1、 Linguistics studies languages in general, but nit any particular language ,
eg .English,Chinese,Arabic,and Latin,etc.
2、 By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language.
3、 Complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.
4、The meaning of the word ―seal‖ in the sentence ―the seal could not be found‖ cannot be determined unless the context in which the sentence occurs is restored.
5、 An lnnatist view of language acquisition holds that human beings are biologically programmed
for language.
6、 The same word may stir up different association in people under different cultural background.
7、 A child who enters a foreign language speech community by the age of three or four can learn
the new language without the trace of an accent,
8、Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.
9、Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principle and theories to language teaching and learning.
10、A phonological feature of the English compounds is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element, and the second element receives secondary stress.
11、All the affixes belong to bound morphemes.
12、A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word.
13、When a child acquires his mother tongue, he also acquires a language-specific culture
and becomes socialized in certain way.
14、Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.
15、Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme
16、The meaning of an utterance is ,in a sense, richer than the meaning of the sentence from which it is derived.
17、People in the west tend to verbalize their gratitude and compliments more than Chinese speakers and they tend to accept thanks and compliments more than we Chinese do.
18、Auditory phonetics studies the perception of sound s by the human ear.
19、Synonymy and polysemy are relations between form and meaning.
20、People in the West tend to verbalize their gratitude and compliments more than Chinese speakers and that they tend to accept thanks and compliments more than we Chinese.
21、A broad transcription is used generally in dictionaries and language textbooks.
22、The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.
23、Strictly speaking, according to F.palmer, there are no real synonyms and no two words have exactly the same meaning.
24、The standard dialect is not related to any particular group of language users.
25、A children who enters a foreign language speech community by the age of three or four learns the new language without the trace of an accent.
26、One learns his first language directly from relity.
1.Modern linguistics regards the written language as the natural or primary medium of human language.
2.In narrow transcription, we transcribe the speech sounds with letter-symbols only while in broad transcription we transcribe the speech sounds with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.
3.Of the three phonetics branches, the longest established one, and until recently the most highly developed, is acoustic phonetics.
4.According to co-operative principle, the conversational participants have to strictly observe the four maxims, so that the conversation can go on successfully.
5.In communication it will never be the case that what is grammatical is not acceptable, and what is ungrammatical may not be inappropriate.
6.Since there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, language is absolutely arbitrary.
7.Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back according to the manner of articulation.
8.Accoring to the innatist view of language acquisition, only when the language is modified and adjusted to the level of children‘s comprehension, do they process and internalize the language items.
9.According to Austin, the performative utterance is used to perform an action, it also has truth value.
10,Children can learn their native language well whenever they start and whatever kinds of language samples they receive.
11.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the same sense.
12.We can always tell by the words a compound contains what it means because the meaning of a compound is always the sum of the meanings of its parts.
13.More than often we use bound morpheme alone.
14.Human children everywhere develop a language with instruction, unless they suffer from extreme mental deficiency.
15.The first language is acquired consciously.
16.All vowels in English are voiceless.
17.The inflectional morphemes are morphemes which add lexical meaning to the words they are attached.
18.According to semantic theory, we are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking.
19.In acquiring their first language. children always concentrate on structure.
20.Children must have parents to instruct them in order to learn to speak.
第一章
语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of study of language.
语音学phonetics:it studies of sounds used in linguistic communication
音位学phonology:it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey
meaning in communication
语言学内部形态学morphology:it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds 的主要分支are arranged and combined to form words
句法学syntax:it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to from
grammatically permissible sentences in languages.
语义学semantics:it studies meaning conveyed by language.
语用学pragmatics:it studies the meaning in the context of language use.
社会语言学sociolinguistics:The studies of all these social aspects of language and its
relation with society form the core of the branch call sociolinguistics. 跨学科分支心理语言学psycholinguistics:relates the study of language to psychology.
应用语言学applied linguistics:The study of such applications is generally known as
Applied linguistics.
规定性与描写性Prescriptive & Descriptive
Prescriptive:If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people
actually use.
Descriptive:If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖
behavior in using language.
共时性与历时性Synchronic & Diachronic
Synchronic:The description of a language at some point of time in history is a
synchronic study.
Diachronic:The description of a language as it changes through time is
a diachronic study.
言语与文字Speech & Writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. 语言学中的
一些重要语言与语言Langue & Parole
区分Langue:refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of
a speech community.
Parole:refers to the realization of language in actual ues.
语言能力与语言运用Competence & Performance
Competence:is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.
Performance:is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
传统语法与现代语言学Traditional grammar & Modern linguistics
The different between Traditional grammar and Modern linguistics
1.Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive
2. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary not the written.
3. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force
语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it 语言的识别from any animal system of communication.
的特征作者：Charles Hockett (查尔斯·霍凯特)
（1）Arbitrariness:It means that there is no logical connection between meanings
and sounds
（2）Productivity:Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the
construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.
（3）Duality:Linguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures,
or two levels
（4）Displacement:Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the
immediate situations of the speaker.
（5）Cultural transmission:While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead
have to be taught and learned.
语言的功能Three main functions are often recognized of language:
(1) The descriptive function,also referred to differently as the cognitive,or referential,or
propositional ,is assumed to be the primary function of language.
Eg.The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.
(2) The expressive function, supplies information about the user‘s
fellings.preformances,prejudices ,and values.
Eg.I will never go camping with Mike again.
(3) The social function,also referred to as the interpersonal funcation,seves to establish
and maintain social relations between people.
Eg.How can I help you,sir?
There are six elements of a speech event specified by Jakobson are:
Addresser,Addressee,Context,Message,Contact,Code.
They are associated with six basic functions of language as shown below:
(1)Addresser---Emotive
The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.
Eg.I hate whatever they are planning for me.
(2)Addressee---Conative
The addressee aims to influence the addressee‘s course of action or ways of thinking.
Eg.Why not go and see another doctor?
(3)Context---Referential
The addresser conveys a message or information.
Eg.As far as I know,
(4)Message---Poetic
The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of
language itself. Eg.poetry.
(5)Contact---Phatic communion
The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the
addressee.Eg.Hi.How are you this morning?
(6)Code---Metalinguistic
‘s experience of the real or
第二章
语音学的定义:Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‘s languages.
Three branches of phonetics articulatory phonetics
语音学分支：auditory phonetics
acoustic phonetics
The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas:
Organs of speech: pharyngeal cavity----the throat
Oral cavity---the mouth
Nasal cavity---the nose
Orthographic representation of speech sounds:
Broad transcription:The transcription with letter-symbols only called broad transcription.
Narrow transcription:The transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is
call narrow transcription
The speech sounds in English into two broad categories: Vowels and Consonants
音素phone:A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.
音位phoneme:A phoneme is a phonological unit.it is a unit that is of distinctive value.
音位变体allophone:The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic
environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
音位对立phonemic contrast:[pit]和[bit]，[r?up]和[r?ub] 中的/p/./b/
互补分布complementary distribution:清晰的舌边音[ l ],模糊舌边音[ㄨ]
最小对立体minimal pair:pill&bill,除了词首的辅音外形式完全相同
序列规则Sequential rules：This indicates that there are rules that govern
the combination of sound in a particular language.
Some rules in phonology 同化规则Assimilation rules:This assimilation rule assimilates one sound
to another by ―copying‖ a sequential phoneme,thus making the
two phones similar.
省略规则Deletion rule:Another phonological rule is the deletion rule.It
tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is
orthographically represented.
Suprasegmental features---The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are
called suprasemental features;these are the phonological properties of
such units as the syllable ,the word,and the sentence.
(1) Stress:
(2) Tone: are pitch variations, which are called by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords
(3) Intonation:When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in
isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
第三章
形态学morphology：refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.
Open class word: nouns,verbs,adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of vocabulary.
They are content words of a language.
Closed class word:conj,perp.art and pron consist of the ―grammatical‖ and ―functional‖ words.
free morpheme: A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme
bound morpheme: A morpheme must attached to another one is a bound morpheme.
Allomorphs定义:The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.
（The allomorphic variation involves different pronunciations of the plural morpheme –s.）
–ic are thus called derivational morphemes.
morphological rules: un + accept + able]
Derivation定义：is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct form that of its bases.
Compounds复合词：
Syntax定义：is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentencs.
Categories范畴：refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfil the name or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb.
句法范畴syntactic categories: A fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.
Here word level categories are divided into Two kinds:
1) major lexical categories 2)minor lexical categories
To determine a word‘s category,three criteria are usually employed:
1)Namely, 2)meaning 3)inflection and distribution
Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following element:
1)head 2)specifier 3)complement
The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head.
The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers
The words on the right side of the heads are complements.
Phrase structure rule:
Such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.
(specifier)X(complement)
X*Con X
Phrase elements
1.specifiers
https://www.doczj.com/doc/0115489949.html,plements
3.modifiers
SentencDes Transformations Auxiliary movement Do insertion
Deep structure: The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head‘s sub categorization
properties, is called deep structure.(D-structure)
Surface structure: The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which
语义学的定义：
1. The naming theory
Some views concerning 2.The conceptualist view
the study of meaning 3.Contextualism
关于意义研究的一些观点 4.Behaviorism
Sense :is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form.
Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic word of experience.,
1.dialectal synonyms
2.Stylistic synonyms
Synonymy .3.emotive or evaluative meaning
4.Collocational synonyms
5.Semantically different synonyms
Polysemy: While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.
1.homophone
Homonymy 2.homographs
https://www.doczj.com/doc/0115489949.html,plete homonyms
1.superodinate
Hyponymy 2.hyponyms
3.co-hyponyms
1.Gradable antonyms
Antonymy https://www.doczj.com/doc/0115489949.html,plementary antonyms
3.relational opposites
1.X与Y同义X is synonymous with Y
句子之间的关系 2.X与Y不一致X is inconsistent with Y
3.X预设Y X presupposes Y
（Y是X的先决条件）Y is a prerequisite of X
4.X自我矛盾X is a contradiction
5.X语义反常X is semantically anomalous
1.成分分析法
Componential analysis-----is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze
word meaning,
意义分析 2.述谓结构分析法
Predication analysis----a way to analyze sentence meaning.
Pragmatics定义：A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication,
Context定义：It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer,
Austin‘s model of speech acts(论述)
Eg.You have left the door wide open.
1.Locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words“you‖,have‖,‖door‖,
‖open‖,etc.thus expressing what the words literally mean,
2.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking,i,e.asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.
3.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker‘s message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real word he has intended to ,then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.
Searle‘s classification of speech acts(赛尔对言语行为的分类)
The five types of illocutionary acts are:
1.阐述类representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.
2.指令类directive: trying to get the hearer to do something.
3.承诺类commissive: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action
4.表达类expressive: expressing feeling or attitude towards an existing state.
5.宣告类declaration: bring about immediate changes by saying something.
(新内容-论述)Searle‘s indirect speech act
According to Searle,when a speaker is using indirect language,he is performing two speech acts simultaneously;One is the primary speech cat and the other is the secondary speech act.
The primary speech act is the speaker‘s goal of communication.
The secondary speech act is the means by which he achieves his goal.
The example provided by Searle to illustrate his idea is the following brief exchange between two students:
Student X:Let‘s go to the movies tonight
Student Y:I have to study for an exam
Obviously, by saying“I have to study for an exam ―student Y is saying ?NO‘ to student X‘s suggestion to go to the movies. According to Searle‘s indirect speech act theory. The primary speech act student Y performs with his utterance is the act of rejecting student X‘s suggestion and the secondary speech act he performs is the act of making a statement about the fact that he has to study for an exam. So the relation between the secondary speech act and the primary one is that between means and end.
The four maxims of the CP:
1) the maxim of quantity
2) the maxim of qyality
What is CP?
In Grice‘s view, to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP.
（新内容）Pragmatic failure语用失误
Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker‘s utterance in the context of communication. Pragmatics failure may occur in
intra-cultural background.
Pragmatics is assumed to have two dimensions:
Pragmalinguistics: is applied to the more linguistic and of pragmatics. i, e. how the linguistic forms of a language are used to serve specific pragmatic purposes.
Sociopragmatics：is the sociological interface of pragmatics; it is concerned with the customary ways in which people of a particular culture behave to achieve a particular purpose.
第七章
Historical linguistics: as a branch of linguistic, is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.
Morphological and syntactic change
1)Addition of affixes
Fusion: refers to this type of grammaticalization in which words develop into affixes,either prefixes or suffixes.
2) Loss of affixes
3) Change of word order
4) Change in negation rule
Addition of new words(要记例子)P98
1.创新词Coinage: A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, mostly for new things and objects.
2.缩写词Clipped words: Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.
3.紧缩词Blending:A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.
4.词首字母缩略词Acronyms: are words derived from the initials of several words.
5.逆词构法Back-formation：New words may be coined from already existing words by
―subtracting ‖an affix thought to be part of the old word.
6.功能转换Functional shift: Word may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, which is also called conversion.
7.借用Borrowing: When different cultures come into contact, words are often ―borrowed‖ from one language to another.
Semantic changes
1. Semantic broadening
2. Semantic narrowing
3. Semantic shift
第八章
(定义)Sociolinguistics is the subfield of linguistic that studies the relation between language and society,between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.
(言语社区)speech community : the social group that singled out for any special study is called the speech community.
(言语变体)speech variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.
(地域方言)a regional dialect: is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.
(个人言语)idiolect: is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.
(语域)register: Thy type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.
Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register:
Field of discourse: refers to what is going on,
Tenor of discourse: refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question.
Mode of discourse: refers to the means of communication.
(标准方言)The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language.
(洋泾浜语)Pidgin: is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.
(克里奥耳语)Creole: When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to that become a creole.
(双语现象)Bilingualism: It has been observed that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of bilingualism.
第九章
Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that Characterizes the life of the human community.
Culture, in a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs.
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis(SWH): Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people‘s perception and the way the categorize their experiences.This interdependence of language and thought is now knows as Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.
The hypothesis is now interpreted mainly in two different ways:
A strong version and a weak one.
While the strong version believes that the language patterns determine people‘s thinking and behavior, the weak on holds that the former influence the later.
Contacts: between peoples with different cultures usually lead to change in one or both systems. Traditionally, three forms of culture contact are indentified:
1)acculturation: is the process of changing in material culture, traditional practices, and beliefs that occurs when on group‘s cultural system interferes with that of another, directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former.
2)assimilation: is the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society---not always completely.
3)amalgamation: occurs when a society becomes ethnically mixed in a way that represents a synthesis rather than the elimination or absorption of one group by another.
(文化重叠)Cultural overlap: between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings.
(文化传播)Cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about culture diffusion, which has been shaped gradually and unceasingly,
(语言帝国主义)Linguistic imperialism: is a kind of linguicism which can be defined sa the promulgation of global ideologies through the worldwide expansion of one language.
(跨文化交际)Intercultural communication: also known as cross—cultural communication, is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.
第十章
(语言习得)Language acquisition refers to the child‘s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.
儿童语言习得理论（theories of child language acquisition）
1)the behaviorist view行为主义者观
Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.
2)the innatist view天赋主义者观
The linguist Noam Chomsky claims that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking.
3)the interactionist view互动主义者观
The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and environment in which the child develops.
Critical period Hypothesis(CPH)
Eric Lenneberg, a biologist, argued that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully
(外延缩小)Under-extension: Children do not learn the meaning of a word ―all at once‖. When a child learns a new word, he may well under-extend it or overextend it.
(过度延伸)Over-extension: Overextension happens when a children takes a property of a object and generalizes it. It is likely to occur later rather than immediately following the acquisition of a word.
(听力损伤)Hearing impairment:which can be slight or severe and may lead to minor loss or total lack of language.
(智力障碍)Mental retardation：which may cause a delayed language acquisition
(自闭症)Autism: language impairment from the very beginning
(口吃)Stuttering:repetition of sound, syllables, or phrases where the speaker can not ―release‖ the words.
(失语症)Aphasia: partial or total loss of language due to brain damage
第十一章
Second Language Acquisition(SLA)第二语言习得
Formally established itself as a discipline around the 1970s,refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.
(错误分析)Error analysis involves, first independently or objectively, describing the learner‘s interlanguage.(that is, their version of the target language and the target language itself),then a comparison of the two is followed to locate mismatches)
(中介语)Interlanguage：is defined as an abstract system of learner‘s target language system, it has now been widely used to refer to the linguistic expressions learners produce especially the wrong or not idiomatic ones,.
(过渡概括)Overgeneralization: is defined as the use of previously available strategies in new situation.
第十二章
(神经语言学)Neurolinguistics is the study of the relationship between brain and language.
(心理语言学)Psycholinguistics is the study of language processing.
实用标准文案 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general) 2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics. (language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ) https://www.doczj.com/doc/0115489949.html,nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say. 6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory 7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time 3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语） These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing) https://www.doczj.com/doc/0115489949.html,ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate. 9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure ) https://www.doczj.com/doc/0115489949.html,petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language 11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky) traditional grammar and modern linguistics 1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive 2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer. 3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework. Functions of language. 精彩文档
第8章英语语言的应用（I） I. Fill in the blanks. 1. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the _____ of, or the _____the utterance. （人大2004研） 【答案】consequence, change brought about by 【解析】言外行为指说话的效果。 2. When a teacher says “The exam this year is going to be really difficult”, the sentence would have an _____force. （清华2001研，清华2000研） 【答案】illocutionary 【解析】言外行为，表达说话人的意图。 3. _____ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. 【答案】Performatives 【解析】施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。 II. Multiple Choices. 1. The speech act theory was developed by _____.（对外经贸2006研) A. John Searle B. John Austin
C. Levinson D. G. Leech 【答案】B 【解析】言语行为理论是哲学家约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出的。它从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释，其目的在于回答”用语言干什么”这个问题。 2. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest. (Focus on the type of illocutionary act) （南京大学2007研） A. threaten B. advise C. beseech D. urge 【答案】A 【解析】A为命令性言语行为，而其他三项为指示性言语行为。 3. _____ is using a sentence to perform a function. （西安外国语学院2006研） A. A perlocutionary act B. An illocutionary act C. A locutionary act D. Speech act 【答案】D 【解析】约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出言语行为理论, 此理论对语言交际的
Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学 1.What is pragmatics? 什么是语用学？ Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used. 语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。 由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。 2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学 Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。 3.Context 语境 Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。 4.Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。 5.Speech act theory 言语行为理论 Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. 言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。 According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.
一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标
Chapter Three Morphology形态学 一、定义 1. Morphology形态学：t he study of the internal structure of words (内部研究), and the rules by which words are formed. 对单词的内部结构和单词构成规则的研究。 2. Morpheme 词素：The smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. 最小的语言单位,携带信息的意义或功能。 二、知识点 3.2 Distinctions between open and close classes word 1. Open class words开放性词类: In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of vocabulary. They are content words of a language.，which are sometimes called open class words, since new words can be added to these classes regularly. 在英语中，名词、动词、 形容词和副词占词汇的绝大部分。他们是一门语言中的实义词，由于我们经常可以在这类词中加入新词，所以他们有时也称开放性词类。 2. Close classes word封闭性词类：Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns is small and stable since few new words are added , therefore such words have been referred to as closed class words. 构成连词、介词、冠词和代词的词相对较少，通常不添加新词，所以被称为封闭性词类。
第一章 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures https://www.doczj.com/doc/0115489949.html,nguage 1.1Why study language?为什么学习语言 A tool for communication交流的工具 An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知. 1.2What is language?什么是语言 1.2.1different senses of language 语言的不同意义 1. what a person says( concrete act of speech) a person’s consistent way of speaking or writing a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language an abstract system 2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”: a. human speech 人类的言语 b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力 c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声 音及这些声音互相结合的系统 d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达 3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交 流的一种方式. Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言 是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文 化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类 区别于动物. 1.2.2definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. What is communication? A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener). A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary? Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction 1.1 What is linguistics? Scientific study of language.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;
②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well; ③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound; Language is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;
《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断
一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it
Chapter 5 Semantics ?Semantics----the study of language meaning. ?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. ?Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. ?Meaning is central to the study of communication. ?Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist) ? 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. ? 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent, peripheral ? 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression ? 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer towards what is referred to ? 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ?Taboos ? 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it ?(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less stable, more culture-specific ) 7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order ?What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning ?Naming theory (Plato) ?The conceptualist view ?Contextualism (Bloomfield) ?Behaviorism Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things. The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things ?Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization