Compounding is a process of word formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. The word formed in this way is called compound Blending is a process of word formation by which a word is created by combining parts of other words. Words formed in this way are called blends. From morphological viewpoints, there are four types of blending:
Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of the words.
Initialisms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as lettersEEC: European Economic Community
Acronyms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as words:OPEC: Organisation of Petroleum Export Countries
According to Leonard Bloomfield’s point of view, a word is a minimum free form, that is to say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation.
There are two types of linguistic forms: one is the bound form, the other is the free form.
A bound form is one which cannot occur on its own as a separate word, e.g. the various affixes: de-, -tion, -ize, etc.
A free form is one which can occur as a separate word. For example, the word lovely contains the free form love and the suffix –ly.
The suffix –ly in the word lovely, of course, i s not a free for m, because it cannot stand by itself. So we call it a bound form.
A word is a minimum free form
The morpheme can be considered as the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.
1)Morphemes are commonly classified into two forms according to their character: one is free form, and the other is bound form.
2)Free morphemes自由词素are morphemes which can occur as separate words. That is to say, a free morpheme can stand alone as a word.
3)Bound morphemes粘着词素are morphemes which cannot stand alone as words. They are mainly affixes. That is to say, a bound morpheme is one that must appear with at least one other morpheme, bound or free in a word.
4)2) Morphemes may be classified into two categories according to their lexical and grammatical relationships:
5)lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemesLexical morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words Grammatical morphemes are morphemes used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context, such as plurality or past tense
There are three types of words according to morphology:Simple words,Compound words,Complex words
Conversion
Conversion is a main type of word-formation assigning the base to a different word
class with no change of form. For example, the verb release is converted to the noun release.
There are two kinds of conversion: full conversion and partial conversion.
Full conversion is conversion as already discussed above.
Partial conversion is conversion, where a word of one word class appears in a function which is characteristic of another word class
The types of conversion contain three major word classes: nouns, verbs and adjectives. Conversion from noun to verb and from verb to noun are the most productive categories.
Conversion can be classified into four categories according to word classes. Affixation falls into two categories: prefixation and suffixation a nd the differences between them are just the differences between prefixes and suffixes.
The major prefixes can be classified into 10 categories by their meaning.
Negative Prefixes否定前缀
Reversative or privative prefixes逆反前缀
Pejorative prefixes贬义前缀
Prefixes of degree or size表范围和程度的前缀
Prefixes of orientation and attitude表方向和态度的前缀
Locative prefixes方位前缀
Prefixes of time and order表时间和顺序的前缀
Number prefixes数字前缀
Conversion prefixes转化前缀
Miscellaneous prefixes其他类型的前缀
Etymology is the study of the origin and history of words and their meanings. Etymology provides background information and knowledge about the history, origin and development of the English language and increases the learner’s enjoyment and real understanding of English words from their changes of forms including their spellings and pronunciations to that of meanings
stem: the part of a word that stays the same when different endings are added to it, for example 'driv-' in 'driving‘
Infix: a formative element inserted in a word
affix: prefix and suffix
prefix: a group of letters that you add to the beginning of a word to make another word. In the word 'unimportant', 'un-' is a prefix.
Prefixes with opposite or negative meanings: dis; -il; -im; -in; -ir; -un-
multi-many; semi-half; anti-against; pro-in favour of; ex-former; post-after; over-too much; under-not enough
Language is a system of symbols based on physiology, psychology and physics. It is a specific social action and a carrier of information used for human communication in a society
Linguistics is the study of human speech including the units, nature, structure, and modification [change] of language.
Linguistics consists of three braches: phonetics, grammar and lexicology Lexicology deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning
and application.
Lexicology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language.
A synchronic approach is an approach to the study of a language at one point of time:
For example:
Shift: each of two or more periods in which different groups of workers do the same jobs in relay. A group of people who work in this way.
A diachronic approach is an approach to the study of the change in a language that took place over a period of time.
Black market 黑市
White market 白市
Gray market 灰市
word is a minimal free form of language which has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
Four points:
(1)A minimal free form of a language;
(2)A sound unity;
(3)A unity of meaning;
(4)A form that can function alone in a sentence.\
There is no logical or intrinsic connection between a sound and what it refers to. T he relation between sound and meanin g is almost always arbitrary or conventional. The same language can use the same sound to mean different things and the different languages use different sounds to refer to the same thing.
All the words in a language are termed as vocabulary. However, vocabulary can also be used to refer to all the words in a book, or in a particular historical period of time, or in a dialet, or in a particular discipline, or even to all the words that a person possesses.
1)Denizens: the early borrowed words which have been assimilated and conformed to the English way of pronunciation and spelling.
(2)Aliens: the borrowed words which have retained the foreign way of pronunciation or spelling and have not been assimilated into the English language.
3)Translation-loans: the words and expressions which are formed from the existing English materials, but modelled on the patterns of another language.
(4)Semantic loans: Words which have not been borrowed with reference to the form, but to the meanings.
Words with a commendatory meaning may become ones with a derogatory sense. This is called degradation of meaning or deterioration
.What is ‘word meaning’?
Word meaning can be defined as a reciprocal relation between name and meaning. 意义是名称与意思的联系。
‘Meaning’ is what the form stands for.
Eg: desk: something you sit at and you do your work
2. What is reference所指关系?
It is the relationship between language and the world.所指是语言与客观外界之间的相互关系。
By means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in the world (including persons) are being talked about.通过这种相互关系，说话人指称外界的事物或人。It is the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for. For example, the word ‘tree’ refers to the object ‘tree’.
3. What is concept?
It is the general idea or meaning which is associate with a word or symbol in a person’s mind.
指词或符号在人脑中的大致印象或意义
What ‘s th e relationship between meaning and concept?
They are closely connected but not identical.
They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories.
Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on.
But meaning belongs to language, so is restricted to language use. A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world. Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words.
What is sense语义?
The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.
What’s the difference between reference and sense?
Sense denotes the relationships inside the language. 指语言内部的关系。Reference denotes the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for.
Every word that has meaning has sense but not every word has reference. 每个词都有语义，但不一定都有所指。Eg: but, almost. These grammatical words do not refer to anything. And words like God, dragon and phoenix refer to imaginary things.
1.What is motivation理据?
It refers to the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.理据解释语言符号与意义之间的关系
. Onomatopoeic Motivation拟声理据
It means the imitation of sounds by sounds.
Words coined in imitation of the sounds associated with the things named are called onomatopoeia.or examples:Apes gibber. Bears growl.Bulls bellow.Cats mew ( purr).Eagles scream.Frogs croak.Goats bleat.
Morphological motivation形态理据
Words which were formed by means of morphological structure belong to the category of motivation by morphology.
Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combined.
Word meaning is made up of various components which are interrelated and
interdependent. These components are commonly described as types of meaning.
词义有各种相互联系与相互依存的不同成分组成，这些成分就是词义的种类Grammatical meaning indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional paradigm. (语法意义指词义中表示语法概念或关系的那部分意义。例如词类、名词的单复数、动词的时态意义及它们的屈折形式
For example : girls, winters, tables, joys
Lexical meaning is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word. (林承璋：词汇意义是词典中一个独立词的意义。在该词的所有形式中，其词汇意义相同。
Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning.
概念意义是词典中所给的意义，是词义的核心。
Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, etc. 联想意义是概念意义的补充意义，是次要意义。它受语言外界因素如文化、经历、宗教、地域、出身、教育等的影响而变化，所以是开放性的，是不定的。It refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning.内涵意义是由概念意义产生的言外之意或联想。
1. What is componential analysis?
The analysis of word meanings/componential analysis is often seen as a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components, which are known as semantic features 语义特征or sense components语义成分. Componential analysis is on the basis of semantic contrast.
Idiom is a set expression made up of two or more words; it functions as a unit of meaning which cannot be predicted from its literal meaning of its component words. 作为一个意义单位使用的，意义不能从其独立的组成部分得出的一种表达法。For example, the idiom “show the white feather” means “to show fear”, and the meaning of this idiom has nothing to do with “feather”.
1. Semantic unity语义的整体性
Each idiom is a semantic unity. The semantic unity can be reflected by the fact that the meaning of an idiom is very often not the total sum of the meanings of the constituent words.
The semantic unity can also be shown in the illogical relations between the literal meanings of the constituent words and the meaning of the idiom
2. Structural stability结构的固定性
Structural stability means that the structure of an idiom usually remains unchangeable. In other words, the constituent components of an idiom can not, generally speaking, be replaced.
1) Idioms nominal in nature名词性习语:
They function as nouns in a sentence: white elephant (昂贵而无用的东西brain trust （智囊团）Jack of all trades （博而不精的人high tea（正式茶点），cold
shoulder（冷淡），red herring（转移注意力的话或事物）white elephant（无用而累赘的东西fond dream（黄粱美梦），blue chip（热门的股票）the happy medium （中庸之道），narrow escape（九死一生），smooth tongue（油嘴滑舌）a fly in the ointment（美中不足之处；使人扫兴的小事）an apple of discord（争端；祸根）a bed of thorns（不愉快的境遇），drug in the market（市场上的滞销商品），a friend at court（有势力的朋友），the milk of human kindness（天生的善心；人情味）a snake in the grass（潜伏的危险；潜伏的敌人）a soldier of fortune（军事冒险家，冒险家the lion‘s share（最大或最好的份额），Achilles’ heel（唯一致命的弱点），cat‘s paw（被人利用的人），King‘s weather（庆典时的晴朗天气），a mare's nest（骗人的东西；混乱），man's estate（壮年）wear and tear（损耗；磨损），rank and file （普通士兵们；普通成员们），flesh and blood（亲骨肉，亲属），ways and means （方法，办法），part and parcel（重要或必要的部分），the ins and the outs（种种复杂详情），ups and downs（盛衰；沉浮），the pros and cons（赞成者和反对者；正面和反面的理由）sheet anchor（最后的或主要的靠山），brain trust（智囊团），a moot point（尚未定论的问题），brain drain（智囊枯竭) Idioms adjectival in nature 形容词性习语：
They function as adjectives in a sentence. E.g.: cut and dried （枯燥乏味的wide of the mark （离目的远的）up in the air high and mighty（趾高气扬；神气活现），null and void（无效），free and easy（不拘形式的；随便的），fair and square （正大光明的，此习语也可作状语用），high and dry（孤立无援，此习语也可作状语用），cut and dried（呆板的，没有生气的on the go（忙个不停；活跃着），out of sorts（不舒服的；不高兴的），beyond the pale（失宠；丢脸，此习语也可作状语用），behind the eightball（处于不利地位），on edge（紧张不安；易怒）wide of the mark（远未射中目标；毫不相关），wet behind the ears（缺乏经验的），up to the hammer（第一流的，极好的），up in the air（十分激动；气愤；悬而未决，此习语也可作状语用）as stiff as a poker（生硬，刻板），as cool as a cucumber （泰然自若；极为冷静），as slippery as an eel（油滑的；不可靠的），as meek as a lamb（非常温顺）bide one's time（等待时机）, hang fire（延迟），bite one‘s tongue off（后悔自己说过的话），draw a blank（终于失败），face the music（勇于承担后果），spill the beans（不慎泄密），jump the queue（插队），fit the bill（适合某人的目的），miss the boat（坐失时机），make the grade（成功）beat about the bush（旁敲侧击），fall by the way（中途退出），bark up the wrong tree（攻击错了目标），dip into one‘s purse（乱花钱），jump down one‘s throat（突然粗暴地回答或打断某人；使某人哑口无言），breathe down one's neck（催逼某人干事；严密监视某人的行动）,play for one's own hand（为自己的利益而做）burn the candle at both ends（过分地耗费精力），pull the wool over one‘s eyes（蒙蔽某人），put a spoke in one‘s wheels（破坏某人的计划），take the change out of someone（对某人报复），keep one‘s head above water（免遭灭顶；不背债），have a（good）head on one's shoulders（有见识或能力）make short work of（迅速处理），make a clean breast of（和盘托出），get wind of（风闻），pick holes in（在……中找毛病），poke one’s nose into（探听；干涉），dance attendance on（奉承）go easy（从容不迫，安闲），come clean（全盘招供），sit pretty（处于极为有利的条件；过舒服的生活；成功），fall flat（完全失败），sing low （不固执己见发表见解；措辞稳健），make good（成功）Idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语：They function as adverbials in
a sentence:
E.g.: tooth and nail竭尽全力in nothing flat不久through thick and thin不顾艰难险阻heart and soul（全心全意地），tooth and nail（竭尽全力地），hammer and tongs（全力以赴地），bag and baggage（完全地，彻底地in a breeze（轻而易举地），with flying colors（出色地；成功地），behind the scenes（在幕后），by the way （顺便说）between the devil and the deep blue sea（进退维谷）through thick and thin （不顾艰难险阻，在任何情况下He that sups with the devil must have a long spoon.（和坏人打交道，必须提高警惕。）The pot calls the kettle black.（责人严而律己宽。）The mills of God grind slowly.（天网恢恢，疏而不漏。）
He laughs best who laughs last.（谁笑在最后，谁笑得最美。）
One cannot make a silk purse out of a sow‘s ear.（巧妇难为无米之炊。）
Nothing succeeds like success.（一事成功，事事顺利。）Nothing venture, nothing have.（不入虎穴，焉得虎子。）Like attracts like.（物以类聚。）Enough is as good as a feast.（知足常乐。）
Speech is sliver，silence is gold.（雄辩是银，沉默是金。）Soft fire makes sweet malt.（好事多磨，慢工出细活。）Fish begins to stink at the head．(上梁不正下梁歪。)Never offer to teach fish to swim.（不要班门弄斧。）Feed a cold and starve a fever.（伤风时宜吃，发烧时宜饿。）Teaching focus:
Polysemy 一词多义关Homonymy 同形同音异义关系Synonymy 同义关系Antonymy 反义关系Hyponymy 上下义关系Semantic Field 语义场Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time.
它是指一个单独的词同时有两个或更多的意义
\Diachronic approach历时研究方法
It is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word.一词多义是同一个词的语义结构历史发展的结果。
The first meaning is the primary meaning原始意义. Later meanings are called derived meanings派生意义.
Synchronic approach共时研究方法
Synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a historical period of time. 从共时的角度看，在同一个历史时期，同一个词可以拥有许多不同的意义。
The basic meaning of a word is called the central meaning 中心意义. The derived meanings are secondary in comparison.
Semantically, radiation is the process which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays. 从语义学上讲，辐射型是这样一种过程，在此过程中，本义（也称中心意义）处在中心位置，次要意义从此处象光线一样朝各个方向辐射
Concatenation is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.连锁型是一种语义过程，在此过程中，一个词的意义象链条一样，通过连续的改变，逐渐从本义移开，直至最后发展出来的意义和本义没有了任何关系
Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. 同形同音异义词是
意义不同、而发音与拼写皆相同或只有拼写或只有发音相同的词。
Perfect/absolute homonyms完全同形同音异义词Homographs同形异义词Homophones同音异义词
Of the three types, homophones constitute the largest number and are most common. Synonyms are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.同义词是发音和拼写不同但在意义上极为相似或完全相同的词。
Synonyms share a likeness in denotation as well as part of speech, for a verb cannot have an adjective as its synonym.同义词在外延意义和词性上要具有相似性
）Absolute synonyms绝对同义词
Absolute synonyms are words whose meaning is fully identical in any context so that one can always be substituted for the other without the slightest change in meaning. This kind of synonyms are rare and may be found in special terminology such as compounding and composition in lexicology, malnutrition and undernourishment in medicine.
Synonyms which denote different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality are called relative synonyms.
What are antonyms?Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. 反义词可被定义为意义上对立的词
现代汉语词汇学学习心得 本篇文章分为二个部分，第一部分主要来谈谈学习现代汉语词汇学课程的感想和收获，第二部分阐述我在学习了这门课程后对于如何进行对外汉语词汇教学的一些思考。 一．学习现代汉语词汇学课程的感想和收获 对于现代汉语词汇我们不是第一次接触了，早在大一的现代汉语课上就已经有所涉及。但那都是很笼统的讲到，并没有做具体的分析研究,到了大三下学期才单独开设了现代汉语词汇学这门课程。在上这门课程前，就听学姐学长讲过词汇学很难，在学了这门课之后深有体会。记得在一开始的练习中就碰到了困难，如分析哪些是词自己就有点糊涂了，原因是自己还没有弄清楚词的具体该概念，即确定词的的一般方法，尤其是在扩展法上会出现问题。但后来经过讨论，老师讲解，自己终于有所领悟。虽然在学习的当中会碰到很多难题，但通过一学期的学习，自己也有很多收获。 首先来谈谈教材，我们词汇学选符准青的《现代汉语词汇》增订本就是一本很好的教材。它的编订很合理，内容很详细，每章后都附有练习，有助于我们巩固我们所学的知识。除了解决词汇学中的一般问题，另外还提出了很多疑难问题让我们注意，这是其他教材很难做到的。例如第一章节疑难问题就提出具有争议的问题，如何确定述补结构（吃饱打倒）等是不是词的问题，这些疑难问题对于我们真正把握词的概念，拓展我们的思维有很大帮助。 其次，我也非常庆幸遇到一位优秀的老师来教授我们这么课程。老师
有着扎实的专业基础知识和丰富的对外汉语教学经验，所以知道怎样使我们很好的接受那些词汇学知识，更重要的是我们能够将学到的知识理论应用于实际。在学习的过程，老师并没有像填鸭子似地把知识抛给我们，而是时不时的给我们提一个问题，让我们去思考，虽然最后我们的答案并不尽人意，但至少给了我们一个锻炼思考能力及分析问题的机会。在学习过程中老师一直强调我们不要读死书，要学会思考，这本书固然有它的优点，也存在一定的缺点，我们要取其精华，剔其糟粕。例如在学习第七章词汇划分问题上，老师就告诉我们书上的词汇划分不科学，对于基本词汇和一般词汇的定义模糊，但在基本词汇的特点上有可取之处，基本词汇具有普遍性，稳固性和构成新词的基础，这一点很可取。 再者，学习这门课程后我认识到词汇学的重要性，词汇学最为一门单独的专业课程开设是很有必要的。现代汉语词汇是不断丰富发展变化着的。社会生活的发展，包括新事物的出现，旧事物消灭，阶级斗争的发展；人的思想意识的发展；语言内部各个因素的相互作用等等。现代汉语词汇是历代积累传承下来的大量词语和和不断产生的大量词语组合起来的整体。学习现代汉语词汇有着十分重要的意义，它让我们意识到词汇的重要性，提高我们的表达能力、语言能力，而且有助于语文教学，词汇教学在语文教学中占有重要位置。要引导学习者掌握丰富的词语，正确理解词语的意义，正确运用词语，就要利用现代汉语词汇学所学的各种知识。因此，一定要通过自身的努力学好掌握好这门学问。 最后，通过这门课程的学习，我对怎样才能学好现代汉语词汇学有了一些体会。虽然这门课程即将结束，但学问是无穷无尽的，这门课程只是为我们打开了学习词汇学的一个窗口，在平时我们还应当坚持课后自主学习，因此掌握一些学习词汇学的方法尤为重要。
Compounding is a process of word formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. The word formed in this way is called compound Blending is a process of word formation by which a word is created by combining parts of other words. Words formed in this way are called blends. From morphological viewpoints, there are four types of blending: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of the words. Initialisms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as lettersEEC: European Economic Community Acronyms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as words:OPEC: Organisation of Petroleum Export Countries According to Leonard Bloomfield’s point of view, a word is a minimum free form, that is to say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation. There are two types of linguistic forms: one is the bound form, the other is the free form. A bound form is one which cannot occur on its own as a separate word, e.g. the various affixes: de-, -tion, -ize, etc. A free form is one which can occur as a separate word. For example, the word lovely contains the free form love and the suffix –ly. The suffix –ly in the word lovely, of course, i s not a free for m, because it cannot stand by itself. So we call it a bound form. A word is a minimum free form The morpheme can be considered as the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 1)Morphemes are commonly classified into two forms according to their character: one is free form, and the other is bound form. 2)Free morphemes自由词素are morphemes which can occur as separate words. That is to say, a free morpheme can stand alone as a word. 3)Bound morphemes粘着词素are morphemes which cannot stand alone as words. They are mainly affixes. That is to say, a bound morpheme is one that must appear with at least one other morpheme, bound or free in a word. 4)2) Morphemes may be classified into two categories according to their lexical and grammatical relationships: 5)lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemesLexical morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words Grammatical morphemes are morphemes used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context, such as plurality or past tense There are three types of words according to morphology:Simple words,Compound words,Complex words Conversion Conversion is a main type of word-formation assigning the base to a different word
词汇的形象色彩与对外汉语教学 词语的形象色彩是指很多词语用于解释普遍存在的概念意义外，还同时具有形象感，它们通过人们的感官如视觉、听觉、味觉等诱发人们的联想，给人以生动可感的形象感。例如：猫头鹰这个词就比较形象地反映出这种鸟头部像猫的特点；哗啦啦，是人耳边回现出流水的声音；而甜丝丝会让我们如同品尝到了甜味的食物。这些都是日常生活中非常常见的例子，可见词汇的形象色彩在生活中的应用是很广的。 正由于应用广泛，有形象色彩的词很丰富，所以对这些词的分类显得有点困难。本文将采取兰宾汉先生对具有形象色彩的词的分类，即将它们分成形感、动感、色感、声感这样四类。下面分别加以阐释： 形感：有些词的意义能给人十分具体的形象。如佛手、木耳、浪潮，大家眼前会浮现出这种事物的整体的形状。木耳是一种长在腐朽的木头上的一种可供食用菌类，形状像人的耳朵；浪潮顾名思义，想浪花一样的潮流；这是对事物整体情状的比喻。又如喇叭花、鹅卵石，灯笼裤、斑马线则是在对事物的性状的比喻之后加上了一个类名。斑马、驼背、白头翁是对描摹事物的突出的特征等等。它们的突出的特点即是让人们很容易地联想到所指事物的外在形状，我们称之形感。 色感：有些词的意义给人以鲜明的色彩感。如血红让人联想到血的颜色；草绿则浮现出一片青草的的画面，联想到充满生机的绿，还有鹅黄、橘红等。具有色感的词多为形容词，比如ABB式的白茫茫，红彤彤，绿油油，金灿灿等；又如ABC式的白呲咧、血呼啦；还有A 里BC、A不BC式的，如血里呼啦，白不呲咧；还有ABCD式的如黑咕隆咚。这些词当中的词缀部分意义很虚，但它们结合在一起具有描摹性，给人们造成一种很模糊的印象，从而给人一种形象感。 动感：有些词的意义能让人产生特殊的动感。如席卷，会让人联想到用席子卷的这样一系列的动作，从而给人一动作快，范围大的感觉。而蚕食则让人们想到蚕不分昼夜沙沙吃蚕叶这样的动作行为，从而给人一种连续不断地侵食这样一种动感。这样的词还有摇曳、撞车、碰钉子、炒鱿鱼等。一些带如字的词常带有动作感：暴跳如雷、血流如注、泪如雨下、不绝如缕等。象点头哈腰、东倒西歪、俯首帖耳等次也是对存在事物的动作状态的直接的描写。声感：有些词能给人以如闻其声的感觉。这些词多为拟声词如呵呵，哈哈，嘻嘻，啧啧，喔喔，咩咩等。还有ABB式的如笑哈哈，笑嘻嘻，轰隆隆，哗啦啦；A里BC式的如稀里哗啦等，看到这些词自然会联想到自然界的一些声音，这也是其形象色彩的特点之所在。 当然，这只是众多对具有形象色彩意义的词的分类中的一种，而且也只是一种大至的分类，比如有的词就不只属于其中的一种，而是兼具两种甚至是多种形象色彩。如银河是因为看起来像一条白色的河而得名，它的意义中就包含了形感和色感两种形象色彩。有如扑啦啦，既有拍翅膀的动感又有拍翅时的声音的形容，也兼具两种形象色彩。 不仅仅是词，在词汇系统中的固定语中的一些成语同样具有形象色彩。例如狼吞虎咽明显是对动作的描摹，具有很强烈的动感；又如羊肠小道则是很典型的对于事物形状的描绘，具有形感。其它的成语如坐如针毡、骨瘦如柴、口若悬河等。还有一些成语以其呈现的整体的画面共同显示它的形象色彩。如隔岸观火，会使人的头脑中浮现一幅画面，隔岸是空间位置，观火是动作行为，如果接受者再补充一个动作行为的主体，就形成了这幅整体的画面。这是由于固定语的内部结构相对来首比较复杂，所呈现的信息量较大，因而信息的叠加呈现出了整体的画面，这个画面对整个成语的理解起着烘托得作用。如按下葫芦浮起瓢、拨云见日、兵临城下等。还有一些词语，其表层的给接受者提供两个形象单位二者结合在一块儿很容易使人想起它的深层的涵义，这一类成语形象感的形成和我国古典诗歌中意境的形成非常相似，既由表层的关系使人联想到深层的意蕴。如南辕北辙，辕向着南边而辄却朝着北，想去南边而却走向了北边，比喻行动和初衷是相违背的。如果对这个成语稍加体会其深沉含义是
总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。 第一章 1. Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound. 3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors. （At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns） a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500 d）. Borrowing of foreign language 4. Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history. The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words. 5.Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by origin 1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary. 1. all national character （most important）– natural phenomena most common things and phenomena of the human body and relations world around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj. 2. stability – they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow. e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – past electricity，machine，car，plane —— now 3. productivity – they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes. e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer 4. polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous. e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove 5. collocability – quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of gold Non-basic vocabulary —— 1. terminology – technical terms photoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus 2. jargon – specialized vocabulary in certain professions. Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid 3. slang —— substandard words often used in informal occasions dough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays， Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage. 4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groups can-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population. 5. dialectal words – only by speakers of the dialect beauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog 6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech. 7. neologism – newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mail old meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor 2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions. Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences. a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous. Functional words are in a small number.
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。 《语言学概论》研究始于20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。 对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。 本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第6学期和第7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。 二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。 本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。 本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓 励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。 本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。 四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。 五、学时与学分: 学时：72学时 学分：4学分 六、教学内容： 第一章绪论 本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。 7．语言学的核心内容。 8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。
第一章word 1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 第三章formation 1 1. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 2. Allomorph --- Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are know as allomorphs. 3. Free morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes which are independent of other morphemes. 4. Bound Morphemes --- They are morphemes which cannot occur as separate words. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. 7. Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are known as inflectional morphemes. 8. Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word. 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12. Stem --- a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 第四章formation 2 1. Affixation --- affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. 2. Prefixation --- is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Suffixation--- is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. 3. Compounding（Compositon）-- is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. 4. Conversion-- is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. 5. Blending-- is the formation of new words by combined by parts of two words or a word plus a plus a part of another word. 6. Clipping- is the formation of new words by shortening a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remain instead.
汉语言文字学必读书目30种2009年10月修订 1、《中国语言学史》王力 2、《语文常谈》吕叔湘 3、《基础语言学教程》徐通锵 4、《普通语言学教程》 [瑞士]索绪尔 5、《现代语言学流派》冯志伟 6、《应用语言学概论》于根元 7、《对外汉语教学概论》赵金铭 8、《现代汉语八百词》吕叔湘 9、《汉语和汉语研究十五讲》陆俭明、沈阳 10、《现代汉语》黄伯荣廖序东 11、《汉语语法学》张斌 12、《汉语语法入门》马庆株 13、《汉语描写词汇学》刘叔新 14、《现代汉字学纲要》苏培成 15、《语义论》石安石 16、《词汇语义学》张志毅张庆之 17、《修辞学发凡》陈望道 18、《古汉语通论》（《蒋礼鸿文集》）蒋礼鸿 19、《训诂学原理》王宁 20、《训诂学概论》方一新 21、《古汉语词汇纲要》蒋绍愚
22、《文字学概要》裘锡圭 23、《音韵学教程》唐作藩 24、《中国修辞学》杨树达 25、《〈说文解字〉注》 [清]段玉裁 26、《说文释例》 [清]王筠 27、《经传释词》 [清]王引之 28、《四书章句集注》 [宋]朱熹 29、《训诂丛稿》（《郭在贻文集》）郭在贻 30、《同源字论》（《同源字典》）王力 研究生阅读、写作初步建议（09） 壹、阅读 一、文献文本：文献阅读的目的是增强语感，储存语料，了解语言面貌；精读（即参考注释，字句无窒碍）阅读量10-15万字（不包括注释），泛读（即不一定参考注释，基本理解）阅读量20-30万字；下列书目大致按难易排序，可以二选一（史书部头大，可以选读）。 1、《世说新语》/《坛经》 2、《中古汉语读本》（方一新、王云路编著） 3、《近代汉语读本》（刘坚编著） 4、《论语》/《孟子》（杨伯峻译注） 5、《史记》/《汉书》（传记部分） 6、《庄子》（陈鼓应今注今译）/《荀子》（王先谦集解） 7、《诗经》选读（100篇以上）/《左传》选读
lexicology 题型： 1.填空（30*1=30） 2.解释（10*1=10） 3.主观题（2*10=20） 4.分析词汇学现象（10） 5.翻译（15*2=30） 考点： Chapter 2 Language proper 1.Genetic classification p15: English belongs to the Low West Germanic branch of the Indo-European family. 2.Structural classification: synthetic language & analytic language p22 A synthetic language is one which shows the relation of words in a sentence largely by means of inflections(变音，转调). An analytic language is one which indicates the relation of words in a sentence by means of word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs, rather than by inflections. Old English (OE 450-1100)synthetic language The history of English begins with the conquest and settlement of what is now England by the Angles, Saxons and the Jutes from about 450 AD. Characteristics of Old English: 1)They had complex inflectional systems for nouns, pronouns, articles, verbs, and adverbs. 2)They had great flexibility in sentence word order made possible by the extensive sets of inflections. Middle English (ME 1100-1500) The transitional period from Old English to Modern English is know as Middle English (ME 1100-1500), which is characterized by the strong influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066. Middle English developed rapidly toward becoming an analytic language. Modern English analytic language The English language from 1500 to the present is called Modern English. Characteristics of Modern English 1)Great Vowel Shift ※ 2)Inflections continued to disappear, making Modern English an analytic language. 3)The word order of English sentences became more and more firmly fixed.
序论部分 语言学：是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；从方法上分为历史语言学、比较语言学、历史比较语言学、描写语言学；从研究对象上可分为个别语言学和普通语言学；19C 初的历史比较语言学标志着语言学的诞生。 历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学。 比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的语言学。表层结构、深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 语言的社会功能语言的依存性（强制性）：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约定俗成后,音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。 语言层级性：语言是一种分层装置。语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的音节，为语言符号准备了形式部分；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。 语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。组合关系：构成线性序列的语言成分之间前后相继的关系。语言单位顺着时间的线条前后相继，好像一根链条，一环扣着一环，处于这个组合链中的两个符号或符号序列之间的关系就叫组合关系。如：主谓、动宾等都是具体的组合关系类型。 聚合关系：在线性序列的某一结构位置上语言成分之间相互替换的关系。在同一位置上能够相互替换的语言单位具有相同的语法功能。在这个线性序列中，每一个语言单位都占有一个特定的位置，在这个位置上它可以被其他语言单位替换下来，犹如一根链条，某一环可以被另一环替换下来，从而形成一根新的链条。 语言习得性：是指虽然人类先天就具有潜在的语言能力，但要掌握一门语言，必须通过后天的学习，没有现实的语言环境，不能掌握任何一种语言。 语言能力：抽象思维能力和发音能力的结合，即，掌握语言需要有发达的大脑和灵活的发音器官。征候：是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。如：炊烟代表人家。语音部分语音：即语言的声音，由人的发音器官发出，负载一定的意义，是语言的物质外壳，语言依靠语音来实现其社会交际功能。 音素：从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位，分为元音和辅音。 国际音标：由国际语音学会于1888年制定的一套记音符号，它根据“一个音素只用一个音标表示，一个音标只表示一个音素”的原则，主要使用拉丁字母和各种变形符号，是国际上通用的记音符号。语音的生理属性：指语音的动力、发音体和发音方法。 语音的物理属性：是指物体受到外力作用而发生振动，从而使周围的空气也发生振动，形成音波，音波传入人耳，使鼓膜发生振动，刺激听觉神经，于是人们产生了声音的感觉。语音的物理属性包括音高、音长、音重、音质。 语音的社会属性：指同一个音素在不同的语言或方言中具有不同的作用，执行不同的交际功能，是语音的本质属性。 音高：指声音的高低，取决于发音体振动的频率，具有区别意义的作用。如汉语的声调。音重：指声音的强弱，取决于振幅，具有区别意义的作用。语音的强弱与气流量的大小和发
Types of meaning Types of lexical changes 1.Elevation:词义升格 Definition: words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance Some words early in their history signify something quite low or humble, but change as time goes by to designate something agreeable or pleasant. For example: nice: ignorant---foolish---delightful, pleasant Marshal: a keeper of horses---a high ranking army officer So elevation refers that the meaning of word changes from the neutral/negative to positive. 2.Old English:It refers to the English starting from 450 to 1100 AD. The old English is made up of different sources of languages spoken then –that of Anglo-Saxons, that of Celts, and that of Jutes, with a lot of Latin elements used for common peopl e’s life. 3.Bound morpheme: It is the smallest unit of grammar, a unit which cannot occur as separate words. They have no independent semantic meaning; instead, they have: Attached meaning E.g. un-kind, hope-ful Grammatical meaning E.g. cat-s, slow-ly, walk-ing, call-ed For an exact example, in the word “careful”, care is free morpheme, “-ful” is a bound morpheme. 4.Hyponymy: Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion, or to say, the relationship between general lexical items and specific lexical items. That is to say, when X is a kind of Y, the lower term X is the“hyponym”, and the upper term Y is the “superordinate”. For example, “fiction”is the superordinate of “novel”, “novelette”and “short story”, which are the hyponyms of “fiction”. Knowing the semantic features of the hyponyms and their superordinates can help us achieve vividness, exactness, and concreteness in expression.
第一章 1.word : 1简单意义：a word is a minimal unit/form in/of a sentence 2.完整意义：a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function. 2.vocabulary定义四个要素：1.refer to the total number of the words in a language.2.it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. 3.refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. 4个要素：language, time, space, person. 3.sound and form 1.关系：the symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional.2.more and more different 原因：1,the number of alphabet cannot describe the English sounds one by one.2, sounds develop faster than the written form.3.the scribes deliberately change the written form for being easily recognized. 4.the printing machine fixed the written form. 5.borrowed words make the gap wider. 4.motivation分类：1.onomatopec motivation.(Refers to the motivated aspect of motivation which means the words are created by imitation the natural sounds or noise. 2. morphological motivation(refers to the motivated aspect of motivation which means the words created by using existing language materials ,as roots, affixes, etc).3.semantic motivation(refers to the motivated aspect of motivation in which the new meanings are given to existing words by mental