单片机发展及应用
单片微型计算机简称单片机，是典型的嵌入式微控制器（Microcontroller Unit），常用英文字母的缩写MCU表示单片机，单片机又称单片微控制器，它不是完成某一个逻辑功能的芯片，而是把一个计算机系统集成到一个芯片上。单片机由运算器，控制器，存储器，输入输出设备构成，相当于一个微型的计算机（最小系统），和计算机相比，单片机缺少了外围设备等。概括的讲：一块芯片就成了一台计算机。它的体积小、质量轻、价格便宜、为学习、应用和开发提供了便利条件。同时，学习使用单片机是了解计算机原理与结构的最佳选择。它最早是被用在工业控制领域。
由于单片机在工业控制领域的广泛应用，单片机由仅有CPU的专用处理器芯片发展而来。最早的设计理念是通过将大量外围设备和CPU集成在一个芯片中，使计算机系统更小，更容易集成进复杂的而对体积要求严格的控制设备当中。
INTEL的8080是最早按照这种思想设计出的处理器，当时的单片机都是8位或4位的。其中最成功的是INTEL的8051，此后在8051上发展出了MCS51系列单片机系统。因为简单可靠而性能不错获得了很大的好评。尽管2000年以后ARM已经发展出了32位的主频超过300M的高端单片机，直到现在基于8051的单片机还在广泛的使用。在很多方面单片机比专用处理器更适合应用于嵌入式系统，因此它得到了广泛的应用。事实上单片机是世界上数量最多处理器，随着单片机家族的发展壮大，单片机和专用处理器的发展便分道扬镳。
现代人类生活中所用的几乎每件有电子器件的产品中都会集成有单片机。手机、电话、计算器、家用电器、电子玩具、掌上电脑以及鼠标等电子产品中都含有单片机。汽车上一般配备40多片单片机，复杂的工业控制系统上甚至可能有数百片单片机在同时工作！单片机的数量不仅远超过PC机和其他计算机的总和，甚至比人类的数量还要多。
基本结构
1.运算器
运算器由运算部件——算术逻辑单元（Arithmetic & Logical Unit，简称ALU）、累加器和寄存器等几部分组成。ALU的作用是把传来的数据进行算术或逻辑运算，输入来源为两个8位数据，分别来自累加器和数据寄存器。ALU能完成对这两个数据进行加、减、与、或、比较大小等操作，最后将结果存入累加器。例如，两个数6和7相加，在相加之前，操作数6放在累加器中，7放在数据寄存器中，当执行加法指令时，ALU即把两个数相加并把结果13存入累加器，取代累加器原来的内容6。
运算器有两个功能：
(1) 执行各种算术运算。
(2) 执行各种逻辑运算，并进行逻辑测试，如零值测试或两个值的比较。
运算器所执行全部操作都是由控制器发出的控制信号来指挥的，并且，一个算术操作产生一个运算结果，一个逻辑操作产生一个判决。
2.控制器
控制器由程序计数器、指令寄存器、指令译码器、时序发生器和操作控制器等组成，是发布命令的“决策机构”，即协调和指挥整个微机系统的操作。其主要功能有：
(1) 从内存中取出一条指令，并指出下一条指令在内存中的位置。
(2) 对指令进行译码和测试，并产生相应的操作控制信号，以便于执行规定的动作。
(3) 指挥并控制CPU、内存和输入输出设备之间数据流动的方向。
微处理器内通过内部总线把ALU、计数器、寄存器和控制部分互联，并通过外部总线与外部的存储器、输入输出接口电路联接。外部总线又称为系统总线，分为数据总线DB、地址总线AB和控制总线CB。通过输入输出接口电路，实现与各种外围设备连接。
3.主要寄存器
（1）累加器A
图1-2 单片机组成框图
累加器A是微处理器中使用最频繁的寄存器。在算术和逻辑运算时它有双功能：运算前，用于保存一个操作数；运算后，用于保存所得的和、差或逻辑运算结果。
（2）数据寄存器DR
数据寄存器通过数据总线向存储器和输入/输出设备送（写）或取（读）数据的暂存单元。它可以保存一条正在译码的指令，也可以保存正在送往存储器中存储的一个数据字节等等。
（3）指令寄存器IR和指令译码器ID
指令包括操作码和操作数。
指令寄存器是用来保存当前正在执行的一条指令。当执行一条指令时，先把它从内存中取到数据寄存器中，然后再传送到指令寄存器。当系统执行给定的指令时，必须对操作码进行译码，以确定所要求的操作，指令译码器就是负责这项工作的。其中，指令寄存器中操作码字段的输出就是指令译码器的输入。
（4）程序计数器PC
PC用于确定下一条指令的地址，以保证程序能够连续地执行下去，因此通常又被称为指令地址计数器。在程序开始执行前必须将程序的第一条指令的内存单元地址（即程序的首地址）送入PC，使它总是指向下一条要执行指令的地址。
（5）地址寄存器AR
地址寄存器用于保存当前CPU所要访问的内存单元或I/O设备的地址。由于内存与CPU之间存在着速度上的差异，所以必须使用地址寄存器来保持地址信息，直到内存读/写操作完成为止。
显然，当CPU向存储器存数据、CPU从内存取数据和CPU从内存读出指令时，都要用到地址寄存器和数据寄存器。同样，如果把外围设备的地址作为内存地址单元来看的话，那么当CPU和外围设备交换信息时，也需要用到地址寄存器和数据寄存器。
发展历史
单片机诞生于1971年，经历了SCM、MCU、SoC三大阶段，早期的SCM单片机都是8位或4位的。其中最成功的是INTEL的8031，此后在8031上发展出了MCS51系列MCU系统。基于这一系统的单片机系统直到现在还在广泛使用。随着工业控制领域要求的提高，开始出现了16位单片机，但因为性价比不理想并未得到很广泛的应用。90年代后随着消费电子产品大发展，单片机技术得到了巨大提高。随着INTEL i960系列特别是后来的ARM系列的广泛应用，32位单片机迅速取代16位单片机的高端地位，并且进入主流市场。
而传统的8位单片机的性能也得到了飞速提高，处理能力比起80年代提高
了数百倍。高端的32位Soc单片机主频已经超过300MHz，性能直追90年代中期的专用处理器，而普通的型号出厂价格跌落至1美元，最高端的型号也只有10美元。
当代单片机系统已经不再只在裸机环境下开发和使用，大量专用的嵌入式操作系统被广泛应用在全系列的单片机上。而在作为掌上电脑和手机核心处理的高端单片机甚至可以直接使用专用的Windows和Linux操作系统。
主要阶段
早期阶段
SCM即单片微型计算机（Single Chip Microcomputer）阶段，主要是寻求最佳的单片形态嵌入式系统的最佳体系结构。“创新模式”获得成功，奠定了SCM与通用计算机完全不同的发展道路。在开创嵌入式系统独立发展道路上，Intel公司功不可没。
中期发展
MCU即微控制器（Micro Controller Unit）阶段，主要的技术发展方向是：不断扩展满足嵌入式应用时，对象系统要求的各种外围电路与接口电路，突显其对象的智能化控制能力。它所涉及的领域都与对象系统相关，因此，发展MCU 的重任不可避免地落在电气、电子技术厂家。从这一角度来看，Intel逐渐淡出MCU的发展也有其客观因素。在发展MCU方面，最著名的厂家当数Philips公司。
Philips公司以其在嵌入式应用方面的巨大优势，将MCS-51从单片微型计算机迅速发展到微控制器。因此，当我们回顾嵌入式系统发展道路时，不要忘记Intel和Philips的历史功绩。
当前趋势
SoC嵌入式系统(System on Chip）式的独立发展之路，向MCU阶段发展的重要因素，就是寻求应用系统在芯片上的最大化解决，因此，专用单片机的发展自然形成了SoC化趋势。随着微电子技术、IC设计、EDA工具的发展，基于SoC 的单片机应用系统设计会有较大的发展。因此，对单片机的理解可以从单片微型计算机、单片微控制器延伸到单片应用系统。
早期发展
1971年intel公司研制出世界上第一个4位的微处理器；Intel公司的霍夫研制成功世界上第一块4位微处理器芯片Intel 4004，标志着第一代微处理器问世，微处理器和微机时代从此开始。因发明微处理器，霍夫被英国《经济学家》杂志列为“二战以来最有影响力的7位科学家”之一。
1971年11月，Intel推出MCS-4微型计算机系统（包括4001 ROM芯片、4002 RAM芯片、4003移位寄存器芯片和4004微处理器）其中4004（下图）包含2300个晶体管，尺寸规格为3mm×4mm，计算性能远远超过当年的ENIAC，最初售价为200美元。
1972年4月，霍夫等人开发出第一个8位微处理器Intel 8008。由于8008采用的是P沟道MOS微处理器，因此仍属第一代微处理器。
1973年intel公司研制出8位的微处理器8080；1973年8月，霍夫等人研制出8位微处理器Intel 8080，以N沟道MOS电路取代了P沟道，第二代微处理器就此诞生。
主频2MHz的8080芯片运算速度比8008快10倍，可存取64KB存储器，使用了基于6微米技术的6000个晶体管，处理速度为0.64MIPS（Million
Instructions Per Second ）。
1975年4月，MITS发布第一个通用型Altair 8800，售价375美元，带有1KB存储器。这是世界上第一台微型计算机。
1976年intel公司研制出MCS-48系列8位的单片机，这也是单片机的问世。
Zilog公司于1976年开发的Z80微处理器，广泛用于微型计算机和工业自动控制设备。当时，Zilog、Motorola和Intel在微处理器领域三足鼎立。
20世纪80年代初，Intel公司在MCS-48系列单片机的基础上，推出了MCS-51系列8位高档单片机。MCS-51系列单片机无论是片内RAM容量，I/O口功能，系统扩展方面都有了很大的提高。
应用范围
单片机渗透到我们生活的各个领域，几乎很难找到哪个领域没有单片机的踪迹。导弹的导航装置，飞机上各种仪表的控制，计算机的网络通讯与数据传输，工业自动化过程的实时控制和数据处理，广泛使用的各种智能IC卡，民用豪华轿车的安全保障系统，录像机、摄像机、全自动洗衣机的控制，以及程控玩具、电子宠物等等，这些都离不开单片机。更不用说自动控制领域的机器人、智能仪表、医疗器械以及各种智能机械了。因此，单片机的学习、开发与应用将造就一批计算机应用与智能化控制的科学家、工程师。
单片机广泛应用于仪器仪表、家用电器、医用设备、航空航天、专用设备的智能化管理及过程控制等领域，大致可分如下几个范畴：
智能仪器
单片机具有体积小、功耗低、控制功能强、扩展灵活、微型化和使用方便等优点，广泛应用于仪器仪表中，结合不同类型的传感器，可实现诸如电压、电流、功率、频率、湿度、温度、流量、速度、厚度、角度、长度、硬度、元素、压力等物理量的测量。采用单片机控制使得仪器仪表数字化、智能化、微型化，且功能比起采用电子或数字电路更加强大。
例如精密的测量设备（电压表、功率计，示波器，各种分析仪）。上文中也谈到单片机具备集成度高、体积小、较强的控制功能与扩展的灵活性等特点，并且处理速度快，具有较高的可靠性，所以在智能仪器仪表领域其应用也十分广泛。从某种程度而言，单片机带动了传统测量、控制仪器仪表技术的一项革命，通过单片机技术实现了仪器仪表技术的数字化、智能化、综合化以及多功能化，与传统的电子电路或者数字电路相比，其功能更强大，综合性更突出。
工业控制
单片机具有体积小、控制功能强、功耗低、环境适应能力强、扩展灵活和使用方便等优点，用单片机可以构成形式多样的控制系统、数据采集系统、通信系统、信号检测系统、无线感知系统、测控系统、机器人等应用控制系统。例如工厂流水线的智能化管理，电梯智能化控制、各种报警系统，与计算机联网构成二级控制系统等。其实最早的单片机正是从工业领域开始兴起的，至今其在工业控制领域的应用仍然十分广泛，利用单片机技术构成多种多样的数据采集系统与智能控制系统，比如工厂流水线的智能化管理、智能化电梯、报警系统等等，均是通过单片机技术与计算机联网构成二级控制系统。
家用电器
家用电器广泛采用了单片机控制，从电饭煲、洗衣机、电冰箱、空调机、彩电、其他音响视频器材、再到电子秤量设备和白色家电等。现在在家用电器的更新、市场开拓等方面，单片机的应用越来越广泛，比如电子玩具或者高级的电视游戏机中，会应用单片机实现其控制功能;而洗衣机可以利用单片机识别衣服的种类与脏污程度，从而自动选择洗涤强度与洗涤时间;在冰箱冷柜中采用单片机控制可以识别食物的种类与保鲜程度，实现冷藏温度与冷藏时间的自动选择;微波炉也可以通过单片机识别食物种类从而自动确定加热温度与加热时间等等，这些家用电器在应用单片机技术后，无论是性能还是功能，与传统技术相比均有长足的进步
网络和通信
现代的单片机普遍具备通信接口，可以很方便地与计算机进行数据通信，为在计算机网络和通信设备间的应用提供了极好的物质条件，通信设备基本上都实现了单片机智能控制，从手机，电话机、小型程控交换机、楼宇自动通信呼叫系统、列车无线通信、再到日常工作中随处可见的移动电话，集群移动通信，无线电对讲机等。
设备领域
单片机在医用设备中的用途亦相当广泛，例如医用呼吸机，各种分析仪，监护仪，超声诊断设备及病床呼叫系统等等。现代医疗条件越来越发达，人们对医疗灭菌消毒技术也越来越重视，但是一些偏远地区的小医院、小诊所其消毒灭菌设备还十分简陋，无法有效的控制消毒质量。随着单片机技术的发展，其体积较小、功能强大、具有灵活的扩展性、应用方便的特点也越来越突出，因此在医用呼吸机、分析仪与监护仪、超声诊断设备、病床呼叫系统等设备中得到了广泛的应用。
模块化系统
某些专用单片机设计用于实现特定功能，从而在各种电路中进行模块化应用，而不要求使用人员了解其内部结构。如音乐集成单片机，看似简单的功能，微缩在纯电子芯片中（有别于磁带机的原理），就需要复杂的类似于计算机的原理。如：音乐信号以数字的形式存于存储器中（类似于ROM），由微控制器读出，转化为模拟音乐电信号（类似于声卡）。
在大型电路中，这种模块化应用极大地缩小了体积，简化了电路，降低了损坏、错误率，也方便于更换。
汽车电子
单片机在汽车电子中的应用非常广泛，例如汽车中的发动机控制器，基于CAN总线的汽车发动机智能电子控制器、GPS导航系统、abs防抱死系统、制动系统、胎压检测等。
此外，单片机在工商、金融、科研、教育、电力、通信、物流和国防航空航天等领域都有着十分广泛的用途。
MCU development and application Single-chip microcomputer hereinafter referred to as single chip microcomputer, is a typical embedded Microcontroller controller (Microcontroller Unit), commonly used the abbreviation of English letters MCU Microcontroller, Microcontroller, also known as single-chip Microcontroller, it is not complete a certain logic function of the chip, but a computer system integrated into a chip. Single-chip microcomputer by arithmetic unit, controller, memory, input and output devices, the equivalent of a micro computer (minimum), compared with the computer, single chip microcomputer without peripheral devices, etc. General: a chip becomes a computer. Its small volume, light quality, cheap price, for the study, application and development provides a convenient conditions. At the same time, learning to use single chip microcomputer principle and structure the best choice is to understand the computer. It was first used in industrial control field.
Due to the single-chip microcomputer is widely used in the field of industrial control, single-chip microcomputer by only the dedicated processor CPU chip development. The earliest design concept by integrating a large number of peripherals and CPU in a chip, make the computer system smaller, more easily integrated into a more intricate and strict in volume control equipment.
INTEL's 8080 is the earliest processor designed according to this thought, the microcontroller is 8 or 4. One of the most successful is INTEL's 8051, then in 8051 developed MCS51 series single chip microcomputer system. Because of simple, reliable and good performance obtained very high praise. Since 2000, although the ARM has developed a 32-bit frequency more than 300 m of high-end single-chip microcomputer, until now based on 8051 single-chip computer is still in widespread use. Single-chip computer in many ways than dedicated processors is more suitable for application in embedded system, so it has been widely used. In fact single-chip microcomputer is the world's largest processor, along with the development of the microcontroller family, the development of microcontroller and dedicated processors will go their separate ways.
Modern human life used in almost every electronic device of the products will be integrated with MCU. Mobile phone, telephone, calculator, home appliances, electronic toys, handheld computers, and electronic products such as mouse contained in the MCU. Cars equipped with more than 40 pieces of single chip microcomputer, commonly complicated industrial control systems and even there may be hundreds of pieces of single chip microcomputer in work at the same time! SCM is not only far more than the number of PCS and the sum total of other computers, or even more than the number of humans.
The basic structure
1. The arithmetic unit
Arithmetic Unit by Arithmetic Unit, the Arithmetic logic Unit (Arithmetic and Logical Unit, ALU), register and accumulator. ALU is the function of the arithmetic or logic operations, the data from the input source for the two 8 bits of data,
respectively from the accumulator and the data register. ALU can finish of the two data add, subtract, and, or, comparison operations such as size, end will result in the accumulator. Two Numbers 6 and 7 I add, for example, before the addition, operands in the accumulator for 6, 7 in the data register, when performing the add instruction, ALU which put the two together and save the results 13 in accumulator, 6 instead of the accumulator of the original content.
Arithmetic unit has two functions:
(1) perform a variety of arithmetic operations.
(2) perform a variety of logic operations and logic tests, such as the zero test or compare two values.
Arithmetic unit performs all operations are controlled by the controller from the signal to command, and a arithmetic operations to produce a result, a logical operation to create a sentence.
2. The controller
Controller by the program counter, instruction register and instruction decoder, timing and other components of the generator and operation controller, is the "decision-making" command, coordination and command the entire computer system operation. Its main functions are:
(1) from the memory to retrieve an instruction, and points out that the next instruction in memory location.
(2) to decode and test instructions, and generate corresponding operation control signal, in order to perform prescribed actions.
(3) command and control CPU, memory, and the direction of data flow between input and output devices.
Microprocessor through internal bus in the ALU, counter, a register and control parts connected, and through the external bus connected to external storage, input/output interface circuit. External bus, also known as the system bus, divided into AB DB data bus, address bus and control bus CB. Through the input/output interface circuit, connected to the various peripherals.
3. The main register
(1) the accumulator A
Figure 1-2 single diagram
Accumulator. A microprocessor is the most frequently used in the register. When the arithmetic and logical operations it has double functions: before operation, used to hold an operand; After operation, is used to store the results of income and, worse, or logic operations.
(2) the data register the DR
Data registers, memory and input/output devices via the data bus to send (write) or get (reading) the data of temporary deposit yuan. It can save a are decoding instruction, also can save is sent to memory stored in a data byte and so on.
(3) instruction and instruction decoder ID register IR
Instruction includes opcode and operands.
Instruction register is used to save the current executing an instruction. When the execution of an instruction from memory to the data register it first, then send into the
instruction register. When the system is perform the given instructions, must decode the operation code, in order to determine the required operation, instruction decoder is responsible for the job. Among them, the instruction register is the output of the opcode field in instruction decoder input.
(4) the program counter (PC)
PC is used to determine the address of the next instruction, to ensure that the program is carried out continuously, so the address counter is usually referred to as instruction. Before the program starts executing program must be the first instruction of the memory location address (that is, the program's first address) into the PC, to make it always points to the next article will address to carry out the instructions.
(5) the address register AR
Address register is used to save the current CPU to access the memory location or I/O device address. Due to there is the difference in speed between memory and CPU, so must use the address register to keep information, until the memory read/write operation is finished.
Obviously, when the CPU to memory storage data and access data from within the CPU and CPU from memory read instructions, address and data registers are used. Similarly, if the peripheral device address as memory units, so when the CPU and peripheral devices to exchange information, also need the address and data registers.
The development history
Single-chip microcomputer was born in 1971, has experienced the three phase, SCM, MCU and SoC SCM SCM is the early 8 or 4. One of the most successful is the INTEL 8031, has since developed in the 8031 series MCS51 MCU system. SCM system based on this system until now is still in widespread use. Along with the improvement of industrial control field, began a 16-bit microcontroller, but because the cost performance is not ideal has not been very widely used. After the 90 s as the consumer electronics product development, MCU technique got a huge improvement. As INTEL i960 series especially later ARM series are widely used, the 32-bit microcontroller quickly instead of 16 bits MCU high-end status, and entered the mainstream market.
And the performance of the traditional 8-bit MCU also got rapid increase, increased processing power compared to the 80 s hundreds of times. High-end 32-bit MCU Soc has more than 300 MHZ frequency, catching up in the mid - 90 - s dedicated processor performance, while the common models of producer prices fell to $1, the top model onlyTen dollars.
Contemporary single-chip microcomputer system is no longer only in the development and use of bare-metal environment, a large number of special embedded operating system is widely used on the full range of single-chip microcomputer. And as a core processing PDA and mobile phones of high-end single-chip microcomputer can even directly using a dedicated Windows and Linux operating system.
Main stages
In the early stages
SCM the Single Chip Microcomputer (Single Chip Microcomputer) stage, mainly seeking the best of the best Single form of embedded systems architecture.
"Innovation model" success, laying the SCM and general computer completely different path of development. On a path independent development of embedded systems, Intel corporation contributed.
Medium-term development
MCU microcontroller (Micro Controller Unit) phase, the main technological development direction is: expanding to meet embedded application, the object system requires a variety of peripheral circuit and interface circuit, highlight its intelligent control of objects. It involves fields are associated with the object system, therefore, the burden of MCU development inevitably falls on electrical and electronics manufacturers. From this perspective, the Intel gradually fade out the MCU development also has its objective factors. In the aspect of development of MCU, the most famous manufacturer when the number of Philips company.
Philips company, with its huge advantage in embedded applications, will be the rapid development from the single chip microcomputer MCS - 51 to the microcontroller. Therefore, when we look back at the embedded system development path, do not forget Intel and Philips's historical achievement.
The current trend
SoC (System on Chip) embedded System of independent development, the important factors to the MCU development stages, is to seek the maximization of application System on a Chip solution, therefore, the development of single Chip naturally formed a trend of SoC. With microelectronics technology, IC design, the development of EDA tools, the MCU application system based on SoC design can have a bigger development. Therefore, understanding of SCM from the single chip microcomputer and single chip micro controller is extended to the single chip application system.
The early development
Intel in 1971 developed the first four microprocessors in the world; Hoff Intel company successfully developed the world's first piece of four Intel 4004 microprocessor chip, marks the first generation of microprocessor, the microprocessor and microcomputer era began. Due to the invention of the microprocessor, hoff British "economist" magazine has listed the seven "since world war ii's most influential scientists".
In November 1971, Intel introduced a microcomputer MCS - 4 system (including 4001 4002 shift register 4002 RAM ROM chip, chip, chip and 4004 microprocessors) 4004 (below) contains 2300 transistors, size is 3 mm * 4 mm, computing performance far more than the ENIAC, the original price of $200.
In April 1972, hoff et al. developed the first 8 Intel 8008 microprocessor. Because 8008 is P channel MOS microprocessors, therefore still belong to the first generation of microprocessors.
Intel in 1973 developed the 8-bit microprocessor 8080; In August 1973, hoff et al. developed the eight Intel 8080 microprocessor, with n-channel MOS circuit replaced P channel, the second generation of microprocessor was born.
Frequency of 2 MHZ chip operation 10 times faster than 8008, 8080 can access 64 KB memory, using a 6000 transistors based on 6 micron technology, processing
speed is 0.64 MIPS (m letters of Instructions Per Second).
In April 1975, the MITS Altair 8800 released the first general type, priced at $375, with a 1 KB memory. This is the world's first micro computer.
Intel company developed the MCS - 1976 series of 48 8-bit single chip microcomputer, the MCU.
Zilog company in 1976 developed Z80 microprocessors, widely used in microcomputer and industrial automatic control device. At that time, the Zilog, Motorola, Intel tripartite confrontation in the field of microprocessors.
In the early 1980 s, the Intel company on the basis of series single chip microcomputer MCS - 48, launched MCS - 51 series eight high-end single-chip microcomputer. MCS - 51 series microcontroller both on chip RAM capacity, I/O port function, system expansion aspect all had the very big enhancement.
Range of application
Microcontroller penetrated into every field of our lives, almost hard to find which areas no traces of single-chip microcomputer. Missile navigation devices, control plane various kinds of instrument, computer network communications and data transmission, real-time control and data processing, industrial automation process of widely used a variety of smart IC card, civilian luxury car security systems, video recorder, camera, automatic washing machine control, as well as program-controlled toys, electronic pets, etc., these are inseparable from the microcontroller. Let alone in the field of automatic control, robotics, intelligent instruments, medical equipment and all kinds of intelligent machines. Therefore, the single-chip learning, development and application will create a number of computer applications and intelligent control of scientists, engineers.
Single-chip microcomputer is widely used in instruments and meters, household appliances, medical equipment, aerospace, special equipment of intelligent management and process control, etc, generally can be divided into the following categories:
Intelligent instrument
SCM has small volume, low power consumption, strong control function, flexible extension and advantages of miniaturization and easy to use, widely used in instruments and meters, the combination of different types of sensors, which can realize such as voltage, current, power, frequency, temperature, humidity, flow, speed, length, hardness, thickness, Angle, element, such as pressure measurement of physical quantities. Controlled by single chip microcomputer instrument digital, intelligent, miniaturization, and more powerful functions than by electronic or digital circuit.
For example, the precision measuring equipment (voltage meter, power meter, oscilloscope, various analyzer). On this paper also talked about single chip with high integration, small volume, strong control function, and expansion characteristics of flexibility, and its processing speed is fast, has high reliability, so its application in the field of intelligent instrument and meter is also very extensive. To some extent, single chip microcomputer, and so did the a traditional measurement and control instrumentation technology revolution, through the instrument and meter technology of single chip microcomputer technology to achieve the digitalization, intelligent,
integrated and multiple functional, compared with the traditional electronic circuit or digital circuit, its function more powerful, more outstanding.
Industrial control
SCM has small volume, strong control function, low power consumption, environment adaptable, flexible extension and the advantages of convenient use, the MCU can constitute a variety of control systems, data acquisition system, communication system and signal detection system, wireless sensing system, measurement and control system, such as robot control system. Such as factory assembly line of intelligent management, elevators, all kinds of alarm system, intelligent control and computer networks constitute a secondary control system, etc. Actually the earliest single-chip computer are began to rise from the industrial field, since it is still widely applied in the field of industrial control, microcontroller technology constitute a variety of data acquisition system and intelligent control system, such as factory assembly line of intelligent management, intelligent elevator, alarm system and so on, all is by single-chip computer technology and computer networks constitute a secondary control system.
Household electrical appliances
Household electrical appliances are widely used the single-chip microcomputer control, from the rice cooker, washing machines, refrigerators, air conditioning, TV and other audio video equipment, to the electronic equipment and white goods, etc. Now in the home appliances updates, market development, etc., single-chip computer is finding wider and wider application, such as electronic toys or advanced video game, single chip microcomputer is applied to implement the control function; Using single chip computer and washing machine can recognize and smudgy degree, the kinds of clothes to automatically choose the washing intensity and washing time. Controlled by single chip microcomputer in the refrigerator freezer can identify the kinds of food and fresh degree, realize the refrigeration temperature and the refrigeration time of automatic choice; Microwave oven can also through the single chip microcomputer to identify foods so as to automatically determine the heating temperature and heating time, etc., these home appliances in the application of single-chip microcomputer technology, both in performance and function, compared with the traditional technology have great progress
Network and communication
Modern SCM generally have the communication interface and can be easily with computer for data communication, for the application of between computer network and communication equipment provides a very good material conditions, communication equipment, basically has realized the single chip microcomputer intelligent control, from mobile phone, telephone, small program-controlled switches, building automatic communication call system, wireless communication and train in the daily work of ubiquitous mobile phones, clusters of mobile communication, radios, etc.
devices
SCM are quite extensive USES in the medical device, medical breathing machine, for example, all sorts of analyzer, monitor, ultrasound diagnostic equipment
and sickbed calling system, and so on. Modern health care is more and more developed, people for medical sterilization disinfection technology is becoming more and more attention, but some remote areas of small hospitals, clinics, its disinfection sterilization equipment is very humble, unable to effectively control quality of disinfection. With the development of single chip microcomputer technology, its small volume, powerful function, has the characteristics of flexible expansibility, convenient application, also more and more prominent, so the medical respirator, analyzer and monitor, ultrasound diagnostic equipment, sickbed calling system has been widely used in the system.
Modular system
Some dedicated microcontroller designed to achieve specific functions, thus carries on the modular application in all kinds of circuit, without requiring the use of personnel to understand its internal structure. Such as music integrated single-chip, seemingly simple function, miniature in pure electronic chips (principle) is different from the tape machine, requires complex is similar to the principle of the computer. Such as: music signal in digital form (similar to the ROM) stored in the memory, read out by the micro controller, simulation music into electrical signals (similar to the sound card).
In large circuits, the modular application greatly narrow the volume, simplifies the circuit and reduces the damage, error rate, is convenient to change.
Automotive electronics
Single-chip microcomputer is widely application in the automotive electronics, car in the engine controller, for example, automobile engine intelligent electronic controller based on CAN bus, the GPS navigation system, abs anti-lock braking system, brake system, tire pressure detection, etc.
In addition, the MCU in business, finance, scientific research, education, electricity, communications, logistics, and the defense aerospace and other fields has a very wide range of USES.
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五、外文资料翻译 Stress and Strain 1.Introduction to Mechanics of Materials Mechanics of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the behavior of solid bodies subjected to various types of loading. It is a field of study that i s known by a variety of names, including “strength of materials” and “mechanics of deformable bodies”. The solid bodies considered in this book include axially-loaded bars, shafts, beams, and columns, as well as structures that are assemblies of these components. Usually the objective of our analysis will be the determination of the stresses, strains, and deformations produced by the loads; if these quantities can be found for all values of load up to the failure load, then we will have obtained a complete picture of the mechanics behavior of the body. Theoretical analyses and experimental results have equally important roles in the study of mechanics of materials . On many occasion we will make logical derivations to obtain formulas and equations for predicting mechanics behavior, but at the same time we must recognize that these formulas cannot be used in a realistic way unless certain properties of the been made in the laboratory. Also , many problems of importance in engineering cannot be handled efficiently by theoretical means, and experimental measurements become a practical necessity. The historical development of mechanics of materials is a fascinating blend of both theory and experiment, with experiments pointing the way to useful results in some instances and with theory doing so in others①. Such famous men as Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519) and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) made experiments to adequate to determine the strength of wires , bars , and beams , although they did not develop any adequate theo ries (by today’s standards ) to explain their test results . By contrast , the famous mathematician Leonhard Euler(1707-1783) developed the mathematical theory any of columns and calculated the critical load of a column in 1744 , long before any experimental evidence existed to show the significance of his results ②. Thus , Euler’s theoretical results remained unused for many years, although today they form the basis of column theory. The importance of combining theoretical derivations with experimentally determined properties of materials will be evident theoretical derivations with experimentally determined properties of materials will be evident as we proceed with
陶瓷 ceramics 合成纤维 synthetic fibre 电化学腐蚀 electrochemical corrosion 车架 automotive chassis 悬架 suspension 转向器 redirector 变速器 speed changer 板料冲压 sheet metal parts 孔加工 spot facing machining 车间 workshop 工程技术人员 engineer 气动夹紧 pneuma lock 数学模型 mathematical model 画法几何 descriptive geometry 机械制图 Mechanical drawing 投影 projection 视图 view 剖视图 profile chart 标准件 standard component 零件图 part drawing 装配图 assembly drawing 尺寸标注 size marking
技术要求 technical requirements 刚度 rigidity 内力 internal force 位移 displacement 截面 section 疲劳极限 fatigue limit 断裂 fracture 塑性变形 plastic distortion 脆性材料 brittleness material 刚度准则 rigidity criterion 垫圈 washer 垫片 spacer 直齿圆柱齿轮 straight toothed spur gear 斜齿圆柱齿轮 helical-spur gear 直齿锥齿轮 straight bevel gear 运动简图 kinematic sketch 齿轮齿条 pinion and rack 蜗杆蜗轮 worm and worm gear 虚约束 passive constraint 曲柄 crank 摇杆 racker 凸轮 cams
外文文献： Knowledge of the stepper motor What is a stepper motor： Stepper motor is a kind of electrical pulses into angular displacement of the implementing agency. Popular little lesson: When the driver receives a step pulse signal, it will drive a stepper motor to set the direction of rotation at a fixed angle (and the step angle). You can control the number of pulses to control the angular displacement, so as to achieve accurate positioning purposes; the same time you can control the pulse frequency to control the motor rotation speed and acceleration, to achieve speed control purposes. What kinds of stepper motor sub-： In three stepper motors: permanent magnet (PM), reactive (VR) and hybrid (HB) permanent magnet stepper usually two-phase, torque, and smaller, step angle of 7.5 degrees or the general 15 degrees; reaction step is generally three-phase, can achieve high torque output, step angle of 1.5 degrees is generally, but the noise and vibration are large. 80 countries in Europe and America have been eliminated; hybrid stepper is a mix of permanent magnet and reactive advantages. It consists of two phases and the five-phase: two-phase step angle of 1.8 degrees while the general five-phase step angle of 0.72 degrees generally. The most widely used Stepper Motor. What is to keep the torque (HOLDING TORQUE) How much precision stepper motor? Whether the cumulative： The general accuracy of the stepper motor step angle of 3-5%, and not cumulative.
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译) 中英文翻译 平面设计 任何时期平面设计可以参照一些艺术和专业学科侧重于视觉传达和介绍。采用多种方式相结合，创造和符号，图像和语句创建一个代表性的想法和信息。平面设计师可以使用印刷，视觉艺术和排版技术产生的最终结果。平面设计常常提到的进程，其中沟通是创造和产品设计。 共同使用的平面设计包括杂志，广告，产品包装和网页设计。例如，可能包括产品包装的标志或其他艺术作品，举办文字和纯粹的设计元素，如形状和颜色统一件。组成的一个最重要的特点，尤其是平面设计在使用前现有材料或不同的元素。 平面设计涵盖了人类历史上诸多领域，在此漫长的历史和在相对最近爆炸视觉传达中的第20和21世纪，人们有时是模糊的区别和重叠的广告艺术，平面设计和美术。毕竟，他们有着许多相同的内容，理论，原则，做法和语言，有时同样的客人或客户。广告艺术的最终目标是出售的商品和服务。在平面
设计，“其实质是使以信息，形成以思想，言论和感觉的经验”。 在唐朝（ 618-906 ）之间的第4和第7世纪的木块被切断打印纺织品和后重现佛典。阿藏印在868是已知最早的印刷书籍。 在19世纪后期欧洲，尤其是在英国，平面设计开始以独立的运动从美术中分离出来。蒙德里安称为父亲的图形设计。他是一个很好的艺术家，但是他在现代广告中利用现代电网系统在广告、印刷和网络布局网格。 于1849年，在大不列颠亨利科尔成为的主要力量之一在设计教育界，该国政府通告设计在杂志设计和制造的重要性。他组织了大型的展览作为庆祝现代工业技术和维多利亚式的设计。 从1892年至1896年威廉?莫里斯凯尔姆斯科特出版社出版的书籍的一些最重要的平面设计产品和工艺美术运动，并提出了一个非常赚钱的商机就是出版伟大文本论的图书并以高价出售给富人。莫里斯证明了市场的存在使平面设计在他们自己拥有的权利，并帮助开拓者从生产和美术分离设计。这历史相对论是，然而，重要的，因为它为第一次重大的反应对于十九世纪的陈旧的平面设计。莫里斯的工作，以及与其他私营新闻运动，直接影响新艺术风格和间接负责20世纪初非专业性平面设计的事态发展。 谁创造了最初的“平面设计”似乎存在争议。这被归因于英国的设计师和大学教授Richard Guyatt，但另一消息来源于20世纪初美国图书设计师William Addison Dwiggins。 伦敦地铁的标志设计是爱德华约翰斯顿于1916年设计的一个经典的现代而且使用了系统字体设计。 在20世纪20年代，苏联的建构主义应用于“智能生产”在不同领域的生产。个性化的运动艺术在俄罗斯大革命是没有价值的，从而走向以创造物体的功利为目的。他们设计的建筑、剧院集、海报、面料、服装、家具、徽标、菜单等。 Jan Tschichold 在他的1928年书中编纂了新的现代印刷原则，他后来否认他在这本书的法西斯主义哲学主张，但它仍然是非常有影响力。 Tschichold ，包豪斯印刷专家如赫伯特拜耳和拉斯洛莫霍伊一纳吉，和El Lissitzky 是平面设计之父都被我们今天所知。 他们首创的生产技术和文体设备，主要用于整个二十世纪。随后的几年看到平面设计在现代风格获得广泛的接受和应用。第二次世界大战结束后，美国经济的建立更需要平面设计，主要是广告和包装等。移居国外的德国包豪斯设计学院于1937年到芝加哥带来了“大规模生产”极简到美国;引发野火的“现代”建筑和设计。值得注意的名称世纪中叶现代设计包括阿德里安Frutiger ，设计师和Frutiger字体大学;保兰德，从20世纪30年代后期，直到他去世于1996年，采取的原则和适用包豪斯他们受欢迎的广告和标志设计，帮助创造一个独特的办法，美国的欧洲简约而成为一个主要的先驱。平面设计称为企业形象;约瑟夫米勒，罗克曼，设计的海报严重尚未获取1950年代和1960年代时代典型。 从道路标志到技术图表，从备忘录到参考手册，增强了平面设计的知识转让。可读性增强了文字的视觉效果。 设计还可以通过理念或有效的视觉传播帮助销售产品。将它应用到产品和公司识别系统的要素像标志、颜色和文字。连同这些被定义为品牌。品牌已日益成为重要的提供的服务范围，许多平面设计师，企业形象和条件往往是同时交替使用。
在广州甚至广东的住宅小区电气设计中,一般都会涉及到小区的高低压供配电系统的设计.如10kV高压配电系统图,低压配电系统图等等图纸一大堆.然而在真正实施过程中,供电部门(尤其是供电公司指定的所谓电力设计小公司)根本将这些图纸作为一回事,按其电脑里原有的电子档图纸将数据稍作改动以及断路器按其所好换个厂家名称便美其名曰设计(可笑不?),拿出来的图纸根本无法满足电气设计的设计意图,致使严重存在以下问题:(也不知道是职业道德问题还是根本一窍不通) 1.跟原设计的电气系统货不对板,存在与低压开关柜后出线回路严重冲突,对实际施工造成严重阻碍,经常要求设计单位改动原有电气系统图才能满足它的要求(垄断的没话说). 2.对消防负荷和非消防负荷的供电(主要在高层建筑里)应严格分回路(从母线段)都不清楚,将消防负荷和非消防负荷按一个回路出线(尤其是将电梯和消防电梯,地下室的动力合在一起等等,有的甚至将楼顶消防风机和梯间照明合在一个回路,以一个表计量). 3.系统接地保护接地型式由原设计的TN-S系统竟曲解成"TN-S-C-S"系统(室内的还需要做TN-C,好玩吧?),严格的按照所谓的"三相四线制"再做重复接地来实施,导致后续施工中存在重复浪费资源以及安全隐患等等问题.. ............................(违反建筑电气设计规范等等问题实在不好意思一一例举,给那帮人留点混饭吃的面子算了) 总之吧,在通过图纸审查后的电气设计图纸在这帮人的眼里根本不知何物,经常是完工后的高低压供配电系统已是面目全非了,能有百分之五十的保留已经是谢天谢地了. 所以.我觉得:住宅建筑电气设计,让供电部门走!大不了留点位置,让他供几个必需回路的电,爱怎么折腾让他自个怎么折腾去.. Guangzhou, Guangdong, even in the electrical design of residential quarters, generally involving high-low cell power supply system design. 10kV power distribution systems, such as maps, drawings, etc. low-voltage distribution system map a lot. But in the real implementation of the process, the power sector (especially the so-called power supply design company appointed a small company) did these drawings for one thing, according to computer drawings of the original electronic file data to make a little change, and circuit breakers by their the name of another manufacturer will be sounding good design (ridiculously?), drawing out the design simply can not meet the electrical design intent, resulting in a serious following problems: (do not know or not know nothing about ethical issues) 1. With the original design of the electrical system not meeting board, the existence and low voltage switchgear circuit after qualifying serious conflicts seriously hinder the actual construction, often require changes to the original design unit plans to meet its electrical system requirements (monopoly impress ). 2. On the fire load and fire load of non-supply (mainly in high-rise building in) should be strictly sub-loop (from the bus segment) are not clear, the fire load and fire load of non-qualifying press of a circuit (especially the elevator and fire elevator, basement, etc.
外文翻译 英文原文 Belt Conveying Systems Development of driving system Among the methods of material conveying employed，belt conveyors play a very important part in the reliable carrying of material over long distances at competitive cost．Conveyor systems have become larger and more complex and drive systems have also been going through a process of evolution and will continue to do so．Nowadays，bigger belts require more power and have brought the need for larger individual drives as well as multiple drives such as 3 drives of 750 kW for one belt(this is the case for the conveyor drives in Chengzhuang Mine)．The ability to control drive acceleration torque is critical to belt conveyors’ performance．An efficient drive system should be able to provide smooth，soft starts while maintaining belt tensions within the specified safe limits．For load sharing on multiple drives．torque and speed control are also important consideratio ns in the drive system’s design. Due to the advances in conveyor drive control technology，at present many more reliable．Cost-effective and performance-driven conveyor drive systems cov ering a wide range of power are available for customers’ choices[1]. 1 Analysis on conveyor drive technologies 1．1 Direct drives Full-voltage starters．With a full-voltage starter design，the conveyor head shaft is direct-coupled to the motor through the gear drive．Direct full-voltage starters are adequate for relatively low-power, simple-profile conveyors．With direct fu11-voltage starters．no control is provided for various conveyor loads and．depending on the ratio between fu11- and no-1oad power requirements，empty starting times can be three or four times faster than full load．The maintenance-free starting system is simple，low-cost and very reliable．However, they cannot control starting torque and maximum stall torque；therefore．they are
at89c52单片机简介 中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述 A T89C52 Single-chip microprocessor introduction Selection of Single-chip microprocessor 1. Development of Single-chip microprocessor The main component part of Single-chip microprocessor as a result of by such centralize to be living to obtain on the chip，In immediate future middle processor CPU。Storage RAM immediately﹑memoy read ROM﹑Interrupt system、Timer /'s counter along with I/O's rim electric circuit awaits the main microcomputer section，The lumping is living on the chip。Although the Single-chip microprocessor r is only a chip，Yet through makes up and the meritorous service be able to on sees，It had haveed the calculating machine system property，calling it for this reason act as Single-chip microprocessor r minisize calculating machine SCMS and abbreviate the Single-chip microprocessor。 1976Year the Inter corporation put out 8 MCS－48Set Single-chip microprocessor computer，After being living more than 20 years time in development that obtain continuously and wide-ranging application。1980Year that corporation put out high performance MCS －51Set Single-chip microprocessor。This type of Single-chip microprocessor meritorous service capacity、The addressing range wholly than early phase lift somewhat，Use also comparatively far more at the moment。1982Year that corporation put out the taller 16 Single-chip microprocessor MCS of performance once
毕业设计说明书 英文文献及中文翻译 学院：专 2011年6月 电子与计算机科学技术软件工程
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International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and Materials Volume 17, Number 4, August 2010, Page 500 DOI: 10.1007/s12613-010-0348-y Corresponding author: Zhuan Li E-mail: li_zhuan@https://www.doczj.com/doc/058327083.html, ? University of Science and Technology Beijing and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010 Preparation and properties of C/C-SiC brake composites fabricated by warm compacted-in situ reaction Zhuan Li, Peng Xiao, and Xiang Xiong State Key Laboratory of Powder Metallurgy, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China (Received: 12 August 2009; revised: 28 August 2009; accepted: 2 September 2009) Abstract: Carbon fibre reinforced carbon and silicon carbide dual matrix composites (C/C-SiC) were fabricated by the warm compacted-in situ reaction. The microstructure, mechanical properties, tribological properties, and wear mechanism of C/C-SiC composites at different brake speeds were investigated. The results indicate that the composites are composed of 58wt% C, 37wt% SiC, and 5wt% Si. The density and open porosity are 2.0 g·cm–3 and 10%, respectively. The C/C-SiC brake composites exhibit good mechanical properties. The flexural strength can reach up to 160 MPa, and the impact strength can reach 2.5 kJ·m–2. The C/C-SiC brake composites show excellent tribological performances. The friction coefficient is between 0.57 and 0.67 at the brake speeds from 8 to 24 m·s?1. The brake is stable, and the wear rate is less than 2.02×10?6 cm3·J?1. These results show that the C/C-SiC brake composites are the promising candidates for advanced brake and clutch systems. Keywords: C/C-SiC; ceramic matrix composites; tribological properties; microstructure [This work was financially supported by the National High-Tech Research and Development Program of China (No.2006AA03Z560) and the Graduate Degree Thesis Innovation Foundation of Central South University (No.2008yb019).] 温压-原位反应法制备C / C-SiC刹车复合材料的工艺和性能 李专，肖鹏，熊翔 粉末冶金国家重点实验室，中南大学，湖南长沙410083，中国（收稿日期：2009年8月12日修订：2009年8月28日;接受日期：2009年9月2日） 摘要：采用温压?原位反应法制备炭纤维增强炭和碳化硅双基体(C/C-SiC)复合材
机械专业相关词汇中英文翻译大全 单价unit price 工日合计Man-day total/work-day total 人工费cost of labor 材料费materials expenses 机械的mechanical 检查接线connection test 发电机generator 调相机phase regulator 周波cycle 减负荷装置 load-shedding equipment 断路器柜circuit breaker cabinet 单母线single busbar 互感器transformer 每相电流Current by Phase 封闭式插接close type socket joint 发电机控制面板generator control panel 分级卸载sorted unloading 同步控制synchronization control 调速器 speed governor 信号屏signal screen 继电器relay 高压柜high pressure cabinet 油浸电力变压器oil-immersed power transformer 空气断路器air circuit breaker 控制屏control panel 直流馈电屏direct current feed control panel 电容器electric condenser 计量盘metering panel 成套配电箱whole set of distribution box 落地式floor model 控制开关Control switches 铜芯电力电缆Copper core power cable 控制电缆actuating cable 热缩式电力电缆终端头pyrocondensation power cable terminal 钢结构支架配管steel structure bracket tubing 万用槽钢versatile U-steel 电缆托架 cable bracket 钢制托盘式桥架steel Tray-type cable support system waterproof socket 防水插座 防爆插座Explosion-proof socket 接地绞线earthing twisted pair 接地母线 earthing bus
MCS-51系列单片机 中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述 Structure and function of the MCS-51 series Structure and function of the MCS-51 series one-chip computer MCS-51 is a name of a piece of one-chip computer series which Intel Company produces. This company introduced 8 top-grade one-chip computers of MCS-51 series in 1980 after introducing 8 one-chip computers of MCS-48 series in 1976. It belong to a lot of kinds this line of one-chip computer the chips have, such as 8051, 8031, 8751, 80C51BH, 80C31BH,etc., their basic composition, basic performance and instruction system are all the same.8051 daily representatives-51 serial one-chip computers. A one-chip computer system is made up of several following parts: (1) One microprocessor of 8 (CPU). ( 2) At slice data memory RAM (128B/256B),it use not depositing not can reading /data that write, such as result not middle of operation, final result and data wanted to show, etc. (3) Procedure memory ROM/EPROM (4KB/8K B ), is used to preserve the