Unit Seven
(A) THE SKYSCRAPER
A generation ago, it was still possible to speak of the skyscraper as an American phenomenon. Of course there were tall buildings elsewhere, but few of them ―they seemed always to be somewhat out of place（不相称）, odd intrusions（侵入）of the American spirit into other cultures. The real skyscrapers, the important ones, were almost always American ―and the real skyscraper cities, like New York, Chicago, and Houston, were absolutely American.
一代人以前，还有可能说摩天大楼是一种美国现象。的确是那会儿到处都有高楼，但很少是摩天大楼。它们似乎总是显得有些格格不入，似乎是美国精神对别国文化的古怪侵犯。真正的摩天大厦，那些最重要的作品，几乎总是美国货，同时真正的摩天大楼式的城市，如纽约、芝加哥和休斯敦，都绝对是美国的。
Now, as we approach the end of the century, it is no longer so. America owns the history of the skyscraper, but other countries, other cultures, seem to control more and more of its present and, it seems certain, its future. The sheer（完全的、绝对的）quantity of skyscrapers that have been built outside the United States is astonishing; cities that through the 1970's had no very tall buildings at all seem now to have dozens of them, and it is no longer possible to think of the skylines of these cities as representing some kind of intervention（介入）of an alien（海外）American economic, technological and architectural culture. Skyscrapers are now the culture of Hong Kong, Shanghai, Tokyo, Seoul, Singapore and Bangkok, not to mention Frankfurt, Paris, San Paulo and Sydney. In the latest list of the one hundred tallest buildings in the world prepared by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat（栖息地，自然环境）, 35 of the structures ―more than one-third ―were not in North America. Skyscrapers are now commonplace in almost every large urban area of the developed world, if not in older historic cores, then on the outskirts（市郊）, as around Paris, and they have redefined the nature of urbanity（文雅气质）in our time.
如今，随着我们接近世纪的尾声，事情不再是这样了。美国拥有着摩天楼的历史，但是别的国家，另外的文化，看起来越来越多地主宰着摩天大楼的现状，甚至一定程度上，和它的未来。在美国之外的地区已经建起的摩天大楼的绝对数量是令人震惊的，那些在贯穿整个七十年代里没有什么高楼的城市，现在似乎已经成打地拥有了摩天大楼，而且不再可能认为这些城市的天际线是代表着某种美国经济、技术和建筑文化的海外传播。摩天大楼已经成为城市的某种流行文化，包括香港、上海、东京、汉城、新加坡和曼谷，更不必说法兰克福、巴黎、圣保罗和悉尼。在由高层建筑与城市环境委员会最新提供的世界上一百个最高的建筑物名录中，有35个不在北美地区，多于三分之一了。摩天大楼几乎已经是发达地区的所有大城市的寻常之处，如果不是在传统老区核心，便在如环绕巴黎的市郊区域，并且在我们的时代重新定义着文雅气质的品味。
Is this to the good? Not necessarily. In the rush to adopt what we had once thought of as an American way of building, but which now appears to be more appropriately described as a late 20th-century way of building, more than a few cities have sacrificed（牺牲，奉献）scale, light, pedestrian（行人，平淡沉闷）amenity（适意，生活设施）and, most difficult of all, the ineffable （不可言喻的）qualities of their traditional identities. It is a painful fact of our time that buildings seem increasingly to resemble（相似的）each other no matter where they are built, and that means cities increasingly resemble each other, too. Shanghai was not supposed to look like Dallas, but it does, a little more each day. Frankfurt looks less German than multinational; certain portions of have a look that could be described less as Japanese than as
may still set these cities apart, but much of their architecture feels indistinguishable from what is (being)built everywhere today though Hong Kong, to be fair(说句公道话), does have tow remarkable towers, Norman Foster's Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, and I.M.Pei’s Bank of China ―but a photograph that fails to include either of these buildings on the harbour will be difficult indeed to identify as Hong Kong. And if skylines are hard to tell part(区分), streetscapes are even more difficult; rare is the city in which a photograph of street or of the bases of skyscrapers taken in the last few years could be easily identified.
这种现象是不是有益处呢？倒是未必的。在为采纳我们一度以为是一种美国式的建造方式的匆忙过程中（其实现在看起来那些更适宜被描述为二十世纪晚期的建造方式），不在少数的城市牺牲了尺度、光线、街市的惬意，和最是使人难过的，丧失了城市自身只可意会的传统特色的品质。这里有我们时代一件令人痛心的事实，好像无论建筑物建在那里，它们之间的相似性却在持续增长，这意味着城市之间的相似性在递增。上海原本不会被认为看上去像达拉斯，但是却真地发生了，每天每天，一点点地。法兰克福看来比日耳曼式的更像多种族式的，东京的金融区某种程度上具有的面貌，与其被描述为日本的，不如更多地说成是二十世纪晚期国际化的公司的。香港和悉尼的自然条件还可以让人分得开这两座城市，但从香港每天到处在建的建筑物中，会感觉两地多数的建筑无法分辨，公道地说，好在有两处著名的塔楼，即福斯特的香港汇丰银行和贝聿铭的中国银行。而且如果一张照片没能包括位于港口的上述两栋塔楼之一，的确很难辨认出就是香港。同时，如果从天际线难以区分城市，街景就更加困难了。能够从最近几年在街道上或摩天大楼底部拍摄的照片中轻易辨识出的城市是寥寥无几的。
That the skyscraper has become a force for cultural homogeneity（趋同，认同）, not to mention of a kind of Western cultural hegemony（霸权，主流）, is saddening. One had hoped, somehow, perhaps naively（天真的）, that it would be more; a few years ago it appeared possible that the glorious potential of tall buildings to define the identities of individual cities , to create rather than obscure（遮掩，费解）a sense of place, might be realized in the current generation of skyscrapers. Yet few recent skyscrapers have been able to do this ―and of even those few that are distinctive in form, only a handful（少量的）have seemed genuinely to express qualities about the nature of the place in which they have been built. Cesar Pelli's proposed double tower for Kuala Lumpur（吉隆坡）―which will be the tallest skyscraper in the world ―will be able, surely, to transcend（超越）any limitations of its form and become a kind of icon in itself, a structure with such potent（强有力的）symbolic power as to be able to redefine a place in its own image, much as the Eiffel Tower did, and continues to do, for Paris. The towers of Foster and Pei in Hong Kong aspire（雄心勃勃，热望）to do the same, and it is no exaggeration（夸张地）to say that they come fairly close to succeeding.
摩天大楼之成为一种文化趋同的力量，更不必说是代表某种西方文化的霸权，是令人悲哀的。人们曾经期望，也许总有些天真地以为，摩天大楼可以做得更多；多年以前所显示出的可能性，即高层建筑的光辉潜质，决定各个城市的独特识别性、创新而不是抹杀地域的意识，将有可能在如今一代摩天大楼中得以变为现实。但是最近的摩天大楼很少有能做到这一点的，而且即使在那些造型鲜明独特的少数作品中，也极少有看上去能天才地表达了建造地点的固有性状的。西萨佩里所提供的作品，雅加达双塔，将是世界上最高的摩天大楼，无疑地将能够超越其造形上的任何极限，并使其自身成为一种标志物，这样的具有如此强大的符号能量的构筑体，甚至可以在它自己的影像中重新界定出一个区域，正如艾菲尔铁塔曾经并将继续对巴黎所做到的一样。福斯特和贝聿铭在香港的塔楼也雄心勃勃地要做到这一点，而且毫不夸张地说，他们已经距成功相当接近了。
Yet Pelli's tower at Canary Wharf in London does the opposite: a banal（乏味的）replication （复制品）of his American work (with less finesse（手法，策略）even than many of his
of the tall building as an architectural blot（污迹，损害风景的建筑）, a structure that obscures the long-lasting and much-cherished special nature of a city and replaces it with an architecture that speaks only a kind of dull international commercial language. Alas, buildings like it ―and lesser ones still ―are now the most common form of skyscraper all around the world.
但是西萨佩里在伦敦Canary Wharf的塔楼却做到了对立的一面：一件他美国作品的乏味的复制品，甚至比他的诸多肤浅的、相类似的美国塔楼更缺乏手法的作品。Canary Wharf的塔楼强化了这样的观念，即把高层建筑当作一种损害城市风貌的建筑污迹，一种掩盖了长期以来为人们所珍视的城市特质的构筑体，取而代之的是讲着某种单调沉闷的国际化商业语言的建筑物。唉唉，像它一样的房子，并包括那些还不如它的，正是如今遍布全世界的摩天大楼的最寻常的形象。
It is tempting（促使）to say that economics drives such buildings, that the construction of tall buildings today is mainly a matter of money, and that we should expect no more. Far from it for all that the rampart（蔓生的，衍生的，滋生的）spread of banal towers has deadened skylines around the world, it is in fact much more than economics alone that has been behind the spread of skyscrapers. They continue to exert（施加，致力于，用）a compelling（令人激动的）, almost a thrilling（紧张，惊悚，震颤）, pull(吸引力): height still represents power, drama, excitement and glamour（独特魅力）, both in the North American cities that have had tall buildings for all of this century, and in the Asian and (the) European cities that are still adjusting to the new scale of the skyline.
这会促使我们认为是经济性驱动了这样的建筑的发展，而当代的高层房屋的建筑形式主要是金钱的产物，因而我们没办法期待更多。远不只经济原因使所有那些到处蔓延扩展的单调塔楼毁掉了世界范围的城市天际线，事实上，隐藏在这种摩天大楼扩张之后的，有比单一经济因素多得多的原因。摩天大楼持续地施加着某种令人激动的，几乎是紧张惊悚的吸引力：高度始终代表着力量、戏剧性、兴奋感和独特魅力，无论是在拥有高层建筑近一个世纪的北美城市，还是在仍然不断调整着天际线新的尺度的亚洲和欧洲的城市。
Dull symbols of cultural homogeneity as many tall buildings may be, the last decade has also shown us how much skyscrapers still retain their sway over architects' imaginations. (966 words) 尽管许多高层建筑也许是文化趋同的单调乏味的标志，在最近的十年中，仍然让我们看到了摩天大楼始终保持着对建筑师的想象力的多么大的影响。
(B) THE SKYSCRAPER (continued)
It is something of a paradox（悖论）：collectively（总体上）the current wave of skyscrapers seems banal（平淡无奇）; individually there is something notable, and on occasion even distinguished, about a great many of them. Even the most mediocre（二流的，平庸的）of towers built in the last generation seems to contain within it some degree of esthetic intention, if not always to much result. The boxes that passed for（代表）skyscrapers in the first generation after World War II, a way of building that reached its culmination（达到顶点）in the large, flat-topped skyscrapers of the 1960's and 1970's, represented an indifference to the design potential of the
antiurban quality of most International Style towers, boxes sitting off the street behind deadening plazas, had become increasingly difficult to justify in a period of much greater urbanistic awareness （意识，觉醒）. Indeed, it may not be unreasonable to characterize the whole thrust of the last generation of skyscraper design as a reaction against the International Style, both in terms of（根据）the esthetics of the tower and its urbanistic attitude.
Whatever its motivation（动机，积极性）, and however uneven（不规则的，参差）its results, it is still no exaggeration to say that the recent age of skyscraper proliferation（激增，增殖）, has been a period of near-Baroque glory for the tall building. The cautious beginnings toward more complex expressions that were visible toward the end of the 1970's broke out into full flower in the 1980's. Historicism had a profound（深刻地）effect on skyscraper form, particularly in the United States, where Post-Modernism as a design force, combined with the continued sense that this nation was still the skyscraper’s laboratory, led to a determined commitment（承诺，保证）to emphasize the romantic, rather than the rational（理性的）side of skyscraper design. It was a time when skyscrapers began to take as their design themes other skyscrapers: the tower of the 1920's, buildings like John Mead Howells' Pan-Hellenic Hotel in New York and Raymond Hood's American Radiator Building, as well as icons of the such as William Van Allen's Chrysler Building, Shreve, Lamb & Harmon's Empire State Building and Hood and Fouilhoux's Rockefeller Center complex became the inspiration（灵感）. This historicizing wave yielded numerous buildings of note, including Philip Johnson and John Burgee's Atlantic Center in Atlanta and Transco Tower in Houston; Helmut John's Liberty Place in Philadelphia; Kevin Roche's Morgan Bank in New York; Kohn Pedersen Fox's 311 South Wacker Drive and 900 North Michigan Avenue, both in Chicago; Cesar Pelli's Northwest Center in Minneapolis and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill's A. T. &T. Corporate Center in Chicago and World Wide Plaza in New York.
In each of these buildings, there is some degree of reference to what is in so many ways the great epoch of skyscraper design, the romantic towers of the period between the two World Wars. This reference could sometimes be almost literal（全抄本）, as in the case of Pelli's evocation（唤起，联想，）of the GE (originally RCA) Building at Rockefeller Center, or John's recasting（改动）of the Chrysler Building profile（外形，轮廓）in glass in Philadelphia; or (more commonly) the historicism could be more interpretive（深远的）, with less commitment to a particular model as to the notion of ornament, texture, a highly articulated（清晰表达的）top and a base that, unlike most International Style boxes, makes some gestures（姿态）toward the street.
While this historicizing impulse（冲动，脉搏）yielded some superb（卓越的）buildings ―I think of Kohn Pedersen Fox's Mellon bank in Houston and Pelli's Carnegie Hall Tower in New York in addition to the ones above ―historicism seemed to play itself out（谢幕）by the end of the 1980's. The point had been made that International Style rationalism（理性主义）, was not able to bring forth viable（切实可行的）urban environments or, for that matter, particularly interesting buildings, unless it was in the hands of a master such as Mies van del Rohe or, in his early years, Gordon Bunshaft. The skyscraper had to be rescued from those who would deny its romantic glory, and the historicists performed this rescue mission with vigor（活力）and, often enough, with passion and architectural skill.
But once the taming（驯服）of the International style was complete, the historicists were somewhat at a loss（不知所措）―how to go forward when so much of their effort had been (done) to go backward? It is not surprising that Modernism, which never fully disappeared from the esthetic of the late 20th century, began to rear its head again, less in the form of International Style orthodoxy（正统的）as in a kind of mannered（风格迥异的）highly articulated search for visual
And thus we have the latest generation of towers, buildings that view Modernism not as a rational expression of structure so much as（与其，不如）an esthetic resource capable of being manipulated as richly as the language of Classicism could be manipulated in the service of historicism. This wave of towers surely includes at its head Foster's Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, which, while it alludes（暗示出）to a certain rational structure, is in truth a highly exaggerated, almost baroque expression of Modernism's romantic ideals. But it also includes much of the recent work of Kohn Pedersen Fox, Helmut John and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, all firms that have shifted（转移，转变）, gradually or abruptly, away from historicist skyscrapers and toward towers that strive（努力奋斗）for a richness of modernist expression. It is no accident（并不意外的）that many of the architects most active in this latest turn of the esthetics of the skyscraper were historicists in the 1980's, for these new buildings spring from an impulse that is in many ways equally romantic, and is surely equally indifferent to the International style modernists' haughty（傲慢地）insistence that the building's primary responsibility was rational expression of structure. These late modernists, or baroque modernists, view the tower as a complex, highly articulated object, a presence on the skyline as well as on the street, all premises（房屋）shared by the historicizing wave. The difference is only in the manner of expression, only in the way in which the notions of complexity and tallness and urbanistic presence are manifested（证明，显示）. The modernist esthetic, for so long seen as a barrier to richness of expression in the tall building, has now, at long last, become a vehicle for it.
It is not easy to reinvent the skyscraper, and it is not easy to integrate（整合）esthetic priorities（前提，重心，优势）with engineering developments, which continue to make buildings lighter, more tensile（延展）, and more able to take on unusual physical form. There was a period, perhaps a quarter-century ago, when it looked as if the skyscraper had reached a dead end, as if there was nothing more to do; buildings were not going to get much taller, and it seemed as if virtually every esthetic expression had been tried already. Then came the huge boom（繁荣时期）of the 1980's which proved, if nothing else, how many more variations on traditional themes were possible, and how much potential for richness and discovery still lay within this form. As we move now more firmly into the period of baroque modernist towers, it remains to be seen what masterworks will emerge, or what effect they and their lesser confreres（同事）will have on cities, on skylines, and on the skyscraper-glutted（充斥的）culture in general. But it is unquestionably clear now, at the end of the skyscraper century, that the tail building will be as much a part of the 21st century as it was of the 20th. (1206 words)
Unit Eight
(A) CURTAIN WALL
In the evolution（进化）of structural systems two basic types can be distinguished, deriving at（源发于）various times from the particular contingencies（偶发事件）of place and civilization:
massive（整体的,大块的）structures and skeleton ones.
在建筑结构体系演进的过程中，源于不同时期的地点和文明背景的特定机遇，有两个基本的类型可以被清晰的分辨出来，即砌体结构和框架结构。
In buildings of the first type, every part of the wall performs, without differentiation, the functions both of Ioadbearing and of separation; in the second type on the other hand, a system of high strength units, which may be connected together in various ways, performs the special functions of a Ioadbearing framework（框架结构）, while the other parts of the wall are devoted （致力于）exclusively（全然是，独家的）to the tasks of closing and separation. All non-loadbearing walls, adopted at any time by whatever structural tradition, could in a certain sense be called curtain walls: in fact they possess in some respects both the qualities of a wall (which is immovable, heavy, and definitive) and those of a curtain (which is movable, light, and temporary). In this broad sense the Gothic cathedrals with their large windows between piers（柱、墩）, the frame buildings of Japan which close off(隔离) space with panels（嵌板）of wood and paper, and those of Central and Northern Europe which employ brick walls, sometimes plaster ed（石膏板，灰板条;醉醺醺的）, for partition ing（隔断）, may be considered authoritative（权威的）examples of curtain wall architecture.
在第一种结构类型的建筑中，所有各个部分的墙体都承担了承受荷载和分割空间的功能；而另一方面，在第二种类型的建筑中，一种由各种方法连接起来的高强度单元的体系，表现出某种承受荷载的框架结构的特殊功能，而其他部分的墙体则全部用于围合及隔断的目的。所有的非承重墙，在任何时候无论是被那一种结构传统所采用，从某种观点上看都可以被称作“幕墙”，事实上，这种墙体在某些方面同时具有“墙”（固定的，沉重的和正式的）和“幕”（可移动的，轻便的和临时的）的性质。在这种宽泛的观念下，柱间有着大型窗户的哥特式天主教堂，用木制贴纸嵌板分割空间的日本的框架式房子，以及中北欧那些用砖墙的房屋，有时是石膏板墙做隔断，都可以看作是幕墙建筑的标准实例。
However, the feature called by the modern name of curtain wall ( the English term术语has universal currency通货) signifies（表述，意味着）a particular kind of external, non-loadbearing wall, composed of repeating modular（模数，模块）elements, shop-manufactured and erected （安装）on site（在现场）, which performs all the functions (and only these) of separation between indoors and out, and in particular those of defense against external agencies（因素，作用；代理,机构）(atmospheric and otherwise), thermal（热量的）and acoustical（声音的）insulation（阻隔）, and regulation of view, light and air. This definition, however, is not always strictly adhered to （坚持）, either because curtain walling is of recent invention, and has thus not been the subject of（受到）any deep critical（临界的）examination, or because its typology（类型学）is being constantly enriched, thanks to the continual efforts of designers and manufacturers to find better methods of production and application.
但是尽管这样，在现代名称下的“幕墙”（这个英文术语世界通行）概念的特性，专指一种非承重外墙，由重复的模块单元组成，工厂生产并现场安装，承担着分隔室内室外的全部功能，特别是防护各种环境因素（大气等）、隔热和隔声，并调节视野、光线和空气，仅此而已。这种定义并不总是被严格的遵守，因为幕墙还是一种新的发明，尚没有受到严格的检验，而且其类型学上的意义也在持续不断地丰富，感谢设计师和制造商坚持不懈的努力，去发现更好的生产和应用方法。
The curtain walls is the end-product（成品,最终产品）of a process of development that has involved a number of interrelated（相关的）considerations connected with technical progress, social and cultural factors, and the emergence（异军突起的）of the modern style in architecture. The introduction and perfecting of new structural technique making use of steel at the beginning of
动）to a spreading use of framed structures. The increased employment of this type of walling showed the importance of aiming at （目的在于）two characteristics in particular（特别地）: slenderness, to keep the maximum floor area available for use, and lightness, so that by reducing the load on the steel frame, the latter might be designed with correspondingly（相对应的）smaller members（组件）.
幕墙是这样一种终端产品，其发展过程中包括了一系列的相关的要素，与技术的进步，社会和文化的因素，和异军突起的建筑的现代风格联系在一起。（随着）新的结构技术的引进和完善，十九世纪初的钢材的采用和十九世纪后半叶的钢筋混凝土技术，都促进了框架结构的广泛使用。墙体的这种形式的不断增长的运用，表明了其对于(如下)两种特征的特别重要性：纤薄，保持楼板面积最大限度的可利用性；轻巧，通过减少钢窗框上的荷载，可以设计出一些小型的相关组件（以获得）。
The small dimensions of the steel frames and the progress made by the glass industry permitted an increase in window sizes, a development that was also stimulated by the demand for as much natural light as possible in industrial and commercial buildings. Between 1850 and the early years of the 20th century the window gradually turned into the window wall, sometimes taking over（传接，接过）the whole basic area defined by the facade. The use of large areas of glass had meanwhile become widespread in greenhouses（温室）and winter gardens, pedestrian galleries, railway station roofs and large exhibition pavilions（大堂，大帐）.
钢框的小尺度和玻璃制造业的进展，使窗子的尺寸不断增大，这种发展也是工业和商业建筑对尽可能多的自然光线的要求所刺激的。从1850年到二十世纪初，窗子逐渐转变为窗幕墙，有时（甚至）占据了正立面的全部主要面积。玻璃的大面积使用同时在温室、冬季花园、步廊、火车站屋面和大型展厅的大堂等大范围推广。
The transformation of the window into the window wall and the employment of large glazed areas drew（draw,引出）attention to a number of problems and evoked（引起）the first solutions to them; they include such questions as that of insulation, eliminating（消除）condensation（冷凝，结露）, developing the secondary glazing framework and countering the effects of expansion（膨胀）by the careful design of joints（缝，节点）and fixing systems. Large industrial buildings and tall office blocks, conceived（构思）as endless repetitions of identical（相同的）cell units, led to（lead to,导致）the use of a uniform grid for the structural frames. Between the eve of the First World War and the beginning of the Second, the architects of the modern movement carried out（实行）a series of experiments, each of which may be considered as perfecting some particular aspect of curtain walling by the use of modern methods of industrial production.
由窗子到窗幕墙的转变，和玻璃的大面积使用，引起了对许多问题的注意，并促使人们去率先解决这些问题，并通过精心设计的节点和固定系统，解决了包括热阻、消除结露、开发次级玻璃框架，抵消膨胀影响等问题。大型的工业厂房和写字楼，构思出如无限重复的相同的单元，导致结构框架的规则网格的运用。从第一次世界大战前夕到二次大战开始的时候，现代主义的建筑师们实行了一系列的试验，使用工业生产的现代方法，每一个都可以认为是对幕墙的某一特殊方面的优化。
At the same time the theoretical principles of this new means of architectural expression were being formulated（公式化）via（通过）educational experiments (Bauhaus包豪斯), writings (Le Corbusier勒.柯布西耶) and projects (various schemes（设计方案）of Mies van der Roche 密斯.凡.德罗between 1919 and 1922; Gropius格罗皮乌斯and Meyer’s迈耶design for the Chicago Tribune（论坛）（芝加哥论坛报）competition, 1922). It was only after the Second World War, however, that the first experiments began in the real industrialization of the building trade on a vast
States and Europe. Architects experimented with its application to different types of building, with the close collaboration（合作）of manufacturers on the alert for（密切注视）new materials and methods. (801 words)
与此同时，通过包豪斯的教育实验，勒.柯布西耶的文章，密斯.凡.德罗的项目，格罗皮乌斯和迈耶的芝加哥论坛报竞赛方案，这种建筑表现的新方法的理论上的原则也正完成着规则化。但只是在二次大战之后，首次尝试才开始于真正的大范围的建筑工业化经营。正是这时才可以看到幕墙技术在美国和欧洲的已开发和拓展。建筑师们尝试将它应用于各种类型的建筑，并与生产商紧密合作，密切注意新的材料和方法（的发展）。
(B) SOME ARCHITECTURAL GEMS（精华，宝石）
The classification at curtain wall types is still in its early stages, though certain criteria based on technical and structural consideration seem to provide a valid instrument for critical inquiry.
1. Presence or otherwise of spatial modeling of the facade, obtained with strongly projecting or recessed units.
Some types feature three-dimensional treatment; others employ a flat or two-dimensional treatment.
2. Relationship to the structure's Ioadbearing frame.
Some types do not bring out the framework at all, but cover it like a sheath; some pick out only the verticals; or only the horizontals. Yet others feature both verticals and horizontals.
3. Differentiation between the wall unit and its frame.
Some types are in the form of panels set in a secondary frame, which in its turn is fixed to the Ioadbearing structure. Others use panels of an appropriately rigid section, which is anchored direct to the main structure.
4. Structural make-up of the secondary flame, where it exists.
Some types feature vertical elements, others horizontal ones, others again use a grid of both.
5. Method of assembly of individual elements.
Some come in single units, other have to be put together from various parts.
6. Method of connecting adjacent units.
Some types have edge section which interlock with the next unit, others use an intermediate feature.
7. Method of packing joints.
Some types have rigid joints (welded), other use nonrigid packing (mastic, plastic, etc.) Mies has been credited with developing the postwar skyscraper as an exercise in bay design, and his process was a long and arduous one. The seamless curtain wall was unveiled in Mies's skyscraper project of 1922. This exercise displayed a curtain wall stretched, like the plastic wrap, around a form that had been structurally neutralized by its apparently arbitrary curvaceous perimeter. None of the details actually needed to hold together such a curtain wall (in 1922, at least) were included on Mies's model. During the 1950s Mies continued the task of ironing out the frills. 860 Lake Shore Drive was one of the first attempts at resolution, but a curious compromise between the structural bay and the window division is evident there. If the column were separated from the wall, evenly spaced windows could ride behind or in front of the structure, but because the column is coplanar with the curtain wall, Mies was forced to decide whether the mullions would be equidistant or the windows would be the same size. He opted for equal mullion divisions, thereby making the
Lake Shore Drive, Mies solved the problem by setting the column slightly back from the curtain wall, thereby allowing the glazing partially to overlap the column. The mullions are all equidistant and the windows are all the same width. The consistent repetition and relative lack, of hierarchy in the window divisions of 900 Lake Shore Drive would become the preferred model for curtain walls in the 1960s and 1970s (at least in metal-and-glass-clod buildings).
Architects from I.M.Pei to Kevin Roche used details to suppress any inconsistencies and irregularities between the structural bay and the curtain-wall divisions. At the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce in Toronto, Pei designed 54-foot-wide spandrel panels (the structural module) without seems, a feat of streamlining well recognized in the contemporary press. At the United Nations Plaza Hotel, Roche hid the structure, including the floors, behind a curtain wall which was so neutral that neither window nor solid spandrel could be discerned, much less slab or columns. Streamlining was the name of the game, but in the emerging post-modernist avant-garde of the 1970s, the "ligaments of construction", as Kenneth Frampton has called such details, were making a comeback. Articulation was the new name of the game.
333 Wacker Drive in Chicago (1979-1983) was among K.P.F s first inroads into such articulation, with its upper curtain wall (far from the viewers reach and close perception) smooth and flattened behind its gentle curve and with a base resembling a baroque arcade in Turin or Pards. Having begun to attach the problem of how to enliven the curtain wall without being overly decorative or arbitrary, KPF then produced numerous projects, from the Procter & Gamble General Offices Complex (1982-1985) to the St. Paul Companies Headquarters (1987-1991), where a three-way dialogue among the window, the structural bay, and the overall massing became the primary design theme. (733 words)
Unit Nine
(A) ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS
From his appearance on earth to the end of his cave-dwelling days, man had very little need for architectural drawing. When man for the most part abandoned cave dwelling, cavelike shelters appeared. They were simple in design and their construction matched the technology of that day.
从人类开始出现在地球上到结束穴居的日子里，几乎对建筑制图没有什么需求。当人类很大程度上摆脱了穴居方式，类似洞穴的窝棚出现了。这些窝棚的设计是简单的，而营造（方法）与当时的技术（原理）则是相匹配的。
Drawings were not necessary. The appearance of formal shapes with remarkably accurate
dimensions, however, suggests there was a need for architectural drawing. It is difficult to imagine achieving such precision work with the limited construction technology available without some form of pictorial planning and documentation. With more complex buildings being built, it became necessary to develop more elaborate（详细地说明）drawing methods. In the last few hundred years architectural drawing has evolved（衍生）into several general types. These range from concept sketches to intricate（错综复杂的）details drawn to scale.
图纸（那时）并不是必不可少的。但是那些早期令人印象深刻的尺度精确的建筑外形，表明建筑图纸还是需要的。难以想象，基于有限可用的建造技术，要完成这样精致的工作而没有某种形式的图形化的规划和设计文本。对于在建的更复杂的建筑物，便有必要开发一种更详尽表达的绘图方法。在过去的数百年间，建筑制图已经衍生出几种主要类型,从概念草图到复杂的按比例绘制的详图。
Design sketches are rough drawings that are used as ―idea sketches", made to explore concepts that will be refined at a later date. They may appear crude（天然的,粗制滥造的）to the casual observer, but a closer study of sketches drawn by talented designers will usually reveal a theme and sensitivity containing the element of good design. It is the purpose of these drawings to establish such elements. Design sketches have changed very little from the earliest known examples to those of today’s architects.
设计草图是一些粗糙的图纸，一般被用如意念简图，以便去发现日后可以精细完善的某些概念。对于细心的读者，这些图纸可能显得草率随意，但是天才的设计家画出的深入研究的草图，通常能够揭示主题和灵感，其中包含着某个优良设计的元素，而去发现这些元素，正是这类图纸的目的。从最早的著名个案到今天的建筑师的作品，设计草图几乎没有什么改变。
Usually, clients（客户）are not trained in grasping concepts from rough sketches. Therefore, a more picturelike drawing, known as a presentation drawing, is required to explain a proposed building to the prospective（有希望的,预期的）owner. Such a drawing may also be required for the banker or loan company who will be asked to lend money to build the project and for other persons or committees that must first understand, then approve or disapprove of the proposal（方案,建议书,提议）.
通常客户都没有受过从粗糙的草图中抓住概念的训练，所以要求有更象画的图纸，即表现图，来向预期的业主解释计划中的房屋设计。这样的图纸同样被银行家和借贷公司所需要，他们被请求贷款以便建设该项目；或者必须另有某人或组织需要首先了解该项目，进而批准或否决该设计方案。
Presentation drawings are usually necessary for commercial work and custom homes, while homes built on a speculative（思索的,思索性的）basis with no owner committed（委托）usually do not require this preparation. Often, modern design presentation drawings are characterized（表示***的特征）by realistic features, such as shades, shadows, people, trees, plantings, and automobiles. The techniques（技巧）for making these drawings have changed over the years as drawing technology（技术）has advanced and attitudes have changed concerning what parts of the building or setting are most important. Once the design has been accepted, drawings must be prepared to guide the builders of the project. These are called working drawings. They are precisely drawn and include plan views, elevations, and details, all with dimensions and notes.
表现图对于商业建筑和私人住宅通常是必须的，但对基于市场预测而没有业主委托的住宅建设就不需要这样的准备。经常地，现代设计的表现图由真实的特征来表现，如色调、阴影、人物、树木、植被和汽车等。制作这类图纸的技巧，一些年来随着绘图技术的进展而变化着，而且观念上也因考虑到为表现建筑最重要的部分或设施而有所调整。一旦当设计方案被接受，必须为指导项目的施工而准备图纸，这种图纸被称为施工图。施工图是精确绘制的，包括平面、
Another type of architectural drawing is one that is completed after the construction of a building. It is called an as-built drawing if it contains dimensions and other technical data. It may be for use in further technical work, for maintenance of the building, or it may be used for publication. Architectural drawing is the means of graphic communication used within the professions and businesses that are concerned with the design and construction of buildings. The building profession fall s generally into two categories（范畴）, residential and nonresidential. Nonresidential includes commercial, institutional, industrial, recreational, and other types of buildings that are not houses. This group is sometimes referred to（归于）simply as commercial. Small commercial buildings built with residential methods are called light construction. Residential work includes both multi-family apartments, condominium s, town-houses and single family buildings.
另一类建筑图是在一幢建筑物建成之后完成的，如果是包括尺寸和其他技术数据，则称为竣工图，可以用于以后的技术工作，如建筑物维护，或者向公众介绍等。建筑图是与房屋的设计与施工相关的专业和商业活动中的一种图形化交流方式。职业的房屋建造主要分为两类，即居住的和非居住的。非居住类包括商业的、工业的、事业的、康复的和其他不是住宅的类型。这一组类型有时简单地归于商业建筑。用住宅建造的方法建设的小型商业建筑叫作轻型房屋。住宅建筑包括集合住宅、同院公寓、联排式独院住宅和独户住宅。
Although state laws vary, typically it is a legal requirement that new nonresidential and multifamily buildings be designed by registered architects. Employees of a registered architect need not be licensed, however. Usually it is not required to have an architectural registration seal (license) to design and detail single family and duplex residences. To become a licensed architect one typically earns a degree in architecture from an accredited（经认可的）university, serves an apprenticeship under a registered architect, and then passes a lengthy examination. The architect is a major source but not the only generator of architectural drawings. Architects work closely with and often coordinate（对等的）the efforts of many consultants（顾问）, who perform design and drawing work. Engineers, interior designers, landscape architects, acoustical consultants, and hospital specialists are some of the professional s who are associated with architects and who also employ architectural drafters. (673 words)
尽管国家法律有所改变，必须由注册建筑师设计新的商业建筑和集合住宅是典型的合法要求。注册建筑师的雇员倒不必持有执照。通常独户住宅和两户比邻住宅设计的构思和深化不需要持有建筑注册章（执照），为了成为一名有执照的建筑师，一个人必须从某所经认可的大学获得学位，在注册建筑师手下作学徒，然后去通过漫长的考试。建筑师是建筑图纸的主要作者但并不是唯一的来源，建筑师经常是对等地同许多其他设计与制图的专家顾问密切合作，工程师、室内设计师、景观建筑师、声学顾问和医院专家，都是与建筑师合作的同行，而且他们也都需要雇佣建筑制图员。
(B) FREEHAND DRAWING
Drawing is a form of language that uses lines and symbols to convey meaning. Written language, spoken language, and body language are other forms of idea' communication. Each has its own application.
Freehand drawings are frequently called sketches. In many respects the sketch is a superior representational system as compared with other types of language. Freehand drawings are commonly used by architects in the conceptual stages of design. For example, it might be difficult to describe in words your idea for an entry to a house. On the other hand, a quick sketch could
the additional quality of being easy to learn and understand.
It is a rare designer who can totally envision the complete development of a building in his or her mind. Sketches are particularly useful in idea development. A basic concept may be added to other ideas, changed, or expanded to become a new, more potent idea. Since the mind works more quickly than the hand, ways of improving and modifying the sketch can be fed to the eye-hand system even as the first marks are being drawn on paper.
Freehand sketching is an important means of communicating with oneself. However, sketching is most often used as a means of communicating complicated ideas from one person to another. Sketching is a natural method of recording a mental image for further study, for clarification or modification, or for idea transmission to others. Keep a sketchbook and record your ideas for later reference. Since sketching is a symbolic representation of reality, it is not completely perfect. For example, the dimension of depth is missing because the image is drawn on a flat piece of paper. Natural color and the awareness of true size and true relationships between objects are also lost. To some degree these characteristics can be restored to the paper surface by means of various forms of illusion. These illusions and how to use them are the bases of this study of sketching. Sketches most often employ the illusions of depth, shape, and proportion. The loss of color does not generally hinder our acceptance of a sketch as being representational.
You will learn a number of procedures and techniques that will improve the quality of your sketches, but the most important of all factors is attitude. And the most important ingredient in attitude is confidence. Draw confidently, not timidly! Remember that the objective in making a sketch is to produce a "representation" of reality not a copy. You want the sketch to be accurate, but do not be concerned with the fine details. Do not be afraid to make a mistake! Allow your arm to move freely and with rhythm. Use a large piece of paper and draw boldly.
Sketches can be made using various types of markers and drawing surfaces. For the beginner it is advisable to use a combination that encourages freedom of movement and discourages self-criticism. This approach is employed by many experienced designers in the early stages of concept development. Use simple, bold strokes with a broad-tipped marker to help establish the central character of a building without cluttering your mind with fine line refreshments.
First try a broad-point felt-tip pen, preferably one using black ink. Use a large piece of inexpensive paper such as newsprint for a drawing surface. As confidence is gained, other tools, such as soft charcoal, fine-point felt-tip pens, and soft lead pencils, may be used. Other surfaces, such as tracing paper, textured cardboard, or fine- grain paper may be chosen later.
The common drawing instruments, guides, scales, triangles, templates, and so on, should not be used in freehand sketching. Their use should be reserved for technical and presentation drawing. With practice you should be able to sketch freehand the many straight lines parallel, perpendicular, and converging that are often seen in architectural drawings.
The use of an eraser should also be avoided. This is one reason that a felt-tip ink pen is recommended to avoid the temptation to make adjustments with the aid of an eraser. Correct errors in a freehand sketch by drawing over the original lines. If the error is lee serious for this remedy, discard the paper and begin again. Don't hesitate to discard an undesirable sketch. If you have been approaching sketching with vigor and speed, as you should, you will have invested only a very little time in the sketch. (744 words) ―
Unit Ten
(A) STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS ―FOUNDATIONS
During the design development phase you should be considering the various types of structural systems that might be used for your building. The system chosen will undoubtedly affect the layout and appearance of the building. The selection of a particular structural system should be finalized just prior to beginning the construction documents.
在设计不断深入的阶段里，你要考虑可能用于你的建筑之中的结构系统的各种类型。你所选择的系统，毫无疑问地将影响建筑物的平面布局和立面外观，而选择出某个特殊的结构体系，必须在开始制作施工文件之前完成。
Most architectural structural systems employ four basic materials, wood, concrete, masonry, and steel. They are often used in combination with one another. Glass, plastics, ceramic tile, and other materials are not usually considered to be "structural." The basic parts of the structural system are the foundation, floors, walls, and roof.
大多数建筑结构系统使用四种基本材料，木材、混凝土、砌块和钢材，通常是结合起来使
楼面、墙体和屋面。
The function of the foundation is to prevent the building from moving in any direction. A foundation should prevent settling（沉降）, heaving（heave隆起）(upward movement), or lateral （侧向的）shifting. The weight of the building tends to push it downward through the earth. Wind tends to move a building laterally or lift it during severe（猛烈的）storms. Earthquakes also typically cause lateral movement. Freezing and thawing of ground moisture and the expansion and contraction of soil that is sensitive to moisture changes may move a building vertically. Also, shifts of the earth may move the building in any direction.
基础的功能在于防止建筑物在各个方向上的位移,防止沉降、隆起，或者侧向的移动。建筑物的重量倾向于将建筑物穿过地表向下推；风力侧向移动房屋，或者在猛烈的暴风雨中将建筑拔起；地震也是典型地引起侧向位移；地表湿气的冻结和融化，对湿度变化敏感的土壤膨胀和收缩，都可能垂直地移动建筑，并且地球的运动也会在各个方向移动建筑物。
The shape and material of the foundation are dictate d（听命）by soil conditions, economics, and occasionally esthetic considerations. The foundation types available are continuous spread footings, pad footings, piling, and piers. The continuous spread footings spread the weight of a building over a broad enough area so that the soil is not penetrated by the foundation, allowing to move downward. If some areas of the soil are softer than others, the foundation should still span （跨越，柱间距）over these areas without sinking.
基础的形状和材料决定于土壤状况、经济条件，偶然地也囿于审美的考虑。现行基础的类型有连续扩展式、承台式、桩基和墩式。连续扩展式基础将建筑物的荷载分布于一个足够宽的区域，以使地基土壤不被基础穿透，即使允许其向下沉降。如果某个地块的土壤比别处松软，这样的基础仍会跨过这些区域而不下沉。
Forces tending to move the building upward are common. Every winter, in all but very warm climates, the moisture in the ground freezes. As the moisture in the earth freezes, it expands. The expanding earth is strong enough to lift entire buildings. This lifting and lowering (upon melting of the frozen moisture) of buildings or their parts causes cracking of walls and floors because the movement is rarely evenly distributed.
使建筑物向上移动的外力很常见，在每一个冬季，除了非常温暖的气候之外的所有气候条件下，地表的湿气会解冻。随着土壤中湿气的冻结，（冻土）膨胀了。膨胀的土壤有足够的强度举起整个房屋。如此建筑（整体或部分）的升起及降低（由于冻结湿气的融化），造成了墙体和楼板的开裂，因为这种运动极少是均匀分布的。
To avoid this type of movement, you must prevent freezing moisture from occurring under the foundation of any building. Since it is impossible to eliminate all of the moisture from the earth, the solution is to place the footings below the frost line. To allow for（考虑到，顾及）a rare winter that exceeds historical data, it is necessary to place the bottom of the foundation at least 12 inches below the known frost depth.
为避免这种运动，人们必须防止湿气的冻结在任何建筑物下面发生。由于要从土壤中消除所有的湿气是不可能的，解决的办法就是要将建筑基础臵于霜冻线以下。为防备某个打破历史纪录的罕见严冬，有必要将建筑基础底部至少臵于已知霜冻深度12英寸[约0.3米]以下。
The foundation must resist sidewise pressure when it serves as a basement wall. Resistance to sliding of the foundation wall off the footing can be provided by the floor slab, by locating a "key" between the wall and footing, and by reinforcing that interconnects the footing to the wall. Reinforcing rods（钢筋）placed between the footing and the wall also helps prevent the wall from tipping over（翻倒）.
当建筑基础同时作为地下室外墙时，必须抵抗（来自土壤的）侧向压力。可以通过地面楼
底座。在基础与墙体之间放臵的钢筋同时可以帮助防止墙体倾覆。
The thickness of the foundation wall should be designed to resist the forces already mentioned. Residential foundations are usually a minimum of 12 inches thick if they are concrete block, or 10 inches if they are concrete. A "
twice as wide as the foundation wall and Actual size should be determined by calculations accounting for the strength of the soil and the weight of the building.
基础墙体的厚度应设计为可以抵抗已经提到过的各种外力。居住建筑的基础，如果是混凝土砌块，通常最小厚度为12英寸；如果是混凝土板，则为10英寸。基座的尺寸大小，凭经验估算，至少是基础墙体厚度的两倍，宽度相等。实际尺寸必须基于对土壤强度和建筑物重量的计算。
Any support columns used in a building typically require a pad footing. Since a column or post transfers a concentrated load to the soil, the final size of the pad must be calculated based on the load applied and the strength of the soil.
建筑物中任何支撑柱一般都需要一个承台。由于柱子或支撑体是将集中荷载传递到土壤，承台的最终大小必须根据荷载的应用和土壤强度来计算。
Piling is used when the soil near the surface of the site is not structurally sound. In areas near the ocean or other water, the ground may be too weak to support the weight of a building. In areas where expansive soil changes volume with changes in moisture, piling may be desirable to bypass （绕过）the layer of earth to reach more stable material. A grid pattern of piling will result in a network of sound supports that can be spanned by beams to support the building weight over the undesirable soil.
当建筑用地接近地表的土层在结构上不够良好，就需要打桩。靠近海或水域的地区，地面太薄弱，不足以承载建筑物的重量。在随着湿度变化，膨胀性土壤也随之改变提及的地区，最好采用打桩的办法，以绕过该种土层而深入到更稳定的地层中去。桩基的网格组合，将形成有效的支撑网络，通过跨越架梁以承载不符合要求的土壤之上的建筑物重量。
Wood, steel, and round concrete piers are essentially short piling. They are appropriate when great depth is not needed to achieve sound support. If a spread concrete footing (pad) is used, masonry may be added to the list of pier materials. (743 words)
木材、钢材和圆形混凝土柱墩，都是基本的短桩，当不需要很大的深度来达到良好的支撑时，这些形式适用的。如果采用混凝土承台，砌块也可以添加到柱墩材料的列表中。
(B) BUILDING SYSTEMS ―WALLS
Walls may be load-bearing or non-load-bearing. Load-bearing walls carry the weight of the floors and roof. Walls for both residential and light commercial construction can be built with concrete, masonry, steel studs, or wood studs. Both concrete and masonry are common for basement walls. Masonry bearing wall construction is often used in commercial construction. This type of construction offers a variety of configurations. Typically, they consist of two vertical layers.
The exterior layer may be stone, brick, or concrete block. The interior layer may be brick, concrete block, or clay tile. The layers may touch or be separated by an air space (a cavity wall). Insulation may be placed between the layers or on the room face of the interior layer. In recent years systems have been developed in which the insulation is placed on the outside of the wall. As in the case of placing insulation on the room face of the wall, the masonry is hidden from view. The masonry layers are tied together with metal ties or continuous steel reinforcing.
each joist. The joists must be tied into the wall with metal straps. Steel open web joists may rest in a masonry bearing wall by omitting regular units at each joist and filling the hole with stock size smaller units. The joists are held in the wall by steel anchors.
Residential walls are almost exclusively load-bearing. Wood frame construction is most common, but masonry exterior walls and steel stud frame walls are also used. The wood frame usually consists of 2 x 4 studs standing on end spaced at a distance of 16 inches from center to center. With the increased interest in energy conservation, 2 x 6 studs at 24 inches on center have made their appearance in home construction. The deeper stud allows the installation of thicker insulation.
Balloon framing used to be common in two-story homes. Today, platform framing is more common. Balloon framing gets its name from its lightweight "shell-like" nature. It incorporates studs that are two stories high. They run continuously from the foundation to the roof. Platform framing utilizes studs that are one story high. The second floor is built as a platform on top of the first-floor studs. Advantages of platform framing include the increased availability and lower cost of the shorter studs and the ease of handling. Balloon framing has less vertical shrinkage.
In platform framing, the studs may be assembled on the floor and tilted up into place. The bottom (sole plate) and top plate may be nailed to the ends of the studs while in the horizontal position. The wall is tilted up, plumbed (set exactly vertical), and braced. The sole plate is nailed to the joists through the subfloor.
Lightweight steel framing is similar in configuration to wood framing. Steel studs are usually spaced 24 inches on center. Thin-gauge steel studs, such as for nonbearing partitions, may be fastened together by screws, whereas heavier members are welded together. A steel-stud bearing wall may support C-shaped joists or open web steel joist.
Non-load-bearing walls are found not only within load-bearing systems but also in structural system called post-and-beam construction. In this type of construction, the roof and floor loads are carried by beams that are supported by columns. The walls carry no weight other than their own, and thus are non-load-bearing.
Exterior non-load-bearing walls are called curtain walls. They may be made of any material that is weather-tight and can resist the force of the wind. Post-and-beam systems are relatively easy to recognize because the posts usually are not hidden in the curtain wall nor are the beams covered with a ceiling material. The posts and beams are often used as important visual features.
The outside of the studs that make up a curtain wall or a frame bearing wall are usually covered with sheathing before a final surface material is attached. Sheathing may be plywood or some other sheet material that is not as strong as plywood but has a high insulation value. The interior surface of framed walls is often covered with gypsum board since it is economical and can have a variety of finishes. A smooth painted finish is the most common, but textured paint, wall-paper, and vinyl wall coverings are also popular. (727 words)
Unit Eleven
(A) FUNCTIONAL CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN
Several functional principles are common to design regardless of the building type. Efficient circulation of people, for example, is almost always a goal. "Efficient" may be defined slightly differently in some cases. Usually it means that spaces are planned so that the minimum possible distance is traveled by the users of the building. In a store it means that customers move in a pattern that encourages them to buy the most goods. Generally, however, walking between work stations or rooms in a home is considered wasted time and also tiresome.
Every square foot of hallway beyond the absolute minimum adds unnecessary cost to the construction, monthly utility bills, and maintenance. Consequently, hallways and traffic paths through rooms should be kept to a minimum. The least useful hall is one with merely an opening at each end. A more useful hall is one with many additional doors and functions along the sides. An ideal use of a hall in a home is to have it double as a room, such as a laundry. For example, if a washer and dryer are enclosed with a folding door on one side of a hall, the hall becomes a laundry room when the door is opened. A linen closet opposite the laundry alcove is handy to the washer and dryer and further increases the usefulness of the hall.
Hallway space requirements can be reduced by the way adjoining room are oriented. When placing a room at the end of a hall, orienting the short dimension of the room perpendicular to the hall will reduce the length of the hall. If the hall passes by a room, the length of the hall can be reduced by orienting the long dimension of the room perpendicular to the hall. When possible, plan
the traffic pattern through a room so that it is perpendicular to the long dimension of the room. In this way less of the room will be lost to traffic space.
Even if a hall can not have double use, it may be useful as a visual extension to a room. If the requirements for privacy will allow it, remove one wall of a hall so that the adjacent room seems larger. This may be possible more frequently in a home.
In a commercial building, a glass wall may be used between a room and a hall to give both the room and the hall a feeling of being larger. The apparent length of an office hallway may be reduced by orienting fluorescent light fixtures across the width of the hall. If oriented lengthwise, the hall will appear longer.
Halls may serve as buffers between noisy and quiet spaces. By positioning a noisy room across a hall rather than adjacent to o quiet room, sound transmission to the quiet room will be reduced. A short straight hall will keep the number of turns a person must negotiate to minimum. If a hall must turn, keep the configuration simple. Irregularly shaped halls are inconvenient to use. They may also be a sign of inefficiently planned rooms and unnecessarily complicated construction.
Another goal typical of both commercial and residential design is to separate private and public activities. In residential planning the distinction between the two is subtle since a home is a private building. Living and dining areas are often used to receive visitors. The bedrooms, however, are not as public. This affects the placement of rooms so that non-residents of the home aren't forced to pass through the private area in the course of their visit. It may be desirable to provide a toilet for guests separate from the bathrooms serving the bedrooms. Both private and public areas may be in use at the same time, making their separation an important practical matter.
In businesses where there are areas for employees only, the separation between public and private use is easily accomplished. Walls and locked doors are clear barriers. In situations where limited public access to private areas is allowed, the design must provide for control of the access but not make it difficult. A receptionist can provide such control if the rooms are arranged properly. The presence of a receptionist or secretary should be an implied physical barrier so that it is apparent that permission is required to pass.
The need for acoustical privacy may be met in a home with the same plan that provides physical privacy for the bedrooms. If the bedrooms are grouped together and separated from public areas, noise is less likely to be bothersome to those sleeping while activity continues elsewhere in the house. Acoustical privacy in commercial buildings is not usually solved by the private/public separation. The need for solving noise problems in nonresidential buildings ranges little to very important. Some businesses do not generate noise, or at least the noise level in all spaces is about equal. Offices with few typewriters and no machines may simply need privacy for conversation. Several business machines in use will require at least a separate closed room. The location of doors is also an important consideration in controlling noise.
Light manufacturing may need to be located at one end of a building while the office functions take place at the other. Heavy manufacturing may require a building separate from the offices.
An increasing part of a buildings cost are the service components. If you can achieve other design goals while increasing 1he efficiency of the heating, air conditioning, electrical, and plumbing systems, it is obvious that you should do so. Since plumbing involves only certain rooms, the position of these rooms is important to reduce the cost of the plumbing system. Kitchens (or kitchenettes), toilets and water heaters are common in many buildings. It is standard practice to try to bring these items together to reduce the cost of piping and the labor to install it. Features such as drinking fountains, janitor’s closets, and other commercial plumbing needs are, of course, included
plumbing is a standard procedure. The savings in a single small house may not be great, but their small savings multiplied by a hundred units in a subdivision or in an apartment building becomes significant. (1040 words)
(B) TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR A RESIDENCE
For average-size homes, there is little flexibility in planning the site. The lot may have access from one street or two, if located on a corner. Usually there is not enough land to do anything but run a straight driveway from the street to the front of the house, where the garage door must be located. Side-yard setback requirements may force the house to be located within a few feet of the center of the lot. Tradition of zoning ordinances may cause the house to be located the same distance (setback) from the street as neighboring homes. If enough land is available, some variations are possible. Given a relatively fixed position for the "front" of the house, planning the interior for privacy and with respect to environmental influences can be more of a challenge. The main entry to a home, the "front" door, is usually visible from the street so as to not confuse visitors. The family may use a secondary entry more often than the front door. An entry foyer is desirable at the front door. If space allows, the foyer may be an alcove located adjacent to the living room with a closet and a durable floor covering to accommodate wet shoes. Separation of the foyer increases the elegance of the living room and helps divert the blasts of cold air from sweeping directly across the room, even without a separate foyer, a closet near the front door is necessary. A depth of 2 feet and a width of 3 feet are minimum dimensions for the closet.
The living room is typically located to a position that makes it accessible to guests without their having to pass through or by more private parts of the house. Having the living room adjacent to the entry foyer accomplishes this. Although the living room is commonly located on the street side of the house, other locations are popular. A position on the back side of the house has the advantage of having a more quiet and private view. Observation of the children's play area may also be desirable for some families. Both positions are possible with a long room that runs across the floor plan from front to rear. The living room may be located on the second floor if adequate control of the front door is provided.
For many years, family rooms have been popular as second living rooms or dens. Design guidelines similar to those for living rooms apply. Family rooms tend to be less formal than living rooms since eating, TV watching, and recreation usually occurs here. This frees the living room for quieter activities. The family room is adjacent to the kitchen. This room might face the backyard while the living room faces the street. Certainly, the reverse may be true if the family life-style so dictates.
The dining room often is located next to the living room since guests may be invited to dinner. The dining area is also often included in the living room without a wall separating the two.
Since the kitchen serves the dining room, it is necessary to have these rooms adjacent. There are many demands on the kitchen. If a family room is planned, the kitchen is usually nearby to serve lunch, dinner, or snacks while the family watches TV. Groceries are usually brought into the kitchen from the garage or driveway where the car is parked. This requires the kitchen be near one or both of those areas. Much of the work done during the clay occurs in the kitchen, especially if a laundry is combined with it. The kitchen then becomes the control center for daily activities. Supervising children's play from the kitchen is often necessary. Therefore, it should be adjacent to indoor and outdoor play areas. It is convenient to have visual control of the entry to the home so
as a breakfast nook or an outdoor eating space. Some people prefer a sunlit kitchen in the morning, especially if a breakfast nook or breakfast bar is provided. This could be accomplished by having an east-facing window in this area. In an informal approach, the kitchen may be entirely open to the dining and living rooms.
The kitchen should be planned for minimum circulation. A guideline for controlling circulation is to keep the distance between the stove, sink and refrigerator to a minimum of 12 and a maximum of 17 feet. The triangular path between these main work stations is sometimes called the "work triangle''. Do not locate the kitchen stove under a window. Also, avoid positioning a stove at the end of a counter. The lack of counter on the one side of the stove is an inconvenience and is also dangerous should a pot be bumped by a passerby.
Bedrooms have already been identified as belonging in a quiet and private zone of the house. Grouping them so that "public" and other daily traffic is not directed through this zone is standard procedure. Persons who like to wake up in a sunlit room may want their bedroom on the east to receive the morning sun. A position away from the street side will result in a quieter room. In two-story homes the bedrooms are typically on the upper level for added privacy. Certainly, variations to this practice may be appropriate. All bedrooms should be designed so that there is an option of at least two walls against which to position the bed. This gives the family a chance to move the furniture periodically for variety. There should be space beside a double bed for a night table on each side or on one side for a single bed. Bedrooms for two people should have a closet space at least 2 feet deep and 5 feet wide. A bedroom for one person needs a closet 2 feet deep and at least 3 feet wide. All bedrooms need access to a bathroom without having to pass through another room (except a hall). Do not plan the circulation so that one must pass through a bedroom to reach another room or so that the only path to the bedroom is through a bathroom.
If a choice is possible, some people like to have the morning sun in their bathroom. This of course requires the room to be on an east exterior wall and have a window. A skylight may be desirable for a bathroom with no exterior walls. If a home has only one bathroom, it is naturally associated with the bedrooms.
It must be accessible from all bedrooms without having to pass through another bedroom. Positioning the bathroom next to a hall accomplishes this and makes it reasonably available for guests.
Having two bathrooms is popular in today's home. One may serve secondary bedrooms and guests from a hall while the other serves only the master bedroom. The typical arrangement is to have these two bathrooms "back to back" so that the plumbing will be more economical. The wall between the bathrooms is thicker than other partitions because of the plumbing in the walls. In larger homes a half bath may be provided for guests, leaving the two full tubs for private use. A half bath has only a sink and a toilet and no bathtub. It would normally be located in the more public zone, such as near the dining room for washing hands before dinner. If the half bath is close to a backyard entrance, a small shower booth might be desirable, especially if a swimming pool is planned. (1274 words)
发动机分类 1 往复式内燃机reciprocating internal combustion engine 2 化油器式发动机carburetor engine 3 转子发动机rotary engine 4 旋轮线转子发动机rotary trochoidal engine 5 二冲程发动机two-stroke engine 6 四冲程发动机four-stroke engine 7 增压式发动机supercharged engine 8 风冷式发动机air-cooled engine 9 油冷式发动机oil-cooled engine 10 水冷式发动机water-cooled engine 11 自然进气式发动机naturally aspirated engine 12 煤气机gas engine 13 液化石油气发动机liquified petroleum gas engine 14 柴油煤气机diesel gas engine 15 多种燃料发动机multifuel engine 16 石油发动机hydrocarbon engine 17 双燃料发动机duel fuel engine 18 热球式发动机hot bulb engine 19 多气缸发动机multiple cylinder engine 20 对置活塞发动机opposed piston engine 21 对置气缸式发动机opposed-cylinder engine 22 十字头型发动机cross head engine 23 直列式发动机in-line engine 24 星型发动机radial engine 25 筒状活塞发动机trunk-piston engine 26 斯特林发动机stirling engine 27 套阀式发动机knight engine 28 气孔扫气式发动机port-scavenged engine 29 倾斜式发动机slant engine 30 前置式发动机front-engine 31 后置式发动机rear-engine 32 中置式发动机central engine 33 左侧发动机left-hand engine 34 右侧发动机right-hand engine 35 短冲程发动机oversquare engine 36 长冲程发动机undersquare engine 37 等径程发动机square engine 38 顶置凸轮轴发动机overhead camshaft engine 39 双顶置凸轮轴发动机dual overhead camshaft engine 40 V形发动机V-engine 41 顶置气门发动机valve in-head engine 42 侧置气门发动机side valve engine 43 无气门发动机valveless engine
Lesson One Translate the following passage into Chinese 1.紧缩性货币政策和扩张性货币政策都涉及到改变一个国家的货币供应量水平。 扩张性货币政策增加货币供应量，而紧缩性货币政策会减少货币供应量。 2.当联邦储备体系在公开市场上购买有价证券，会引起证券价格上涨。债券价格 和利率成反比关系。联邦贴现率就是一种利率，因此降低联邦利率实际上就是 降低利率。如果联邦储备系统决定降低法定储备要求，那么银行能够进行投资 的资金会增加。这会引起投资比如债券价格的上涨，因此利率会降低。无论联 邦储备体系用何种方法来增加货币供应量，利率都会降低，债券价格会上涨。 Translate the following sentences into English 1. China would maintain a stable currency and prudent monetary policy, and expected to stay within its growth and inflation targets this year 2.China would also maintain a prudent monetary policy to support economic development while preventing inflationary pressure and financial risks 3. China’s economy continued to grow steadily and rapidly in the first quarter, with investment in fixed assets slowing and domestic consumption accelerating. 4.because of China’s large increase in its trade surplus and foreign exchange reserves in the first quarter, the effectiveness of its monetary policy — used to help control inflation — was facing “serious challenges.” 5. The central bank would seek to further streamline its foreign exchange system to facilitate the orderly outflow of funds. At the same time, it would tighten the management of foreign exchange inflows and settlement. —Three Translation: Translate the following passage into Chinese 1．外汇交易当然是指两种不用货币之间的交易了。每一组货币的交易或“买卖”都包含两个部分。一个是即期市场，在这个市场中支付（交付）需在交易时立即进行（在实际操作中一般是在第二个交易日进行），另一个就是远期市场。远期市场的汇率是在交易的时候就先确定了，但实际的交易，或交付则是在未来的某个特定时间进行的。 2．外汇交易期权是指一种货币和另一种货币在未来进行交付的一个合同，在此合同中，
金融专业英语单词内部编号：（YUUT-TBBY-MMUT-URRUY-UOOY-DBUYI-0128）
金融专业英语词汇大全 a flat percentage rate of income 统一比率的所得税税率 a long position 多头部位，利多形势 a long positio 多头寸；买进的期货合同 a put option on a debt security 债务证券的卖出期权 a sales slip 签购单据，售货清单 a short position 空头部位，短缺头寸 a short position 空头；卖出的期货合同 a tax return 税务申报表 abnormal depreciation 特别折旧abnormal spoilage 非 正常损坏 aboriginal cost 原始成本 acceptance bank 票 据承兑行 acceptance method 承兑方式 acceptance risks 承兑风险 accepting bank 承兑银行 accessory risks 附加保险，附加险 accident insurance 意外保险（不包括海 上，火灾和人寿险） accommodation of funds 资金融通 accompany vt. 附 带，伴随，陪同 account charges 账户费用 account current (A/C,a/c) 往来帐 户 account number (A/N) 帐号 account statement 帐户清单 accounting exposure 会计风险 accounting risks 会计风险 accounting value 帐面价值 accounts of assured 保险帐户 accrued bond interest 应计债券利息 accrued depreciation 应计折旧 accrued dividend 应计股利
V形喷油泵V type fuel injection pump 两列柱塞偶件轴线呈V形排列，带单根凸轮轴的合成式喷油泵。 泵端压力pressure at pump end 喷袖泵出袖口端管内的燃油压力。 泵-喷嘴 unit injector 喷油泵与喷油器合为一体，同时进行泵油和喷油的装置。 闭式喷油嘴 closed nozzle 具有一个受弹簧控制的菌形阀或针阔的喷油嘴。 标定供油量 rated fuel delivery 相对于所配套柴油机标定工况下喷油泵的循环供油量。 拨叉式油量调节机构fork fuel control mechanism 通过调节拉杆(或柴油机调速杠杆)上的调节叉拨动柱塞尾部的调节臂，使柱塞转动以调节供油量的机构。 残余压力 residual pressure 供油结束后，高压油管中残存的燃油压力。 操纵轴 control lever shaft 装有调速于柄的轴。 差动比differential ratio 喷油嘴针阀圆柱工作面直径与针阔密封锥面密封直径之比。 柴油机燃油系统－术语 Fuel system for diesel engine –Terminology 齿杆式油量调节机构 rack fuel control mechanism 通过调节齿杆与调节齿套(或装在控制套筒上的调节齿圈)啃合，使柱塞转动以调节供油量时的机构。 齿轮式输油泵 gear fuel supply pump 泵油元件为一对齿轮的输油泵。 出袖阀偶件 delivery valve assembly 由经选配的出油阀和出油阔座两个零件组成，让高压燃油单向通过，并在喷油泵停止供油时，迅速降低高压油管中的残余压力，使喷油干脆利落。 出油阀弹簧delivery valve spring 装在出油阔的上部，使出油间在柱塞开始卸油时迅速落座和保持闭合状态的圆柱形螺旋弹簧。 出油阀减容器delivery valve volume reducer 在出油阔弹簧的上端，减小出油阀紧座腔室容积的零件。 出油阀紧座delivery valve holder 以螺纹旋入喷油泵体(或上体)固定出油阀座的零件，上端有螺纹及出油口与高压油管组件相连。 出油阀开启压力delivery valve opening pressure 使出油阀克服出油阔弹簧压力而升起的燃油压力。 出油阀座delivery valve seat 出袖阀偶件中的圃筒形零件，出油阀在其孔内作往复运动。 出油阔delivery valve 出油阔偶件中作往复运动的零件，具有圆锥形密封面。 出油阔垫圄delivery valve gasket 位于出油间座与出油阀紧座之间的垫圈，防止燃油从该处泄漏。 传动部件drive disk assembly 将转速感应部件的作用力传递给油量调节机构的部件。 从动法兰部件driven flange assembly 由从动法兰、飞锤销(或弹簧导销)等组成的部件，将驱动法兰运动传递给喷油泵凸轮轴。 调速器governor 随柴油机负荷与转速的变化，自动调节喷油泵供油量以限制或稳定转速的装置。 几何供油终点geometric fuel delivery end 指凸轮使柱塞开始移动至回油孔开启时的位置，通常以凸轮轴转角表示。 减压容积retraction volume 在供油结束后，带有减压凸缘的出油阔落座过程中，减压凸缘下边缘从关闭出袖阀座中孔起到出油间落座时所经过的容积，即在出油间落座时高压油路内增大的那部分容积。 减压行程retraction stroke 与减压容积相对应的出袖阀行程。 角度差differential seat angle 为保证喷油嘴密封锥面的有效密封，针间和针阀体
Opposite指“位置、方向、地位、性质、意义等对立的、相反的”, 如: 如: “True” and “ false ” have opposite meanings. “真”与“假”有着相反的意思。 Contrary指“两物朝相反的方向发展”, 含有“互相冲突, 不一致”的意思, 如: Your plan is contrary to mine. 你的计划与我的相反。 Inverse 颠倒的；倒数的 Evil is the inverse of good. Reverse 反过来，翻转 He reversed the car. 他倒车. 教育类 素质教育 education for all-round development 应试教育 the examination-oriented education 义务教育 compulsory education 片面追求升学率 place undue emphasis on the proportion of students' entering school of a higher level 高分低能 good scores but low qualities 扩招 expand enrollment 教书育人 impart knowledge and educate people 因材施教 teach students according to their aptitude 提高身心素质 improve the health and psychological quality 大学生创业 the university students' innovative undertaking 社会实践 social practice 文凭 diplomas and certificates 复合型人才 interdisciplinary talents 文化底蕴 the rich cultural deposits 适应社会的改变 adjust to the social changes 满足社会的急需 meet the urgent needs the society 工作类 人才流动和双向选择 talent flow and a dual-way selection 试用期 probationary period 跳槽 job-hopping 自由职业 freelance work 拜金主义 money worship 获得名利 achieve fame and wealth 充分发挥个人的潜力 develop fully one's potential and creativity 工作出色 excel in one's work 社会和个人的尊重 social and personal esteem 生计问题 a bread and butter issue 人才交流 talents exchange 培养人才 cultivate talents 人才外流 brain drain 失业问题 unemployment problems 下岗职工 the laid-off workers 自谋生路 be self-employed 劳动力短缺 shortage of manpower 医药卫生类 卫生环境 sanitary environment 营养不良 malnutrition
在该部分内容中主要讲述内燃机、汽油发动机、柴油发动机等的相关知识。包括：1. Engine Classification and Overall Mechanics，发动机的分类和总体结构；2. Four-stage-engine Operation，四行程发动机工作过程；3. Two-stage-engine Operation，二行程发动机工作过程；4. Diesel Engine Operating Features，柴油发动机工作特点；5. Engine Cylinder Block Crankcase，发动机气缸体曲轴箱；6. Piston Connecting Rod，活塞连杆；7.Crankshaft Flywheel，曲轴飞轮；8.Valves and Vales Train，气门与气门传动组；9. Engine Fuel System，发动机燃油系统；10. Engine Lubricating System，发动机润滑系统；11. Engine Cooling System，发动机冷却系统；12. Engine Ignition System，发动机点火系统；13. Engine Starting System，发动机起动系统；14. Locomotives，机车； 15. Diesel Traction，内燃牵引。 二、教学时数： 共占用18学时。 1. Engine Classification and Overall Mechanics（1学时） 发动机的分类和总体结构 2. Four-stage-engine Operation（1学时） 四行程发动机工作过程 3. Two-stage-engine Operation（1学时） 二行程发动机工作过程 4. Diesel Engine Operating Features（1学时） 柴油发动机工作特点 5. Engine Cylinder Block Crankcase（1学时） 发动机气缸体曲轴箱 6. Piston Connecting Rod（1学时） 活塞连杆 7. Crankshaft Flywheel（1学时） 曲轴飞轮
金融专业英语翻译学习：跟单信用证常见条款及短语applicant 开证人（申请开证人） principal 开证人（委托开证人） accountee 开证人 accreditor 开证人（委托开证人） opener 开证人 for account of Messrs 付（某人）帐 at the request of Messrs 应（某人）请求 on behalf of Messrs 代表某人 by order of Messrs 奉（某人）之命 by order of and for account of Messrs 奉（某人）之命并付其帐户 at the request of and for account of Messrs 应（某人）得要求并付其帐户 in accordance with instruction received from accreditors 根据已收到得委托开证人得指示 2.beneficiary 受益人 beneficiary 受益人 in favour of 以（某人）为受益人 in o ne′s favour 以……为受益人 favouring yourselves 以你本人为受益人
3.drawee 付款人（或称受票人，指汇票） to drawn on (or ：upon) 以（某人）为付款人 to value on 以（某人）为付款人 to issued on 以（某人）为付款人 4.drawer 出票人 5.advising bank 通知行 advising bank 通知行 the notifying bank 通知行 advised th rough…bank 通过……银行通知 advised by airmail/cable through…bank 通过……银行航空信/电通知 6.opening bank 开证行 opening bank 开证行 issuing bank 开证行 establishing bank 开证行 7.negotiation bank 议付行 negotiating bank 议付行 negotiation bank 议付行 8.paying bank 付款行 9.reimbursing bank 偿付行
Para 1 基本原理Notes: Para. 1.appreciate: understand fully，评价，估价，理解 unsuitability :不适合，不相称，不匹配 present:submit,offer,give，提出，设置 2.patent: n,专利v,取得…专利 athodyd: 航空热力管道，冲压式喷气发动机 ram jet: 冲压喷气发动机 3.turbo-jet engine:涡轮喷气发动机 turbo-propeller engine: 涡轮螺桨发动机 viscount aircraft: 子爵式飞机 twin-spool: 双转子 triple-spool: 三转子 by-pass: 双涵式，内外涵 ducted fan: 管道风扇式,涵道风扇式 4.piston engine: 活塞发动机 solely:单独地,独自地,只是 5.pulse jet: 脉动式发动机 turbo/ram jet: 涡轮/冲压喷气发动机 6.momentum: 动量 issue:流出,放出 impart…to…:give，给予 jet: 喷嘴 8.sprinkler: 喷水器 by virtue of: 凭借，利用 firefighting: 消防 hose: 软管 carnival: 狂欢节 9.resultant: 合成的，总的 10.convert…into…:change…into， 11.convergent: 收敛的 divergent: 发散的 target vehicle: 耙机 12.intermittent: 间歇的，周期性的 static：静止的，静态的 dynamic：动力的，动态的 aero-：空气的 aerodynamic：空气动力学的 robust：坚固的，强壮的 spring-looded：绷有弹簧的 (图1-7)：shutter valve：薄片式，快门式阀门，节气活门depression：下降
1.The 3 main functions of commercial banks: the creation of money accomplished through lending and investing activities the holding of deposits the provision of a mechanism for payments and transfers of funds 2.What are negotiable instruments? Negotiable Instruments are documents used in commerce to represent the ownership and secure the payment of money. 3.Why do we need negotiable instruments when making payments? Paying large sums of money in cash is inconvenient and risky. Negotiable Instruments such as Bills of Exchange, Cheques and Promissory Notes are wildly used as instruments in the international settlement. They represent a right to payment. A right is a promise and not a tangible piece of property. 4.What is a crossing? It is a direction to the paying bank that the money proceeds should be paid to the payee’s bank and not directly to the payee himself. General crossings: consisting of two transverse parallel lines across the face of the cheque. Special crossings: consisting of the name of a particular bank to which payment must be made, and the name itself is the crossing. 5.What is the most important difference between bills of exchange and promissory notes? 6.Why debit cards are named as “debit”cards? The amount of the purchase is immediately debited from the account and no credit is involved. 7. fiduciary /fi‘dju:?i?ri/ a. 受托的n.受托人 A company director owes a fiduciary duty to the company 7.The three most-commonly used means of international settlement: remittance collection documentary credit The other two means: standby L/C & bonds 9.A documentary collection gives greater security than settlement on open account, because the importer cannot take possession of the goods without either making payment or accepting a bill of exchange. The banks concerned are under no obligation to pay. 10.Can the exporter be sure at the time of dispatch of the goods that the buyer will actually pay the sum owed? No. So this form of settlement is therefore most appropriate in the following cases: if the exporter has no doubt about the buyer’s willingness and ability to pay; if the political, economic and legal environment in the importing country is considered to be stable;
内燃机英语名词 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 活塞式内燃机英语名词、术语(一)（GB1883 ） 序号中文名词、术语英文名词、术语 1 往复活塞式内燃机Reciprocating engine 2 二冲程内燃机Two-stroke engine 3 四冲程内燃机Four-strokeen gine 4 汽油机Gasolineengine 5 顶置气门汽油机Overhead-valve engine 6 侧置气门汽油机Side-valvengine 7 汽油喷射式汽油机Gasoline-injection engine 8 顶置凸轮轴内燃机Overhead camshaft engine 9 柴油机Dieselengine 10 煤气机Gas engine 11 柴油煤气机Gas-Diesel engine 12 多种燃料内燃机Multi-fuel engine 13 低转速柴油机Low-speed Dieselengine 14 中转速柴油机Medium-speed Diesel engine 15 高转速柴油机High-speedDieselengine 16 增压柴油机Supercharged Diesel engine 17 低增压柴油机Low-supercharged Diesel engine 18 中增压柴油机Medium-supercharged Dieselengine 19 高增压柴油机High-supercharged Dieselengine 20 超高增压柴油机Superhigh supercharged Dieselengine 21 废气涡轮增压柴油机Turbocharged Diesel engine 22 机械增压柴油机Mechanical pressure-charged engine 23 两级增压柴油机Two stage super-charged engine 24 复合式柴油机Compound Dieselengine 25 十字头式柴油机Crosshead Diesel engine 26 船用挂机Outboardengine 27 水冷内燃机Water-coolede ngine 28 风冷内燃机Air-cooled engine 29 单缸内燃机Single-cylindeenrg ine 30 多缸内燃机Multi cylinder engine 31 卧式内燃机Horizontalengine 32 立式内燃机Vertical engine 33 斜置式内燃机 34 直列式内燃机In-line engine 35 对置气缸内燃机Opposed-cylinder-type engine 36 对动活塞内燃机Opposed-pistonengine 37U 形内燃机U-pistonengine
金融学考研专业英语词汇列表（经济类）1．air pocket气囊：指一种股票的显而易见的极其虚弱性。 2．backdoor listing后门上市：一家公司因其自身未能符合交易所上市规定，便买进一个上市公司，将自身并入其中而使自己能够上市。 3．basket purchase一篮子购买：以一种价格购买一组资产。然而在记帐同时，每件物品可以单独记入，并对每件资产指定一个成本。 4．bear trap空头陷阱：当股票下跌时，引起大量抛售，然后价格又上涨。 5．bed and breakfast deals床头和早餐交易：卖空骗局，个人或公司根据事先安排的交易，先卖出股票，继而在第二天买回，以此形成一个抵消资本收益的税损。本做法仅存于英国。 6．bottom fisher底部钓鱼人：寻找那些价格已跌至最底点，即将发生转机的商品或股票投资者。在有些情况指购买破产或濒临破产组织的股票或债券的人们。 7．butterfly spread蝴蝶差：同时在相同或不同的市场上买或卖三种期货合同，产生利润和借贷权。 8．Chinese Wall中国墙：不可逾越的障碍物，用以阻止华尔街商行的交易区 不公正地使用投资银行家们从客户那里秘密获得的信息。 9．fallen angle下坠天使：大公司的高价证券因某些不利的负面消息而使价格突然下跌。 10．golden handcuffs金手铐：将经纪人和经纪人事务所连结起来的合同；是经纪业对经纪人从一个公司到另一个公司频繁变动的反应。一般包括将其受雇时接受的大部分报酬返还原公司的协议。 11．gold brick假金砖：毫无价值的带有欺诈特点的证券。 12．gray knight灰骑士：公司收购中并非收购对象所寻求的投机性二次投标者，只想利用收购对象和原投标者之间的问题而牟利。 13．graveyard market墓地市场：一种在其中的不能出来，而在外面的不能进去的证券市场。 14．lame duck跛脚鸭：冒险失败的投机者或股票交易中资不抵债的人。
金融专业英语词汇大全 1. a 统一比率的所得税税率 2. a 多头部位，利多形势 3. a 多头寸；买进的期货合同 4. a a 债务证券的卖出期权 5. a 签购单据，售货清单 6. a 空头部位，短缺头寸 7. a 空头；卖出的期货合同 8. a 税务申报表 9.特别折旧 10.非正常损坏 11.原始成本 12.票据承兑行 13.承兑方式 14.承兑风险 15.承兑银行 16.附加保险，附加险 17.意外保险（不包括海上，火灾和人寿险） 18.资金融通 19.. 附带，伴随，陪同 20.账户费用 21.() 往来帐户
22.() 帐号 23.帐户清单 24.会计风险 25.会计风险 26.帐面价值 27.保险帐户 28.应计债券利息 29.应计折旧 30.应计股利 31.( 预约保险申报确认书 32.热头股票，活跃的证券 33.（保险用语）实际现金价值 34.实际汇率 35.适应性预期 36.加保，附加保险 37.追加准备金 38.可调整的保险单 39.可调整的保险费 40.已调整的借方余额 41.预缴保险费 42.涨跌理论 43.逆汇、逆汇兑
44.提款通知书 45.通知银行 46.联行 47.关联人 48.次级市场 49.托收代理银行 50.中国农业银行 51.农业贷款 52.（）农（牧）业税 53.备抵呆帐款项 54.() 选择指令 55.运通卡 56.美国标价法 57.小写金额 58.大写金额 59.年费 60. a 银行开户申请书 61.外汇指定银行 62.汇率升值 63.套利 64.套购，套利，套汇 65.套汇
66.套汇或套股 67.套价机会 68.套汇风险 69.做代理 70.做自营 71.() 亚洲开发银行 72.= = 出售价，报价，开价，出价 73.竞价系统 74.估损 75.资产保险 76.保单转让 77.承担风险 78.不对称 79.'s 风险由货主负担 80.收盘指令 81.按市价 82.平值期权 83.( ) 开盘指令 84.拍卖市场 85.(24 a ) 自动取款机（24小时服务） 86.自动转帐 87.平均数
发动机 engine 内燃机 intenal combusiton engine 动力机装置 power unit 汽油机 gasoline engine 汽油喷射式汽油机 gasoline-injection engine 火花点火式发动机 spark ignition engine 压燃式发动机 compression ignition engine 往复式内燃机 reciprocating internal combustion engine 化油器式发动机 carburetor engine 柴油机 diesel engine 转子发动机 rotary engine 旋轮线转子发动机 rotary trochoidal engine 二冲程发动机 two-stroke engine 四冲程发动机 four-stroke engine 直接喷射式柴油机 direct injection engine 间接喷射式柴油机 indirect injection engine 增压式发动机 supercharged engine 风冷式发动机 air-cooled engine 油冷式发动机 oil-cooled engine 水冷式发动机 water-cooled engine 自然进气式发动机 naturally aspirated engine 煤气机 gas engine 液化石油气发动机 liquified petroleum gas engine 柴油煤气机 diesel gas engine 多种燃料发动机 multifuel engine 石油发动机 hydrocarbon engine 双燃料发动机 duel fuel engine 热球式发动机 hot bulb engine 多气缸发动机 multiple cylinder engine 对置活塞发动机 opposed piston engine 对置气缸式发动机 opposed-cylinder engine 十字头型发动机 cross head engine 直列式发动机 in-line engine 星型发动机 radial engine 筒状活塞发动机 trunk-piston engine 斯特林发动机 stirling engine 套阀式发动机 knight engine 气孔扫气式发动机 port-scavenged engine 倾斜式发动机 slant engine 前置式发动机 front-engine 后置式发动机 rear-engine 中置式发动机 central engine 左侧发动机 left-hand engine 右侧发动机 right-hand engine 短冲程发动机 oversquare engine 长冲程发动机 undersquare engine 等径程发动机 square engine 顶置凸轮轴发动机 overhead camshaft engine 双顶置凸轮轴发动机 dual overhead camshaft engine V形发动机 V-engine 顶置气门发动机 valve in-head engine 侧置气门发动机 side valve engine 无气门发动机 valveless engine 多气门发动机 multi-valve engine 卧式发动机 horizontal engine 斜置式发动机 inclined engine 立式发动机 vertical engine W形发动机 w-engine I形发动机 I-engine L形发动机 L-engine F形发动机 F-engine 性能 performance 二冲程循环 two-stroke cycle 四冲程循环 four-stroke cycle 狄塞尔循环 diesel cycle 奥托循环 otto cycle
Answer the questions 1、What are the ways by which the money flows from individual surplus units to deficit units? financial markets facilitate the flow of funds from surplus units to deficit units. Those financial markets that facilitate the flow of short-term funds (with maturities of less than one year) are known as money markets. Those that facilitate the flow of long-term funds are known as capital markets. Debt bond stock fund deritives 2、How does the level of tax, do you think, affect the demand of household for loanable funds? (please explain by pictures) if tax rates on household income are expected to significantly decrease in the future, households might believe that they can more easily afford future loan repayment and thus be willing to borrow more funds. For any interest rate, the quantity of loanable funds demanded by households would be greater as a result of tax law adjustment. This represents an outward shift in the demand schedule. tax rates on household income (income tax decreases →the line of household demand moves right) 3、What is the relationship between the government demand for loanable funds and interest rate? (explain by pictures) Whenever a government’s planed expenditures cannot be completely covered by its incoming revenues from taxes and other sources, it demands loanable funds. The way to obtain fund: Municipal (state and local) governments issue municipal bonds to obtain funds, while the federal government and its agencies issue Treasury securities and federal agency securities Interest-inelastic (insensitive to interest rates): federal government expenditure and tax policies are generally thought to be independent of interest rate. Thus the federal government demand for funds is said to be Interest-inelastic, or insensitive to interest rates. In contrast, municipal governments sometimes postpone proposed expenditures if the cost of financing is too high, implying that their demand for loanable funds is somewhat sensitive to interest rates. ?Like the household and business demand, the government demand for loanable funds can shift in response to various events. Deficit increases →move right Exhibit 2.3 impact of increased government budget deficit on the government demand for loanable funds The federal government demand-for-loanable-funds schedule is Dg1, if new bills are passed that cause a net increase in the deficit of USD20 billion, the