多数电磁频谱由政府机构长期指定给公司或机构专门用于区域或国家地区。由于这种资源的静态分配，许可频谱的许多部分在许多时间和/或位置未使用或未被充分利用。另一方面，几种最近的无线技术在诸如IEEE802.11，蓝牙，Zigbee之类的非许可频段中运行，并且在一定程度上对WiMAX进行操作;这些技术已经看到这样的成功和扩散，他们正在访问的频谱- 主要是2.4 GHz ISM频段- 已经过度拥挤。为了为这些现有技术提供更多的频谱资源，并且允许替代和创新技术的潜在开发，最近已经提出允许被许可的设备（称为次要用户）访问那些许可的频谱资源，主要用户未被使用或零星地使用。这种方法通常被称为动态频谱接入（DSA），无线电设备发现和机会性利用未使用或未充分利用的频谱带的能力通常称为认知无线电（CR）技术。 DSA和CR最近都引起了无线通信和网络界的极大关注。通常设想两种主要应用。第一个是认知无线接入（CW A），根据该认知接入点，认知接入点负责识别未使用的许可频谱，并使用它来提供对次用户的接入。第二个应用是我们在这个技术中研究的应用，它是认知自组织网络（CAN），也就是使用 用于二级用户本身之间通信的无许可频谱，用于诸如点对点内容分发，环境监控，安全性等目的，灾难恢复情景通信，军事通信等等。 设计CAN系统比CW A有更多困难，主要有两个原因。第一是识别未使用的频谱。在CW A中，接入点的作用是连接到互联网，因此可以使用简单的策略来推断频谱可用性，例如查询频谱调节器在其地理位置的频谱可用性或直接与主用户协商频谱可用性或一些中间频谱经纪人另一方面，在CAN中，与频谱调节器或主要用户的缺乏直接通信需要二级用户能够使用检测技术自己识别未使用的频谱。第二个困难是辅助用户协调媒体访问目的。在CW A中存在接入点和通常所有二级用户直接与之通信（即，网络是单跳）的事实使得直接使用集中式媒体接入控制（MAC）解决方案，如时分多址（TDMA）或正交频分多址（OFDMA）。相反，预计CAN将跨越多跳，缺少集中控制器;而对于传统的单通道多跳自组织网络而言，这个问题的几个解决方案是已知的，因为假设我们处理允许设备访问的具有成
顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销 原文来源：《Marketing Customer Satisfaction 》自20世纪八十年代末以来, 顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额, 获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。 一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝随着时代的变迁, 社会物质财富的极大充裕, 顾客中的主体———消费者的需求也先后跨越了物质缺乏的时代、追求数量的时代、追求品质的时代, 到了20世纪八十年代末进入了情感消费时代。在我国, 随着经济的高速发展,我们也已迅速跨越了物质缺乏时代、追求数量的时代乃至追求品质的时代, 到今天也逐步迈进情感消费时代。在情感消费时代, 各企业的同类产品早已达到同时、同质、同能、同价, 消费者追求的已不再是质量、功能和价格, 而是舒适、便利、安全、安心、速度、跃动、环保、清洁、愉快、有趣等,消费者日益关注的是产品能否为自己的生活带来活力、充实、舒适、美感和精神文化品位, 以及超越消费者期望值的售前、售中、售后服务和咨询。也就是说, 今天人们所追求的是具有“心的满足感和充实感”的商品, 是高附加值的商品和服务,追求价值观和意识多元化、个性化和无形的满足感的时代已经来临。 与消费者价值追求变化相适应的企业间的竞争, 也由产品竞争、价格竞争、技术竞争、广告竞争、品牌竞争发展到现今的形象竞争、信誉竞争、文化竞争和服务竞争, 即顾客满意竞争。这种竞争是企业在广角度、宽领域的时空范围内展开的高层次、体现综合实力的竞争。它包括组织创新力、技术创新力、管理创新力、产业预见力、产品研发力、员工向心力、服务顾客力、顾客亲和力、同行认同力、社会贡献力、公关传播沟通力、企业文化推动力、环境适应力等等。这些综合形象力和如何合成综合持久的竞争力, 这就是CSft略所要解决的问题。CS寸代,企业不再以“自己为中心”,而是以“顾客为中心”；“顾客为尊”、“顾客满意”不再是流于形式的口号, 而是以实实在在的行动为基础的企业经营的一门新哲学。企业不再以质量达标, 自己满意为经营理念, 而是以顾客满意, 赢得顾客高忠诚度为经营理念。企业经营策略的焦点不再以争取或保持市场占有率为主, 而是以争取顾客满意为经营理念。因此, 营销策略的重心不再放在竞争对手身上而是放在顾客身上, 放在顾客现实的、潜在的需求上。当企业提供的产品和服务达到了顾客事先的期望值, 顾客就基本满意；如果远远超越顾客的期望值, 且远远高于其他同行, 顾客才真正满意；如果企业能不断地或长久地令顾客满意, 顾客就会忠诚。忠诚的顾客不仅会经常性地重复购买, 还会购买企业其它相关的产品或服务；忠诚的顾客不仅会积极向别人推荐他所买的产品, 而且对企业竞争者的促销活动具有免疫能力一个不满意的顾客会将不满意告诉16-20个人, 而每一个被告知者会再传播给12-15个人。这样, 一个不满意者会影响到二、三百人。在互联网普及的今天, 其影响则更大。据美国汽车业的调查, 一个满意者会引发8笔潜在的生意, 其中至少有一笔会成交。而另一项调查表明, 企业每增加5%的忠诚顾客, 利润就会增长25%-95%。一个企业的80%的利润来自20%的忠诚顾客；而获取一个新顾客的成本是维持一个老顾客成本的6倍。所以,美国著名学者唐?佩 珀斯指出: 决定一个企业成功与否的关键不是市场份额, 而是在于顾客份额。 于是, 企业纷纷通过广泛细致的市场调研、与消费者直接接触、顾客信息反馈等方式来了解顾客在各方面的现实需求和潜在需求。依靠对企业满意忠诚的销售、服务人员, 定期、定量地对顾客满意度进行综合测定, 以便准确地把握企业经营中与“顾客满意” 目标的差距及其重点领域, 从而进一步改善企业的经营活动。依靠高亲和力的企业文化、高效率的人文管理和全员共同努力, 不断地向顾客提供高附加值的产品, 高水准的亲情般的服
旅游品牌定位外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
原文： Destination brand positions of a competitive set of near-home destinations Abstract: Although the branding literature commenced during the 1940s, the first publications related to destination branding did not emerge until half a century later. A review of 74 destination branding publications by 102 authors from the first 10 years of destination branding literature (1998–2007) found at least nine potential research gaps warranting attention by researchers. In particular, there has been a lack of research examining the extent to which brand positioning campaigns have been successful in enhancing brand equity in the manner intended in the brand identity. The purpose of this paper is to report the results of an investigation of brand equity tracking for a competitive set of destinations in Queensland, Australia between 2003 and 2007. A hierarchy of consumer-based brand equity (CBBE) provided an effective means to monitor destination brand positions over time. A key implication of the results was the finding that there was no change in brand positions for any of the five destinations over the four year period. This leads to the proposition that destination position change within a competitive set will only
5G无线通信网络中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
翻译： 5G无线通信网络的蜂窝结构和关键技术 摘要 第四代无线通信系统已经或者即将在许多国家部署。然而，随着无线移动设备和服务的激增，仍然有一些挑战尤其是4G所不能容纳的，例如像频谱危机和高能量消耗。无线系统设计师们面临着满足新型无线应用对高数据速率和机动性要求的持续性增长的需求，因此他们已经开始研究被期望于2020年后就能部署的第五代无线系统。在这篇文章里面，我们提出一个有内门和外门情景之分的潜在的蜂窝结构，并且讨论了多种可行性关于5G无线通信系统的技术，比如大量的MIMO技术，节能通信，认知的广播网络和可见光通信。面临潜在技术的未知挑战也被讨论了。 介绍 信息通信技术（ICT）创新合理的使用对世界经济的提高变得越来越重要。无线通信网络在全球ICT战略中也许是最挑剔的元素，并且支撑着很多其他的行业，它是世界上成长最快最有活力的行业之一。欧洲移动天文台（EMO）报道2010年移动通信业总计税收1740亿欧元,从而超过了航空航天业和制药业。无线技术的发展大大提高了人们在商业运作和社交功能方面通信和生活的能力无线移动通信的显著成就表现在技术创新的快速步伐。从1991年二代移动通信系统(2G)的初次登场到2001年三代系统（3G）的首次起飞，无线移动网络已经实现了从一个纯粹的技术系统到一个能承载大量多媒体内容网络的转变。4G无线系统被设计出来用来满足IMT-A技术使用IP面向所有服务的需求。在4G系统中，先进的无线接口被用于正交频分复用技术（OFDM），多输入多输出系统（MIMO）和链路自适应技术。4G无线网络可支持数据速率可达1Gb/s的低流度，比如流动局域无线访问，还有速率高达100M/s的高流速，例如像移动访问。LTE系统和它的延伸系统LTE-A，作为实用的4G系统已经在全球于最近期或不久的将来部署。 然而，每年仍然有戏剧性增长数量的用户支持移动宽频带系统。越来越多的
一、激励理论的背景 在经济发展的过程中,劳动分工与交易的出现带来了激励问题。激励理论是行为科学中用于处理需要，动机，目标和行为四者之间关系的核心理论。行为科学认为人的动机来自需要，由需要确定人们的行为目标，激励则作用于人内心活动，激发，驱动和强化人的行为。哈佛大学维廉詹姆士研究表明：在没有激励措施下,下属一般仅能发挥工作能力的20%～30%，而当他受到激励后,其工作能力可以提升到80%～90%，所发挥的作用相当于激励前的3到4倍。日本丰田公司采取激励措施鼓励员工提建议，结果仅1983年一年，员工提了165万条建议，平均每人31条，它为公司带来900亿日元利润，相当于当年总利润的18%。由于激励的效果明显，所以各种组织为了提高生产效率，有些专家学者就开始了对激励理论的研究之中，探索激励的无穷潜力。 二、国外研究现状 国外对于激励理论有了大量的研究并获得了丰硕的成果。总体来说，可以分为两类激励理论。一类是以人的心理需求和动机为主要研究对象的激励理论，熟称“内容型激励理论”。另一类是以人的心理过程和行为过程相互作用的动态系统为研究对象的激励过程理论,它也被称作是“行为型激励理论”。 1 内容型激励理论 1.1 奠瑞的人类人格理论 这种理论认为，在面临着动态且不断变化的环境时，人们都是自适应的。它把需求分成了两种类型，即生理需求和心理需求。前者与人体基本生理过程的满足感有关，而后者所关注的是情绪上和精神上的满足感。 1.2 马斯洛的“需要层次”理论 美国心理学家马斯洛(A.H.Maslow)进一步发展了莫瑞的研究，在1954年出版的《动机与人格》一书中对该理论作了进一步的阐释。马斯洛认为人的需要可以划分为五个层次，从低到高依次为生理需要，安全需要，社交需要，尊熏需要，自我实现需要，且这五个层次的顺序，对每个人都是相同的。只有当较低层次的需要获得了基本满足后，下一个较高层次的需要才能成为主导需要。 1.3 赫茨伯格的激励—保健双因素理论 美国心理学家赫茨伯格因素理论打破了这一假设。他于1959年在《工作的激励》一书中提出了保健——激励因素理论，简称双因素理论。即保健因素和激励因素。保健因素可以用来体现高水平员工的不满意，激励因素可以用来体现高水平员工的满意度。他认为只有激励因素才能促发员工积极性,提高生产效率。 2 行为型激励理论 2.1 洛克的目标设置理论 2O世纪6O年代末，埃德温·A·洛克和他的同事们花了许多年的时间研究目标对于人类行为和绩效的效果。他们的研究导致了目标设置理论的创立并不断地得到验证，提出：指向一共同目标的工作意向是工作效率的主要源泉。他还提出了具体的设置目标的步骤。 2.2 亚当斯的公平理论 美国心理学家亚当斯(J.s.Adams)对员工受激励程度的大小与他人之间的关系进行研究，并在《工人关于工资不公平的内心冲突同其生产率的关系》(1962年与罗森合写)，《工
文献出处: Dalman, M. Deniz, and Junhong Min. "Marketing Strategy for Unusual Brand Differentiation: Trivial Attribute Effect." International Journal of Marketing Studies 6.5 (2014): 63-72. 原文 Marketing Strategy for Unusual Brand Differentiation: Trivial Attribute Effect Dalman, M. Deniz & Junhong Min Abstract This research investigates that brand differentiation creating superior values can be achieved not only by adding meaningful attributes but also meaningless attributes, which is called "trivial attribute effect." Two studies provided empirical evidences as following; first, trivial attribute effect creates a strong brand differentiation even after subjects realize that trivial attribute has no value. Second, trivial attribute effect is more pronounced in hedonic service category compared to the utilitarian category. Last, the amount of willingness to pay is higher when trivial attribute is presented and evaluated in joint evaluation mode than separate evaluation mode. Finally, we conclude with discussion and provide suggestions for further research. Keywords: brand differentiation, evaluation mode, service industry, trivial attribute Introduction Problem Definition Perhaps the most important factor for new product success is to create the meaningful brand differentiation that provides customers with superior values beyond what the competitors can offer in the same industry (Porter, 1985). Not surprisingly, more than 50 percent of annual sales in consumer product industries including automobiles, biotechnology, computer software, and pharmaceuticals are attributed to such meaningful brand differentiation by including new or noble attributes (Schilling &Hill, 1998). However, the brand differentiation that increases consumer preference is not only by introducing meaningful attributes but also meaningless attributes. For
中英文对照外文翻译 (文档含英文原文和中文翻译) Tourism and the Environment: A Symbiotic Relationship Nowadays, with the improvement of people's living standards and the pursuit of higher spiritual life, tourism is developing rapidly, and it has an increasing proportion in the national economy. Tourism is getting more and more people's attention, followed by the impact of tourism on the ecological environment. The vigorous development of the tourism industry has multiple effects on the environment. They are both positive and negative. In order to adapt the development of tourism to the capacity of tourism resources, and promote the coordinated development of environment protection and tourism, and this paper will state the impact of tourism on the environment from three aspects: 1 The negative impact of tourism on the environment; 2 The positive impact of tourism on the environment; 3 The countermeasure to against the negative impact of tourism on the environment. Tourism development can put pressure on natural resources when it increases consumption in areas where resources are already scarce. The negative impact of tourism on the environment
中英文翻译 附件1：外文资料翻译译文 通用移动通信系统的回顾 1.1 UMTS网络架构 欧洲/日本的3G标准，被称为UMTS。 UMTS是一个在IMT-2000保护伞下的ITU-T 批准的许多标准之一。随着美国的CDMA2000标准的发展，它是目前占主导地位的标准，特别是运营商将cdmaOne部署为他们的2G技术。在写这本书时，日本是在3G 网络部署方面最先进的。三名现任运营商已经实施了三个不同的技术：J - PHONE 使用UMTS，KDDI拥有CDMA2000网络，最大的运营商NTT DoCoMo正在使用品牌的FOMA（自由多媒体接入）系统。 FOMA是基于原来的UMTS协议，而且更加的协调和标准化。 UMTS标准被定义为一个通过通用分组无线系统（GPRS）和全球演进的增强数据
技术（EDGE）从第二代GSM标准到UNTS的迁移，如图。这是一个广泛应用的基本原理，因为自2003年4月起，全球有超过847万GSM用户，占全球的移动用户数字的68％。重点是在保持尽可能多的GSM网络与新系统的操作。 我们现在在第三代（3G）的发展道路上，其中网络将支持所有类型的流量：语音，视频和数据，我们应该看到一个最终的爆炸在移动设备上的可用服务。此驱动技术是IP协议。现在，许多移动运营商在简称为2.5G的位置，伴随GPRS的部署，即将IP骨干网引入到移动核心网。在下图中，图2显示了一个在GPRS网络中的关键部件的概述，以及它是如何适应现有的GSM基础设施。 SGSN和GGSN之间的接口被称为Gn接口和使用GPRS隧道协议（GTP的，稍后讨论）。引进这种基础设施的首要原因是提供连接到外部分组网络如，Internet或企业Intranet。这使IP协议作为SGSN和GGSN之间的运输工具应用到网络。这使得数据服务，如移动设备上的电子邮件或浏览网页，用户被起诉基于数据流量，而不是时间连接基础上的数据量。3G网络和服务交付的主要标准是通用移动通信系统，或UMTS。首次部署的UMTS是发行'99架构，在下面的图3所示。 在这个网络中，主要的变化是在无线接入网络（RAN的）CDMA空中接口技术的引进，和在传输部分异步传输模式作为一种传输方式。这些变化已经引入，主要是为了支持在同一网络上的语音，视频和数据服务的运输。核心网络保持相对不变，主要是软件升级。然而，随着目前无线网络控制器使用IP与3G的GPRS业务支持节点进行通信，IP协议进一步应用到网络。 未来的进化步骤是第4版架构，如图4。在这里，GSM的核心被以语音IP技术为基础的IP网络基础设施取代。 海安的发展分为两个独立部分：媒体网关（MGW）和MSC服务器（MSS）的。这基本上是打破外连接的作用和连接控制。一个MSS可以处理多个MGW，使网络更具有扩展性。 因为现在有一些在3G网络的IP云，合并这些到一个IP或IP/ ATM骨干网是很有意义的（它很可能会提供两种选择运营商）。这使IP权利拓展到整个网络，一直到BTS(基站收发信台)。这被称为全IP网络，或推出五架构，如图五所示。在HLR/ VLR/VLR/EIR被推广和称为HLR的子系统（HSS）。 现在传统的电信交换的最后残余被删除，留下完全基于IP协议的网络运营，并
大数据外文翻译参考文献综述 (文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译) 原文： Data Mining and Data Publishing Data mining is the extraction of vast interesting patterns or knowledge from huge amount of data. The initial idea of privacy-preserving data mining PPDM was to extend traditional data mining techniques to work with the data modified to mask sensitive information. The key issues were how to modify the data and how to recover the data mining result from the modified data. Privacy-preserving data mining considers the problem of running data mining algorithms on confidential data that is not supposed to be revealed even to the party
running the algorithm. In contrast, privacy-preserving data publishing (PPDP) may not necessarily be tied to a specific data mining task, and the data mining task may be unknown at the time of data publishing. PPDP studies how to transform raw data into a version that is immunized against privacy attacks but that still supports effective data mining tasks. Privacy-preserving for both data mining (PPDM) and data publishing (PPDP) has become increasingly popular because it allows sharing of privacy sensitive data for analysis purposes. One well studied approach is the k-anonymity model [1] which in turn led to other models such as confidence bounding, l-diversity, t-closeness, (α,k)-anonymity, etc. In particular, all known mechanisms try to minimize information loss and such an attempt provides a loophole for attacks. The aim of this paper is to present a survey for most of the common attacks techniques for anonymization-based PPDM & PPDP and explain their effects on Data Privacy. Although data mining is potentially useful, many data holders are reluctant to provide their data for data mining for the fear of violating individual privacy. In recent years, study has been made to ensure that the sensitive information of individuals cannot be identified easily. Anonymity Models, k-anonymization techniques have been the focus of intense research in the last few years. In order to ensure anonymization of data while at the same time minimizing the information
Marketing Strategy Market Segmentation and Target Strategy A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets. Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency. The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails selecting two or more segments and developing a separate marketing mix to reach segment. Positioning the Product Management's ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from similar products goes a long way toward determining that product's revenues.Thus management needs to engage in positioning,which means developing the image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firm's other products. Marketing executives can choose from a variety of positioning strategies.Sometimes they decide to use more than one for a particular product.Here are several major positioning strategies: