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给学生课后答案和译文

Unit 1 Marine Management

Text A

PartⅡ

Key to Exercises

Pre-reading Questions

1.The concept of sustainable development is seen to encompass environmental, economic and social issues of development. It is underlain by the principles of holistic planning and strategy making; preserving essential ecological processes; protecting human heritage and biodiversity; developing in such a way that productivity can be sustained over the long term for future generations; and achieving a better balance of fairness and opportunity between nations.

2.Sustainable development stresses education and awareness raising. These enable the individual to make decisions on the best way forward, from an environmental, economic and social viewpoint, in order to benefit both the present and future communities. Sustainable development is to be achieved through cooperative rather than competitive effort and is about moving the balance of power to a more local level.

Reading Comprehension

1. The traditional approach for managing fisheries is to acquire property rights over the fishery through legislation by the state. The state regulates the resource. The outcome of such an approach has been to greatly reduce the capacity of local fishing communities, to manage coastal resources, and to provide a minimal role for the fishermen to participate in the management of the resource.

2. Co-management is expected to effectively address some of the problems of fishery overexploitation, dissipation and redistribution of resource rents, limited fisherman participation, and conflicts among the different groups of resource users.

3. There is a hierarchy of co-management arrangements from those in which the fishermen are merely consulted by the government before regulations are introduced, to those in which fishermen design, implement, and enforce laws and regulations with advice and assistance from the government.

4. Common property resources share two important characteristics. The first is excludability, or the control of access. The physical nature of the resource is such that controlling access by potential users is a problem and may be costly. The second characteristic is subtractability; that is, the fish harvesting activities of one fisherman subtracts from or lowers the catch per unit fishing effort of other fishermen.

5. Because it is not easy to establish and operate the co-management. It is a complicated process. The costs for individuals to participate in co-management may outweigh the expected benefits. Community organizing, for example, can take from three to five years before a self-sufficient organization is in place.

6. It is because many managers fear a loss of political power or infringement on their professional and scientific turf. They intend to hold more authorities in their own hands.

Structure Analysis

PartⅠ(para. 1-4): Managing fisheries: conventional approach and outcomes.

1. Traditional approach (para.1): It is to acquire property rights over the fishery through legislation by the state.

2. Outcomes of the approach (para.1):

(1) Outcome 1: It has been to reduce the capacity of local fishing communities, and to

provide a minimal role for the fishermen to participate in the management of the resource.

(2) Outcome 2: It has resulted in antagonism between government and fishermen.

(3) Outcome 3: It has made it difficult for government fisheries agencies and local

fishermen to communicate their needs to each other.

3. Ways for fisheries management (para. 2-3): Co-management system.

4. Definition: It is defined as the sharing of responsibility and authority between the government and the community of local fishermen.

5. Function 1: Fisheries co-management is expected to address some problems of fishery overexploitation, dissipation and redistribution of resource rents, limited fisherman participation, and conflicts among groups of resource users.

6. Function 2: It is the shifting of some control, administration, and enforcement from the central authorities to the users (fishermen) and user community.

7. Coverage: It covers various partnership arrangements and degrees of power-sharing and integration of local and centralized management systems.

8. Hierarchy: From those in which the fishers are consulted by the government before regulations are introduced, to those in which fishermen design, implement, and enforce laws and regulations with advice and assistance from the government.

PartⅡ(para. 5-8): Analysis of co-management.

1. Analysis of co-management falls in the area of common property theory.

2. Criterion: It depends on who holds what kind of property-rights over a resource or who controls the fishery.

3. Characteristics of common property resources (para. 5)

(1) Characteristic 1: The first is excludability, or the control of access.

(2) Characteristic 2: The second characteristic is subtractability.

(3) Consequence: These two problems create a divergence between individual and collective

economic rationality which leads to a “tragedy of the commons”.

4. Solutions exist through three basic kinds of property rights regimes (para. 6):

(1) state property indicates that rights to the resource are controlled exclusively by government

agencies on behalf of all the citizens;

(2) communal property means that the resource is held by an identifiable community of users;

(3) private property refers to a situation in which an individual or a corporate body has the right to

exclude others and regulate the use of the resources.

5. Conclusion:Co-management is a middle course between pure state property and pure communal property regimes.

Part Ⅲ(para. 9-10): Co-management: problems, approaches and conclusion.

1. Problem 1: The establishment and operation of fisheries co-management can be a complex, long-term, and costly process.

2. Problem 2: The delegation of respon s ib ility a nd authority may be one of the most

difficult tasks.

3. Reason: Many managers fear a loss of political power or infringement on their professional and scientific turf.

4. Approach: Fishermen will take the responsibility of convincing managers of their ability

to undertake local-level resource management.

5. Conclusion: In all cases of co-management, the government holds the ultimate authority. Vocabulary Study

A.

1. e

2. i

3. b

4. f

5. h

6. d

7. a

8. j

9. c 10. g

B.

1. B

2. A

3. C

4. A

5. B

6. A

7. C

8. A

9. B 10. B

C.

1. legislate

2. infringement

3. implement

4. delegate

5. identifiable

6. minimize

7. hierarchy

8. mitigate

9. embedded

10. integration

Translation

A.

渔业共同管理被界定为:在管理渔业中政府和地方渔民社区共同担当责任和分享权力。面对可用资源的不确定性,组织成员愿意平衡个人资源利用的部分利益,以共同保证用更为公平、可持续的方式来利用资源。然而,排他性和减缓性两个问题通常会在个人和公有经济理性中产生分歧,这种分歧会导致“公地悲剧”,一种特定地发生在缺乏资源财产权的情形。

在建立共同管理体系中,管理渔业的重大责任和权力的授权可能是最艰难的任务之一。尽管政府愿意更多的渔民参与管理,但他们必须建立相应的权力和机构,并将其部分权力移交给渔民。政府资源部的管理者通常不愿意与当地渔民共享权力。许多管理者担忧其政治权力的缺失,或是担忧对其职业及科学领地的侵犯。渔民需要承担其责任使管理者们相信他们具有管理当地资源的能力。在共同管理中的所有情况中,政府拥有最终的权力。

B.

The concept of sustainable development encompasses environmental, economic and social issues of development. Sustainable development stresses education and awareness raising. These enable the individual to make decisions on the best way forward, from an environmental, economic and social viewpoint, in order to benefit both the present and future communities. Sustainable development is about allowing decisions to be made at “grassroots level” and enabling the local population to participate in the process.

The search for sustainable, efficient, and equitable ways for managing fisheries has been a long and difficult process. The conventional approach for managing fisheries is that the state parcels out rights and establishes regulations of use for the fishermen, which greatly reduced the capacity of local fishing communities to manage coastal resources, and

to provide a minimal role for the fishermen to participate in the management of the resou rce. Consequently, this convention has resulted in antagonism between government and fishermen. Co-management of fisheries has become an alternative to handle problems of global management of fisheries. Co-management is expected to effectively address some of the problems of fishery overexploitation, limited fisherman participation, and conflicts among the different groups of resource users.

Extended Exercises

1. battening down the hatches

2. nailed his colours to the mast

3. missed the boat

4. water off a duck’s back

5. take on board

6. hold water

Proverbs or Quotations

1.你一定不要对人性失去信心。人性就像是大海;如果大海中有几滴水脏了,大海也不会变脏。

2.我们人类和海洋是紧密相连的。当我们回归海洋时,无论是航行还是观览,都回到了我们的根源。

3.我们虽然远在内陆,灵魂却看得见那不休的大海,它把我们带向这里。

4.大海从未对人类假以辞色,它最大的和善却是时时加剧着人们的不安。

5.或许,没有比沐浴在阳光下,在渔夫的小餐馆的游廊中与大海进行心灵交流更好的方式了。

6.你啊,浩瀚的大海!在你狰狞的海面上,

时间的铁蹄留不下丝毫摧毁的痕迹。

PartⅢ

参考译文

渔业共同管理和公共财产

1.寻求可持续的、有效的和公平合理的管理渔业的途径一直是一个漫长而又艰难的过程。管理渔业的传统方法是通过政府立法而获取对渔场的财产权。继而,政府分配权力并为渔民们制定使用的规章制度。政府管理着渔业资源。这一方法导致的结果是极大地减小了地方渔场社区管理海岸资源的能力,并使得渔民在参与资源管理中发挥着极小的作用。这通常会导致政府和渔民之间的敌对关系,使得政府渔业机构难以向渔民们表达出对渔业资源管理的必要性和益处,而对渔民来说,他们难以向政府表达出他们的需求以及充分参与管理的意愿。

2.尽管各项规章制度已到位,中央机构在防止资源流失方面面临的日益加大的难度使得学者们和资源管理者们更加仔细审视渔民参与管理的必要性以及在渔业管理上制度安排(权利和规章)发挥的作用。渔业共同管理,当前对高度集中的渔业管理的一种选择,成为在世界性变化中,至少在目前十年内,实施渔业管理途径的一种范例。共同管理旨在有效地解决一些诸如渔场过度开采、资源租赁的浪费及再分配、有限的渔民参与以及各类资源使用者之间的冲突等问题。共同管理体制的作用之一是将中央政府的控制权、管理权和执行权等向使用者(渔民)及渔民社区转移。中央机构通过共同管理策略减少自身的权力和责任旨在提高由经济效率、公平和生态系统(自然的与人类的)可持续性判定的资源使用的效果。

3.渔业共同管理被界定为在管理渔场中政府和地方渔民社区共同担当责任和分享权力。共同管理包含各种各样的合作机制、权力分享的等级以及地方和中央管理体系的整合。共同

管理策略的安排有一个等级系统,从那些规章制度引进前政府仅仅与其进行商议的渔民,到那些在政府建议和帮助下制定、实施和强制执行法律和规章制度的渔民。

4.国家和各类地方机构拥有不同程度的责任和权力,并因具体国家和具体地方条件而异,而且最终将是一个政治决策。

5.对共同管理的分析归于公共财产理论的领域。共同管理安排可以依据谁对一种资源拥有什么样的财产权以及谁控制着渔场来加以分析。公共财产资源享有两个重要的特征。第一个特征是排他性,或是控制权。资源的物理性质使得潜在使用者拥有控制权是一个问题,而且可能费用昂贵。第二个特征是减缓性。也就是说,一个渔民的捕鱼活动减少或降低其他渔民每一单位渔获量的捕获量。排他性和减缓性两个问题通常会在个人和公有经济理性中产生分歧,除非减少分歧,否则会导致“公地悲剧”,一种特定地发生在缺乏资源财产权的情形。

6.公共财产管理体制在资源的控制权方面可能是有效的。大部分公共财产管理体制是基于某种形式的控制权和某种形式的制度设计来规范使用并使减缓性问题最小化。公共管理体制方面的文献著作认识到存在着三种基本财产权利管理体制的途径。(1)国有财产或政府管理说明政府机构代表所有的公民对资源拥有独立的控制权。(2)公用财产或公共财产意味着这一资源是由可识别的渔民社区拥有,他们可以排除他人以及规范他们自己的使用权。(3)私有财产是指个人或一法人团体有权力排除他人并有权规范资源使用的情况。

7.作为集体的资源管理系统,当一些个体高度依赖于某一资源或是资源的可使用性不确定或有限时,公共财产管理体制便可得以发展。如果持续经历资源问题,如较低或没有捕获量,或是如果仅存在于单一的渔民社区,渔民们就有可能制定一种集体的制度安排(权利和规章)来解决这一问题。面对资源可使用性的不确定性,组织成员愿意平衡个人资源使用的部分利益,以共同确保以更为公平和可持续的方式来利用资源。制度通过规章为组织成员们提供了采取一定的措施来达到渴望结果的动力。制度安排的发展要求社区成员投入时间。统筹协调和信息搜集是建立制度的基本的方面。建立制度的实施过程需要成本。对公共财产管理体制而言,这些成本是集体决策过程的一部分。

8.正如Jentoft所表达的,“共同管理如何区别于其他的公共财产管理系统,例如政府管理或是社区发起的管理?”答案是共同管理是基于纯粹的国有财产和纯粹的共用财产管理体制的中间过程。上面提及的三种财产权利管理体制(包括开放的使用权体制或是财产权的缺失)是理想的,待以分析的类型,它们在现实世界中并不存在。相反,资源往往出现于这四种体制相互重叠的结合处。严格意义上说,纯粹的公用财产体制以及基于社区的海岸资源管理往往镶嵌于国有财产体系中并从中获得力量。共同管理可能涉及到对传统或独特的地方管理体系的认可并使之合法化。一定程度的基于社区的资源管理可以是共同管理的一部分。

9.渔民们组织集体行动的能力有许多前提条件,最重要的是涉及到地方制度安排的问题。并非所有的渔民组织都有合理的地方制度安排。在这种情况下,任何管理新方案都要从建立制度开始。渔业共同管理的确立和成功运行是一个复杂的、长期的和昂贵的过程。个体参与共同管理的费用(时间和金钱)可能会超出预期的收益。例如,基于菲律宾群岛的案例,社区组织可能需要3到5年的时间才能准备好一个自给自足的组织,而对于西印度群岛的圣卢西亚而言,可能需要5到10年的时间。

10.在建立共同管理体系中,管理渔业的主要责任和权力授权可能是最艰难的任务之一。尽管政府愿意更多的渔民参与管理,但政府必须建立相应的权力,并将其部分权力移交给渔民。政府资源管理者通常不愿意与当地渔民共享权力,或是部分的权力。许多管理者担忧其政治权力的缺失,或是担忧对其职业及科学领地的侵犯。渔民需要承担其责任使管理者们相信他们具有管理当地资源的能力。在共同管理的所有情况中,政府拥有最终的权力。

Unit 2 Ecological Management

Text A

Part II

Key to Exercises

Pre-reading Questions

1. Healthy marine and coastal ecosystems provide many valuable services alongside tourism and coastline protection. Among the most productive ecosystems on the planet, oceans and coasts ensure the well-being for a growing global population. They regulate global climate and offer essential adaptation capacity. They can also provide seafood for human being.

2. open

I. Reading Comprehension

1. Ecosystem-based management, or EBM, is an approach that goes beyond examining single issues, species, or ecosystem functions in isolation. Instead it recognizes ecological systems for what they are: a rich mix of elements that interact with each other in important ways. It is a process that uses ecosystem science — our knowledge of the connections among living organisms, natural phenomena, and human activities —as well as economic science and social science to guide our uses of the ocean and coast. Deriving this knowledge in a participatory way, and using it to determine priorities and drive integration of management across all sectors, is the essence of EBM.

2. There are many problems in ocean area. Runoff from farms and towns upstream has started to pollute the water. Coastal wetlands where fish produced their young are being filled to build condominiums. Offshore energy platforms for oil and wind are being built near coral reefs and in key habitats for whales, turtles, and seabirds. In one word, the ocean area is being polluted.

3. They plan how uses of the ecosystem can be managed better and special areas can be protected. Then they put those changes into effect. Practices at upstream farms and in towns are improved to reduce runoff. Wetlands are protected from development. Fishing areas and seasons are managed to allow stocks and habitats to recover. And offshore energy projects are placed to have less of an impact on sensitive marine habitats.

4. The plan is based the plan on solid knowledge of how the ecosystem and people are connected, and involves all stakeholders and government agencies in the planning, so the new management system is widely accepted and embraced.

5. Decades of overfishing, pollution and habitat destruction have left marine and coastal ecosystems in decline.

6. With too many nutrients ending up at the coast from agricultural run-off and

sewage, coastal waters are among the most chemically altered environments in the world. Coasts are vulnerable to major impacts from sea level rise,erosion, and storm events, and many marine and coastal systems have passed thresholds for healthy functioning.

7. Often people do not realize their actions are causing harm because many of these ecosystems are out of sight, out of mind. Other times they may have alternate imperatives, such as food security, and feel they have no options but to use marine and coastal resources unsustainably.

8. Coastal planners look almost exclusively at the land side of the coastal zone. Watershed management authorities focus on freshwater flows. Fisheries managers address exploitation of fish (often a single stock at a time). Shipping authorities take responsibility for ports, ship traffic, and safety at sea. Navies address national security interests. Conservationists and environmental ministries protect threatened species, reefs, and wetlands. In one word, marine and coastal management often targets only a single use (or set of related uses) at a time. It fails to consider how these multiple and cumulative uses can affect ecosystems.

II. Structure Analysis

Fill in the blanks with the information from the text.

Part I: Putting forward the issue: Ecosystem-based management is important for oceans and coasts.(para.1-6)

1. Ecosystem-based management recognizes ecological systems for what they

are: a rich mix of elements that interact with each other in important ways.

2. Healthy marine and coastal ecosystems provide many valuable services alongside tourism and coastline protection. Oceans and coasts ensure the well-being for a growing global population.

3. UNEP seeks to assist countries and communities to take steps towards

making marine and coastal ecosystem-based management operational - from strategic planning to on-site implementation.

Part II: people gather to solve the problems of the ocean area (para.7-9)

1. People plan how uses of the ecosystem can be managed better and special

areas can be protected.

2. The people enjoy the benefits of these changes, including a healthier and

more resilient ecosystem, larger catches of fish, and fewer conflicts between groups of users.

Part III: the problems in present marine and coastal ecosystems (para.10-15)

1.Decades of overfishing, pollution, and habitat destruction have left marine

and coastal ecosystems in decline.

2.With too many nutrients ending up at the coast from agricultural run-off and

sewage, coastal waters are among the most chemically altered environments in the world.

3.Part of the decline of marine and coastal ecosystems is due to negligence or a

lack of awareness.

4.There is also fragmentation of jurisdictions and decision-making. A new way

of management is needed to ensure long-term sustainability of oceans and coasts.

Part Ⅳ: concept of EBM and its function (para.16)

Ecosystem-based management is a process that uses ecosystem science —our knowledge of the connections among living organisms, natural phenomena, and human activities — as well as economic science and social science to guide our uses of the ocean and coast. It could reverse trends in marine and coastal ecosystem decline while improving human well-being.

III. Vocabulary Study

A. 1. biodiversity 2. adaptation 3. Resilient 4. degrade

5. compromise

6. i mperative

7. cumulative

8. fragmentation

9. implementation 10 incremental

B. 1. A 2. A 3. B 4. C 5. B 6. C 7. B 8. C 9. A 10. B

C. 1. hydrology 2. degrade 3. ecosystem

4. biodiversity

5. Exclusively

V. Translation

A.

基于生态系统的管理是一种超越了孤立地研究单一问题、物种或生态系统功能的一种手段。相反,它承认生态系统本来的样子:一个各要素间以非常重要的方式相互作用的丰富的混合体。这对海洋和海岸带尤为重要。例如,一种具有商业价值的鱼类一生中可能依赖一定范围的相隔较远的栖息地,这取决于它是小鱼还是成鱼、捕食、产卵还是迁徙。它需要在合适的时间到达栖息地,并且能够得到充足的食物、清洁的水还有居所。

健康的海洋和海岸带生态系统在提供旅游和海岸线保护的同时也提供许多有价值的服务。从食品安全,经济增长和娱乐资源来看,当陆地和海洋物种的消失越来越成为人们关注的问题时,他们被认为是生物多样性的贮藏所。

B.

Decades of overfishing, pollution, and habitat destruction have left marine and coastal ecosystems in decline. Ecosystem health is compromised when waterways are dredged carelessly or excessively, or when coastal development is carried out with little concern for the environment.

Unsustainable use of marine resources poses serious threats to food security of many coastal nations, particularly in the developing world. Coastal pollution and habitat degradation also endanger economies of coastal areas that depend on

tourism.

Part of the decline of marine and coastal ecosystems is due to negligence or a lack of awareness. Often people do not realize their actions are causing harm because many of these ecosystems are out of sight, out of mind. Other times they may have alternate imperatives,such as food security, and feel they have no options but to use marine and coastal resources unsustainably. Another reason for management failure is conflict: between various uses, between the cultures of different user groups, and between jurisdictions charged with management. Extended Exercises

A. Idiom Studies.

1. fish or cut bait

2. a big fish in a small pond

3. are packed like sardines

4. as slippery as an eel

5. in hot water

6. as unstable as water

B. Study and Recite the Following Quotations.

1. 在海洋里航行过的人会有更清晰的印象,海洋不仅是水构成的,更是波浪构成的。(亚瑟?斯坦利?爱丁顿)

2. 当一个人想喝酒时,似乎能喝下整个海洋——那是信心;当一个人开始喝酒时,总共只能喝两杯——那是科学。(安东·巴浦洛维奇·契河夫)

3. 我不知道呈现给世人的是怎样的我,但我自己看来我一直只是一个在海边玩耍的小男孩,为找到更光滑的卵石或更漂亮的贝壳高兴,而未被发现的真理的海洋就在我面前。(艾萨克·牛顿爵士)

4. 我曾代表人类与大海战斗,但我意识到更为紧急的是代表大海与人类战斗。(阿兰·邦巴尔)

5. 人们去旅行惊讶于山峰的高耸,海浪的巨大,河流的绵长,海洋的博大,星星的循环运动;他们经过自己时却一点也不惊讶。(圣奥古斯丁)

6. 发现地球、大陆、海洋形态的巨大障碍不是无知,而是对知识的错觉。(丹尼尔·布尔斯廷)

Part III

参考译文

基于生态系统的海洋与海岸带管理

1

基于生态系统的管理,或者称作EBM,是一种超越了研究单一问题、物种或生态系统的方法。相反,它把生态系统看作是它本来的样子:各要素间以重要的方式相互作用的一个丰富混合体。这对于海洋和海岸尤为重要。例如,一个有商业价值的鱼种一生中可能会依赖一定范围内相隔甚远的栖息地,这取决于它是幼鱼还是成鱼,捕食、产卵还是迁徙。它需要在恰当的时间到达每一个栖息地,获得充足的食物,清洁的水和居所。

2健康的海洋和海岸带生态系统在提供旅游和海岸线保护的同时也提供许多有价值的服务。从食品安全,经济增长和娱乐资源的角度来看,当陆地和海洋物种的消失越来越成为令人们关注的问题时,它们也被认为是保持生物多样性的水库。

3 在地球上最具生产力的生态系统中,海洋和海岸线保障着全球不断增长的人口的幸福,到2050年,全球人口有可能增长到超过90亿。它们调节全球气候并提供必要的适应能力。未来生态系统对人类幸福的作用越来越取决于发展国家管理人类对生态系统的使用和影响的能力,以确保生态系统的健康和自我修复能力不受破坏。

4 对于几十年的过度捕捞、污染和无规划的城市开发采取的一种转变的对策的核心,将从行业的海洋与海岸管理转变为在坚固的框架内和从空间规划的角度进行联合管理,这种方法将诸如环境、旅游、渔业和能源生产等表面看来对海洋和海岸资源与空间相互竞争的利益方联合在一起。这是确保各种利益和使用者间公平合理的核心。

5生态系统方法列出了一系列规则来指导能使海洋与海岸带生态系统长期可持续发展的管理。有了这本指南,联合国环境规划署设法帮助国家和地区采取措施使基于生态系统的海洋与海岸管理可行——从战略计划到现场实施。

6 基于生态系统的海洋与海岸管理指南以通俗易懂的语言概述了操作中要考虑的因素,列举了全球的实践经历和教训——从热带海岸线到温带的河口和极地海洋生态系统。一个重要信息是这是一个递增的过程,通向EBM的途径有许多。考虑跨越边界与邻国甚至与遥远国家合作将会是一个必要的途径之一。

7 想象这样一幅图景…一个非常有生产力和价值的海域处在危险中。从前这一海域给人们提供他们所需要的一切:食物、能源、娱乐,还有其它更多。但是现在问题出现了。农场和城市的排出的废物开始污染水质。鱼类在此繁殖的海岸湿地正在被填埋建造公寓。在珊瑚礁附近和鲸、海龟和海鸟的重要栖息地正在建造近海石油钻井平台和风能平台。人们聚在一起决定怎么办。农民,建造商、渔民、环境保护主义者、政客和从事能源工业的人们——所有人都在。他们用科学来理解海洋生态系统的不同部分间是怎样的关系,生态系统和人类又是怎样的关系。他们研究它们影响环境的方式然后确定哪些影响最需要通过管理部门来处理。他们一起规划如何更好地管理对生态系统的利用和保护特殊地区。然后他们把这些改变付诸实施。上游农田和城镇的做法得到改进减少了废物排放。湿地得到保护不得开发。捕鱼区和捕鱼季得到管理使鱼类储备和栖息地得以恢复。近海能源项目放在对敏感的海洋栖息地有更小影响的地方。

8 人们享受着这些变化的好处。包括更健康修复力更强的生态系统,更大的捕鱼量,海洋使用群体间更少的冲突。将该项计划建立在对生态系统和人类的关系可靠的认识基础上,让所有的利益方和政府机构参与到计划中来,新的管理系统得到广泛的接受和支持。几个机构继续帮助管理,随着环境的改变而改进计划。这一地区未来的前景比以前好多了。

9 这一图景即是基于生态系统的管理。

10人们对海洋和海岸生态系统的利用进行管理已经有几个世纪——从部落首领确立对海洋的占有权和资源使用上的禁忌,到复杂的现代管理。然而,今天许多海洋状况的恶化和它们多样性和生产力的全面下滑威胁着海岸地区和人类的幸福。

11 海洋保持多样性和生产力的能力以及为人类提供多种有价值服务的能力

正在遭受损害。

12 几十年的过度捕捞、污染和栖息地的破坏已经使海洋和海岸生态系统处于恶化状态。当河道被随便或过度清淤,湿地被填满,海岸的开发几乎不考虑环境因素的时候,生态系统健康就会受到破坏。流域内的陆地和淡水的利用能改变沉积物的流移和水文系统。

13 由于太多农业排放物和下水道污物产生的营养素最终流入海洋,近岸水体成为世界上受化学改变最严重的环境。海岸非常容易受到来自海平面升高、腐蚀、和暴风雨的影响,许多海洋和海岸系统已不能发挥健康作用,使附近人口的可持续发展受到威胁。

14海岸带生态环境的恶化部分原因是由于人们的疏忽或意识缺乏。人们常常意识不到他们的行为会对生态系统造成破坏,因为很多的生态系统是看不见,想不到的。另外,人们也许会有这样或那样的法规,如食品安全,让他们觉得他们别无选择,只能破坏性地利用海岸带资源。管理失败的另一个原因是矛盾冲突,即对海岸带资源的各种利用之间、使用人的不同文化之间、负有管理职责的管辖权之间存在着矛盾冲突。既得利益相冲突。

15 也有管辖权和决定权的分歧。海岸规划者只关注海岸带的陆地方面。河水流域的管理部门关注淡水的流向。渔业管理人员解决鱼类的捕捞问题(通常一次一种),航运部门负责口岸、船舶交通和海上安全。海军解决国家安全利益。环保主义者和环境部保护受到威胁的物种、海礁和湿地。开发者和旅游部急切寻找新的度假胜地。地方部门并不是总具备理性的生态眼光,会把他们自己对经济、社会和环境管理的需求混为一谈。在此其中,海洋和海岸管理每次只针对一种利用(或相关利用)。没有考虑到这些多重累积的利用如何影响生态系统。需要一种新的管理方法来确保海洋和海岸的长期可持续发展。

16 基于生态系统的管理能够在改善人类幸福的同时逆转海洋和海岸生态系统恶化的趋势。可以相对简单地描述EBM的概念。它是一个利用生态科学---即有机生物、自然现象和人类活动之间相互联系的知识---以及经济科学和社会科学来指导我们利用海洋和海岸的过程。以众人参与的方式获取这一知识,利用它来决定重点并促成各部门之间的统一管理是EBM的核心。这样,我们能保证这些利用在长期对社会和环境都是可持续发展的。

Unit 4 Ocean Economics

Text A

Part II

Key to Exercises

Pre-reading Questions

1.The professional term “Pareto Optimality”, to some extend, stands for the direction of economics’development. Some people thought that the aim of economics is to maximize the benefit of human beings without the consideration of the humanity and other elements. However, others thought that the destination of economics is to make the human beings live better, not only refer to the economic index. This is still a controversial question for the scholars. The students

could show their ideas freely.

2.This is an open question, for that the students could express any idea about the relationship between ocean development and the ocean protection. Providing some examples is helpful for the students to comprehend.

Exercises

I. Reading Comprehension

1. Environmental Economics undertakes theoretical or empirical studies of the economic effects of national or local environmental policies around the world. Particular issues include the costs and benefits of alternative environmental policies to deal with air pollution, water quality, toxic substances, solid waste, and global warming.

2. According to Lawrence Goukler’s words, more economists are realizing that it offers a framework for resource allocation where resources are not only labor and capital but natural resources as well. It means that it’s more valuable to put their efforts on the protection towards our earth.

3. The two disciplines have obvious similarities and differences. The specific explanations are shown in Para.

4.

4. Environmental economics began in 1960s and become more popular in the 1980s. It wasn’t until the 1990 amendment to the Clean Air Act, however, that most environmentalists started to take economics seriously.

5. The amendment implemented a system of tradable allowances for acid rain, a program pushed by Environmental Defense. Under the law, plants that can reduce their emissions more cost-effectively may sell their allowances to more heavy polluters. Today, the program has exceeded its goal of reducing the amount of acid rain to half its 1980 level and is celebrated as evidence that markets can help achieve environmental goals.

6. Open question. Possibly, the economics will have enormous turn, in which the combination of economics and environmental benefits will be achieved.

7. Kert Davies believes that the tradable permits are the most effective way to reduce emissions and create the incentives necessary for massive reductions in recent situation. Tradable permit is a popular and effective in the economics control now.

II. Structure Analysis

According to the latest report by the Wall Street Journal, there is an interesting phenomenon that a number of economist are turning their research direction from main stream economics problem, such as inflation or interest rates, to rescue rivers and trees , whose profession is green economists or environmental economists.

Part I Definition of Environmental Economics

What is the exact definition of environmental economics? It is a subfield of economics related to environmental issues, such as air pollution, water quality, toxic substances, solid waste and global warming. .

Part II Similarity and Difference between Environmental Economics and Ecological Economics

Ecological economics seems to have so much similarity with environmental economics, but they are so different from each other. One obvious difference stated by a German scholar is that

ecological economists emphasizing "strong" sustainability and rejecting the proposition that natural capital can be substituted by human-made capital.

Part III History and Recent Status of Environmental Economics

●These green economists choose to work at some environment protection groups. They are

willing to be the protector for some endangered species and to be the connection between left learning advocacy groups and the public and private sectors.

●Environmental issues has attract the government’s at tention, and the government are inclined

to provide some financial supports for these groups and project, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, Wilderness Society, Environmental Defense and so on.

●At the beginning of the environmental economics development, the environmentalists did not

treat economics tool and method very seriously. There is a milestone in the process that is the implementation of a system of tradable allowance for acid rain . The success of this program indicated that the environmental issues is not only the matter of environment , but economics .

Part IV Conclusion

According to the words by Kert Davies, we could conclude that the tradable permits will be an effective way to reduce emissions and create incentive necessary for massive reductions.

III. Vocabulary Study

A.

1. contrary

2. aqueducts

3. Antibiotics

4. circumnavigate

5. polygamy

B.

1. c

2. b

3. b

4. a

5. c

6. a

7. b

8. a

9. c 10. a

C.

1. reserved

2. subfield

3. distinguish

4. sustainability

5. tangible

6. estimate

7. approach

8. amendment

9. ethic

10. opponent

IV. Translation

A.

按照斯坦福大学环境与资源经济学教授Lawrence Goukler所言,过去很多环保倡导组织都将经济学理解为如何获得利润或是使收益最大化;然而,如今越来越多的经济学家意识到经济学为人们的资源配置提供了一种分析框架,其中的资源不仅仅包括劳动和资本,还应

该包括自然资源。

环境经济学家受雇于政府机构(2004年,环境保护署有164名职员,比1995年增加了36%)和诸如荒野协会(位于华盛顿的一个保护组织,其中有四人从事诸如评估修建非公路用车专用道的经济影响这类研究)等团体。同样位于华盛顿的美国环保协会是最早雇佣经济学家的环保倡导组织之一,而且现在已雇用了8名经济学家,他们正进行诸如通过市场激励来解决气候变化和水资源短缺这一类环境问题的研究。

B.

The term “ocean economy”was firstly mentioned in the book Economics Issues in Ocean Exploration written by a RussianЛ.Г.Буничin 1975, and it was clearly confirmed in America’s National Ocean Economy Plan (NOEP) in 1999. With thirty-five years development, the ocean economy has become a research field widely accepted by international scholars, which also become an important part of national economy for the countries that own ocean resources. Simultaneously, .the ocean economics has become a new increasing discipline concerned with the production, allocation, exchanges, consumption and sustainable increasing related to the ocean. In May 2003, the congress published the National Ocean Economy Development Plan, in which our ocean belt and the near sea area were divided into 11 comprehensive economic zones. In 2010, our gross ocean productivity is 3843.9 billion RMB, 9.7% of our GDP, providing 33.5 million positions for the employment. Our ocean development strategies and current condition of the ocean economy shows the enormous emphasizes on the ocean economy development.

V. Extended Exercise

1. sea change 根本性变化

2. from sea to shining sea 从此岸到彼岸/ 从大海到闪亮的波涛

3. plenty of other fish in the sea 天涯何处无芳草

4. through hell and high water 跋山涉水

5. smooth sailing 一帆风顺

6. sink or swim 孤注一掷

Proverbs or Quotations

1. 白开水就是世界上的第一良药。

2. 小洞不堵沉大船。

3. 海中好鱼取不尽。一次损失则还有机会弥补。

4. 有仇恨和妒火,会狂暴和破坏。

5. 风浪总是帮助最能干的航海家。

6. 要识好海员,须凭坏天气。

7. 大海也抱怨缺水。

8. 脏水是洗也洗不干净的。

Part III

参考译文

环境经济学

一些经济学家正在帮助拯救地球

绿色组织在经济学中看到了保护地球的有效工具

杰西卡E. 瓦塞罗

1. 许多经济学家梦想在华尔街,或者在有声望的研究机构和大学,或者在像美联储这样的权威性的政府机构谋得一份高报酬的工作。

2. 但是越来越多的经济学家选择不是把他们的技能用于跟踪通货膨胀或利率,而是用于拯救河流和树木。这些人是“绿色经济学家”,更正式的称呼是环境经济学家,他们用经济学观点和体系劝说公司清理污染和帮助保护自然区域。实际上,环境经济学是与环境问题相关的一个分支领域。引述美国国家经济研究所的环境经济学词条:

3. 环境经济学针对世界各国或者地方政府推行的环境政策对经济所生产的影响,开展理论或者实证研究。特别的议题包括替代性环保政策的成本与收益。这些政策涉及空气污染、水质、有毒物质、固定废物和全球变暖问题。

4. 环境经济学不同于生态经济学,生态经济学强调的是经济作为整个生态系统的一个子系统,重点在于保护自然资本。一份德国经济学家的调查称生态经济学与环境经济学在经济学思想中是不同的学派,生态经济学家强调的是“刚性”的可持续发展,拒绝那种自然资本可以由人力资本替代的论点。对于和环境经济学相关的国际政策的概观,可参考Runnals。另外一个我们必须在这提及的问题就是环境经济学的价值评估。评估环境的经济价值是环境经济学的一个主要话题。自然资源或者生态系统的使用或者间接使用,其收益是实际存在的(参见生态经济学的自然部分)。非使用价值包括存在,可供选择,遗赠价值等。例如,一些人可能注重多样性物种的存在,而忽视某一物种消失后对生态系统的影响。这些物种的存在就可能具有选择性价值,因为可以人为利用它们(比如一些植物用于药用研究)。一些人注重的是留下未被破坏的自然环境给下一代人。使用或者间接使用的价值可以从显示性行为中推导出来,比如休闲旅行或者各种享乐所花费的成本,价值就是由实际价格估算的。非使用价值通常采用叙述偏好法,比如条件价值评估法或者选择模型。条件价值评估法一般采取调查问卷方式,被调查者通常被问及他们在观察和重建环境中会支付或者愿意付出多大代价,或者他们在环境被破坏时是否愿意接受补偿。通过如房价、差旅费、公园观光收费的方式,享乐定价检验着环境对经济决策的影响。

5. 这些经济学家供职于几十家倡导环保的组织和州与联邦的无数环保机构,他们致力于为保护濒危动物、减少污染和防止气候变化的方法构建知识性框架。它们还日益成为左翼倡导者组织和公共与私人部门之间的纽带。

6.斯坦福大学环境与资源经济学教授Lawrence Coulder说:“过去许多环保组织将经济学解释为如何获得利润和使收入最大化。如今,更多的经济学家认识到,经济学为资源(这里不仅仅是劳动和资本,也包括自然资源)的配置提供了一个框架。”

7. 环境经济学家受雇于政府部门(2004年,环境保护署有164名雇员,比1995年增加了36%)和诸如荒野协会(位于华盛顿的一个保护组织,其中有四个人从事诸如评估修建非公路用车专用道的经济影响这类研究)等团体。同样位于华盛顿州的美国环保协会是最早雇用经济学家的环保倡导组织之一,而且现在已雇用了八名经济学家,他们正进行诸如通过市场激励来解决气候变化和水短缺这类环境问题的研究。

8. 1991年加入荒野协会的Caroline Alikire是这个组织的第一位经济学家,他说:“人们通常有这样一种思想,即不应该把环境问题货币化,因为它是无价的。但是,如果我们要在国会上展开有关北极钻探计划的辩论,我们需要能与金融观点相抗争。我们必须出这张牌,否则我们就输定了。”

9. 环境经济学领域在二十世纪六十年代开始形成,当时学者们开始把经济学工具用于刚刚兴起的绿色运动。到八十年代,这个原则得到普遍承认,当时环境保护署把可交易的许可证用于淘汰含铅汽油。但是,直到1990年《清洁空气法修正案》通过,大多数环保主义者才开始认真地看待经济学。

10. 该修正案对酸雨实行了一种可交易的许可制度,这是美国环保协会推动的一项计划。根据这项法律,可以更具成本-效率地降低排污量的企业可以把他们的排污许可量卖给污染重的企业。今天,这项计划已经超过了其把酸雨量减少到1990年的一半水平的目标,而且由此证明了市场可以有助于实现环保目标。

11. 它的成功说服了以前的批评者,当时这些批评者认为,环境管制是一个道德问题,而不是一个经济学问题,而且支持在所有发电企业都采用成本高昂的消除酸雨技术。

12. 国际环保巨人“绿色和平组织”是1990年修正案的主要反对者之一。但是,绿色和平组织美国的研究负责人Kert Davies说,它的成功以及整个九十年代初期有关气候政策的重要行动的缺乏使该组织接受了这个概念。“我们现在相信,(可交易的许可证)是减少排污河创造大量减少污染所必需的激励的最直接的制度。”

Unit 5 Marine Ecotourism

Text A

PartⅡ

Key to Exercises

Pre-reading Questions

1. The first characteristic of ecotourism is that it should be nature-based, i.e. the activities involved should focus predominantly on the natural environment. Second, ecotourism should have a learning orientation, achieved through the processes of education and interpretation. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, ecotourism should be fundamentally underpinned by sustainability, through the application of principles of sustainable development.

2. As a subset of ecotourism, marine ecotourism is becoming increasingly significant and its economic potential is being increasingly recognized. Beyond the dimension of economic returns, however, it is generally agreed that marine ecotourism, emerging as a “new frontier”, has considerable potential to generate a range of wider benefits. Marine ecotourism can, for example, help generate funds for research on marine species and habitats, assist in raising the profile of marine resources in the planning process, provide an economic rationale for environmental stewardship and provide a focus for the social and cultural regeneration of coastal communities. Reading Comprehension

1. It is clear that marine policy documents that we have accessed are often a far cry from their more turgid terrestrial counterparts. Compared with 1.5 million land species, only 275,000 marine species have been identi?ed and described. And only around one-tenth of the 290 million km2 of the seabed has actually been explored and charted.

2. The richness and biodiversity of marine environment reminds us of the untapped potential of marine ecotourism. Compared with terrestrial and space tourism, we still have a long way to go to exploit this new frontier. The vast potential of the marine environment for ecotourism activity offers human beings new opportunities and challenges.

3. As the living standard of modern people improved greatly, more and more people like to be immersed in the marine environment, relaxing themselves and enjoying the benefits of coastal ecosystems. People are inclined to get to know marine culture and concern themselves with the lives of marine animals. This, to a great extent, enhances their lifestyles in terms of opportunities for rest and recreation.

4. Marine tourism activities include swimming, snorkelling, scuba-diving, water sports, boating, sailing, beach-walking and wildlife viewing. My favorite is wildlife viewing. By making contact

with them, I can get to know their life habits, their characters and their living environment. More vitally, I can truly think of the relationship of mankind and animals and how to deal with the relationship of the both.

5. The high degree of connectivity in the seas facilitates the transmission of substances and effects. Sea currents carry sediments, nutrients, pollutants and organisms through, and beyond, a speci?c location. Consequently, actions taken in one locality may affect another hundreds of miles distant and often nations apart. Therefore, The open nature of the marine environment brings with it considerable problems of management.

6. First, it is costly or difficult to exclude individuals from using the resource by physical or legal barriers, both of which are clear problems in the open marine environment. Secondly, the bene?ts consumed by one individual reduce the bene?ts available to others.

Structure Analysis

PartⅠ(para. 1-2): Putting forward the fact.

The richness and diversity of the oceans has spurred the growth of marine tourism and enabled coastal destinations to maintain unique points of difference.

PartⅡ(para. 3-6): Reasons for the untapped potential of the marine frontier.

1. Problems about the marine document (para. 3): Marine policy documents are often a far cry from their terrestrial counterparts.

2. Reasons for our inadequacy of current knowledge of marine realm (para. 4-6):

(1) Reason 1: IUCN/WWF document describes the richness of marine biodiversity and how the

oceans contain the w orld’s largest and smallest animals.

(2) Reason 2: It has been claimed that, in the light of the fact that only around one-tenth of the

seabed has actually been explored and charted.

(3) Reason 3: Further evidence of our patchy knowledge is the fact that a 100 km-long coldwater

coral reef was discovered off the Lofoten Islands of Norway only in 2002.

3. Conclusion: A call to action (para. 6).

This lack of knowledge reminds us of the vast potential of the marine environment for ecotourism activity.

Part Ⅲ(para. 7-15): Roles and characteristics of marine environment.

1. Roles (para. 7): The oceans are indispensable to our life support:

(1) Role 1: Oceans provide a myriad of products ranging from food to minerals, drugs and

medicines.

(2) Role 2: Oceans enhance our lifestyles in terms of opportunities for rest and recreation.

2. Characteristics (para. 8-13): High connectivity and open access:

(1) Feature 1: The high degree of connectivity facilitates the transmission of substances and

effects.

Measures for marine ecosystem-based management (para. 10):

Measures will be taken to:

①address marine pollution;

②promote sustainable fisheries, agricultural and forestry practices;

③prevent coastal degradation;

④meet the challenges of tourism.

(2) Feature 2: The notion of communal proprietorship brings us on to consider the whole question

of ownership and access to marine resources.

①Ostrom outlines (para. 13): Common-pool resources display two important characteristics.

First, it is costly or difficult to exclude individuals from using the resource by physical or legal barriers.

Secondly, the bene?ts consumed by one individual reduce the bene?ts available to others.

②Other features of marine tourism (para. 14-15).

(3) Feature 3: Marine tourism takes place in an environment in which humans do not live, and in

which they are dependent on equipment to survive.

(4) Feature 4: Increasing interest in the marine environment has meant that the growth rate of

marine tourism exceeds that of most of the rest of the tourism industry.

Part Ⅳ (para. 16): Sustainable outcomes for marine tourism.

1. It is conceivable to argue that the attraction of developing small island states is largely attributable to their marine setting.

2. It will become evident that we are attempting to advance both the conceptual and practical understanding of marine ecotourism.

3. It is hoped that our elaboration of how, and why, marine ecotourism is precariously balanced between “the devil and the deep blue sea” will contribute towards an appreciation of the particular challenges.

Vocabulary Study

A.

1. i

2. h

3. d

4. a

5. f

6. e

7. b

8. g

9. c 10. j

B.

1. A

2. B

3. A

4. C

5. A

6. C

7. B

8. A

9. A 10. B

C.

1. adequate

2. tantalizing

3. lamentable

4. proliferate

5. counterpart

6. nutrient

7. manifestation

8. inextricably

9. facilitate

10. complement

Translation

A.

很显然,海洋旅游这一新兴疆域有着巨大的发展潜力。然而,海洋政策文献数量与复杂的陆地政策文献相比明显少得多。这些海洋文献总是充满着对事实与数字的传达,不仅有人类对海洋世界的迷恋,也有对现有的海洋世界缺乏认识和了解的沮丧。海洋是我们的生命、生计和生活方式所必需的,而我们可悲的无知却对此悍然不顾。海洋和海岸为我们提供了各种产品,而且也为我们提供了休憩和娱乐机会,从而改善了我们的生活方式。

海洋对支持人类生命发挥着巨大意义,同时海洋在地球碳循环中起到了重要作用。海洋和海洋环境不仅是一片“处女地”,而且是发展最快的旅游市场之一。我们有理由认为,发展中的小岛国的旅游吸引力主要归功于它们拥有的海洋环境。例如,马尔代夫快速增长的旅游业主要得益于周围环绕着印度洋最大珊瑚岛群的岛屿。

B.

Our immutable bonds with the universe endow a sense of wonderment and awe over what is arguably the most fascinating component of our planet. Equally, they are bound to generate a profound concern for the health of the world’s oceans and seas and the fundamental desire that we, human beings, should not be denied t he opportunity to both appreciate and bene?t from their manifest richness. It is estimated that in the sea coral reefs alone may harbor in excess of 1 million species, with as many as 10 million in the deep ocean basins. This richness of marine biodiversity has spurred the growth of marine ecotourism.

Meanwhile, a proliferation of new activities has created new challenges for managing marine tourism. Another fact is that marine tourism takes place in an environment characterized by both high connectivity and open access, which has a bearing on prospects for sustainability. However, if managed sustainably, the diversity of this environment enables coastal and island destinations to maintain unique points of difference in a globally competitive environment.

Extended Exercises

1. burn my boats

2. a big fish in a little pond

3. fishing expedition

4. a drop in the ocean

5. sailing under false colours

6. push the boat out

Proverbs or Quotations

1.我不愿意接近大海,去听它那如洞穴里野兽般的猛烈的怒吼。它让我想起人类思想持久的努力,挣扎着走向自由,并结束于它开始的地方。

2.没有东西更像大海一样单调到让人绝望了,我也不再惊奇于海盗们的残忍了。

3.一滴水中有着浩瀚大海的全部秘密。

4.为什么我们喜欢大海呢?那是因为大海有某种强大的力量让我们去思考我们想要思考的事情。

5.脚踏甲板,手扶舵柄,眼望前方,啤酒放进冰箱里。

6.大海总是不断地发出嘶哑的飒飒私语,我无法辨清是什么。

PartⅢ

参考译文

沉浸在海洋王国中

1. 我们人类与宇宙间不可改变的联系不能不赋予我们一种对于星球的好奇和敬畏,争论我们的星球什么是最迷人而又亟待研究的部分。同样,我们必然要产生对于世界海洋健康的深切关注和根本愿望:人类,不论距离远近、现在和未来,都不应该被剥夺欣赏与享受海洋所具有的丰富性的机会。

2. 这种丰富性激发了旅游业在发展中寻求理解和尊重一切海洋形式的海洋生命。因此,海洋生态旅游已经成为一个重要产业和一种实践与发展的工具。新兴活动方式的出现,带动了商业和参与人数的增加,同时对这种新兴活动的管理工作提出了新的挑战。然而,如果对这种环境的多样性进行可持续性地管理,就能够使海岸和海岛旅游目的地在全球竞争环境下保持其独有的特色。

3. 虽然人们正在努力将“太空”开拓为旅游业的“最后疆域”,但很显然,海洋作为旅

游业的“倒数第二疆域”仍然为人类提供了许多未开发的空间和潜力。很明显,我们接触到的海洋政策文献与复杂的陆地政策文献相比有很大的差别。这些海洋文献总是充满着对事实与数字的传达,不仅有人类对海洋世界的迷恋,也有对现有的海洋世界缺乏认识和了解的沮丧。

4. 世界自然保护联盟和世界自然基金会的文献《创造海洋巨变》描述了海洋生物多样性的丰富度—即在33个动物门类中,有32个在海洋中被发现,其中15个是海洋所独有的,而且世界上最大的动物(蓝鲸)和最小动物(小型水底生物)都生活在海洋里。然而,与150万陆地物种相比,只有275,000种海洋生物已被确定和记录。据估计,仅珊瑚礁就有可能超过100万种,还有多达1,000万种的海洋动物生活在深海盆地。

5. 2.9亿平方公里的海底,实际上人类只探测了约十分之一,鉴于这一事实,难怪有人声称仍有丰富的未被发现的海洋生命。世界自然保护联盟和世界自然基金会的报告宣称,我们对月球的了解要比对海洋世界的了解多得多。

6. 还有一个事例可以进一步证明我们对海洋的认识有限,即人类2002年才在挪威的罗弗顿群岛发现了100公里长的冷水珊瑚礁。知识的匮乏在呼吁我们采取行动,也提醒我们在海洋环境中发展生态旅游活动的潜力是多么巨大。

7. 海洋是我们的生命、生计和生活方式所必需的,而我们可悲的无知却对此悍然不顾。海洋和海岸为我们提供了大量的产品,从食品到矿产、药材等,而且也为我们提供了休憩和娱乐机会,从而改善了我们的生活方式。随着前者被日益商业化,我们逐步远离自然界,而通过旅游和休闲活动又激发了人们重新回归自然的需要。每年海洋吸引着成千上万的游客来到海边,游泳、潜水、水上活动、划船、杨帆、捕鱼和野生动物观光等活动也逐渐增多。

8. 海洋环境的开放性带来相当多的管理方面的问题。在高度连通性方面,海洋系统不同于陆地系统。这一连通性可归因于“大海”的巨大尺寸、庞大面积、生物栖息地和无所不在的洋流的连续性。海水的高度连通性为物质运输带来了方便和效果。

9. 洋流会携带着沉积物、营养物、污染物和微生物流经或穿越特定的位置。因此,一个地点采取的行动,无论采取什么的活动形式,旅游或其它的,海洋的或是陆地的,可能会影响到其他数百英里远的地方,而且往往是其他国家。

10. 连通性不仅局限于海洋之间,在天空与海洋和陆地与海洋间也同样需要重点考虑这一问题。空气污染物以及土壤流失物、河流排放物估计约占海洋生态系统污染物的四分之三。2002年,可持续发展世界首脑会议上发起的“白水变蓝水合作协议”旨在促进保持流域完整性,加强海洋生态系统管理。该协议认为,污水、工业污染和农业排放是主要的陆源海洋污染途径。根据该协议,将会采取以下措施:(1)解决海洋污染;(2)促进渔业、农业和林业的可持续发展与实践;(3)防止海岸退化;(4)迎接旅游业的挑战。

11. 值得注意的是,传统社会往往会认识到陆地与海洋之间的联系。南太平群岛的土著居民将土地与其相邻的礁石、礁湖,以及其中的资源和居民视为一个完整的综合体。按照传统习惯而非法律条文的划分,澳大利亚托雷斯海峡群岛的传统宗教领土包括陆地和海洋相邻的礁石和海域管辖权,以及暗礁和沙洲。坦桑尼亚马菲亚岛的居民将陆地与海洋的“所有权”和使用权视为一体,二者之间并无人为加以区分,他们认为,陆地活动和海洋活动是相辅相成的。

12.“公有制”的观点引起我们关于海洋资源的所有权和使用权问题的思考。海洋经常被视为公共财产,因此按照哈丁的“公地悲剧”理论,将其描述为“共用资源”更为精确。共用资源是指特定群体的成员对其拥有非成员所不具备的合法使用权的资源。因此,有人提出,可能需要设立重要的社会机构以对共用资源进行有效管理。

13. 奥斯特罗姆(2000)指出,共用资源呈现两个基本特征:第一,设立有形障碍或法律条文阻止个体利用资源。这不仅成本高而且非常困难,在开放的海洋环境中这是显而易见

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