The significance of control construction costs manages on entire
process
First, The necessary of control construction costs manages on entire process Talk about the management and the control on construction costs, that the field we are just accustomed to is thought of is a project advance in final account. Indeed , right away at present system and reality,what the job of that the management and the control on construction costs is advance in final account. Be that in advance, the people who work on final account according that already be ascertaied of the working drawing to calculate project amounts，apply a quota mechanically, the meter mechanically fetching cost, or designing that according to the drawing sheet and construction organization after construction is over as well as the scene construction visa takes notes weaves the final account being completed. This is necessary , useful no doubt. But we must see that when pre-final accounts personnel weave working drawing budget or the final account being completed, the construction plan and the design paper already determined. But construction being to take according to picture as principle, so then in advance, job done by final account personnel is only the change secretly scheming against cost produced by design alteration and prevents upvaluation from calculating boldly. But suppose the project is unreasonable on economy, there is a fault in decision-making; suppose designing a scheme feasible or be not optimum on the technology; the final account
personnel can do nothing for sb then in advance. Job of final account personnel does accounts in advance only under just saying system currently in effect, after the event , can only reflect already complete project amounts inactively , can only reflect design and be under construction passively. This evidently is single-faceted , insufficient , we must carry out the entire proceeding supervisory control on the construction costs of building a project.
Concrete conditions of union our country, cost of construction manages have problems as follows:
1、Be not enough to take investment decision into the stage of construction costs seriously charge indeed.
Investment decision is to produce the construction costs headstream, This one stage blow the expense at take up the total investment forehead about %～3%,but that can have an effect to raise the project benefit of investment. That the project carries out rational choice on construction is that resource carries out direct , the most important optimization deploy means on economy , project benefit of investment affects efficiency and beneficial result to entire national economy. The developed country charges attach importance to control on investment decision stage construction costs,and costs not stinting big capital of money making the studies on the stage of carrying out investment decision energetically, make relatively comparatively accurate construction costs , go along the control
For a long time, there is the grave phenomenon investing in swelling in engineering construction of our country,bring the limit for a project feeling longer and longer, construction costs is higher and higher. The cause of that is short of the effective basis of the building of earlier stage ascertaining construction costs, only basis the already completed according to the expert , decision-makers draw lessons to estimate the project construction costs. Because a lot of factor effects, the“three surpass " phenomenon very common, there are main cause as follows:
(1) personal factor brings about rough estimate lessening
(2) equipment composes in reply material price's not working out according to market quotations.
(3) construction units bring forward the too high for exceeding a design criterion 2、The design stage of construction costs is not under the control of strict
The design stage is the faucet in that project construction costs controls. After the investment decision is be made rationally , that is the process of plan the technology and organic together economly . Effective control the cost of construction requires strictly and all-round in the enginee designing . Engineering design of current our country also puts move bidding system , fair competition into practice , cost of construction looks on control engineering effective to design stage as one of the standard choosing main part being hit by the bid unit , cost of construction carries out the administration controlling on the entire proceeding .Our country major part design that the unit carries out thorough analysis lack on construction project technology and economy , big multiple technologies make light of economy in design but at present , design that the personnel is responsible seemingly only to design project mass , are concerned with the construction costs height not very.
Optimize a design plan to such an extent as having no way to pass, the first step designs , the rough estimate gets to the effect controlling general cost of construction's establishment. Mass and depth that engineering design pursues etc. is also insufficient , amounts project mistakes in amounts project detailed lists calculates , misses and not calculating, can't arouse increasing by estimating a project momentary, the mass making a tender work is difficult to ensure that , have no way to have an effect to control construction costs as a result also.
3、Has not adopt the amounts project detailed list quoted price way being applied or used universally on the international all round
Adopt the amounts project detailed list quoted price way being put into use commonly on the international , is that our country construction costs system reforms and cause the inevitable trend reforming to bid system in invitation to bid tender.
One of important act carrying out project public bidding system being to build socialist market economy and to perfect construction market operating mechanism in construction field. After the construction project tender is carried out all round in our country, the effect is obvious in the respect of shortening the mass building a time limit for a project , ensuring a project , reducing construction costs , boycotting an unhealthy tendency. Have ensured the invitation to bid people and bidder's lawful rights and interests also effectively. With the socialist market economy uninterrupted growth,the original tender stage puts the budget quota valuation pattern into practice already doing not adapting , adopt the amounts project detailed list quoted price way being put into use commonly on the international to carry out a tender is an inevitable trend. Ministry of Construction has issued amounts project detailed list valuation method , amounts project detailed list valuation has been in construction project tender job , person has provided project quantity from invitation to bid according to national unification project amounts calculation regulation , quoted price, and classics have judged the reason bidder autonomously trying the at a low price middle bid construction costs valuation pattern.
That carrying out amounts project detailed list valuation method is one important measure of item of construction costs deepen the reform, is standard tender behavior effective measure. This method is beneficial to changing over taking that "amounts" ", "price" are "quota-consuming" as dominant static state managing a pattern , make project amounts in detailed list not enter competition, competition being confined to price only; Beneficial to rightness appraises enterprise strength; Project mass beneficial to ensuring that, reduces construction costs; May cut down the physical labour complicated and overloaded repeating the amounts calculating a project; Facilitate the tender quoted price job; Argue with the dispute back and forth in cutting down project settlement; Receive a track step by step with the convention "controlling amounts , guiding price , competing for a fee's on" the international, deepen the reformation that project valuation manages mainly according to the marketplace changes development, taking one's place on the international market for our country contracts business creates condition.
4、The stage being under construction controls lack to construction costs
Want to have strict control design alteration too in the stage being under construction. Guard the pass though that working drawing appears in joint trial or are able to have all sorts of problems, but call for to design a branch in the process of construction hard to avoid is strict out of the construction works complexity, the situation changing after avoiding doing first, is also that the weight avoiding break a rough estimate , effective control engineering of construction costs cost of construction plays with a link. At the same time, the sharpening contract manages , ensures equality and mutual benefit issuing contract of method and contracting method.
5、The construction costs being completed settling a stage's controls a project inefficiently
That the final account being completed is that entire construction costs is under the control of the most important one is encircled by construction works. How the final account being completed can reflect actual entire project cost of construction honestly , have also reflected the ability issuing contract of method and contracting method to construction costs administration , have finished handling a project in time the final account being completed must collect , arrange settling a data , pursuing , designing the certificate material changing notice , various warning including that the project is completed and so on being completed. These data collecting must pay attention to whose validity with obtaining evidence, specimen seal impression having designing personnel's signature and being related to if the design alteration advice note must be made known to lower levels by plain design organ. Scene inspection and control visa must label seal and the ratification going on a punitive expedition to such that designing a personnel etc. having construction site person in charge of first party.Great majority our country construction projects are completed in the project being under construction when the final account, during the period of the final account being completed contracting method , are are under construction contracting method calculating commonly much in the book being completed winding up an account , are issue contract of haggie just inexhaustible in devices and schemes , are dispute over trifles phenomenon is grave , project settlement drags repeatedly , some confirmation having drug once and , greatly, affecting engineering construction project sigmatism and building construction costs.
A construction project includes the following procedure from brewing , planning , designing that to establishing completion and commissioning: Be that the project letter of advice stage , feasibility appraise the stage , design stage , the stage being under construction , acceptance check stage and the queen being completed estimate that.Correspondingly, the construction costs ascertaining that and the project construction phase job look at and appraise the stage adapting to , several being allotted in general for the following: The investment studying stage establishment in the project letter of advice and feasibility is estimated, design stage establishment designs a rough estimate in the first step, budget designing that the stage weaves working drawing in working drawing, budget builds ampere of construction costs face to face with working drawing for basis tender project engineering contract, price is also that the form ascertains that with the business
contract; Project amounts putting stage into practice being going to be completed according to contracting reality in project, takes contract price as basis , considers cost of construction rise aroused by inflation of prices at the same time , considers the project and cost being difficult to estimate that to designing middle but happening in putting stage reality into practice , the example is ascertained estimating price; All-in cost costing in the reality being completed checking and accepting a stage , assembling into engineering construction process middle all round, weaves the final account being completed , embodies the actual cost of construction that a construction project according to the facts.
"Four guess that two-valence "is interrelated , the former restricts the latter , the latter supplements the former.
What is called, build the construction costs administration and control, it is the occurrence contracting the stage and construction in the investment decision stage , design stage , construction project putting stage into practice with construction construction costs to control within the cost of construction quota O. K. , correcting the deviation happening at any time, to ensure that the project manages the target realization , get fairly good benefit of investment and social benefits in an attempt being able to use manpower and material resources, financial resources rationally in building a project one by one.
Second, the importance of the investment decision-making stage of project cost control
Construction projects in the investment decision-making stage, the project of the techno-economic decision-making, as well as the cost of construction projects completed and put into production after the project cost-effective, have a decisive impact on the construction project cost control is an important stage. Project cost management as a decision-making stage in the feasibility study report shall be prepared, and economic evaluation of the proposed project, select the technically feasible and economically the construction of example programs and to optimize the construction program on the basis of the preparation of high-quality items investment is estimated that the project construction so that the real control of the project has played the role of total investment.
The impact of the decision-making phase of the project cost are the main factors: a, the determine level of construction standards; b, the choice of built-up areas; c, building location (site) selection; d, project the economic scale; e, technology selection f, equipment selection .
Such as the choice of built-up areas, there is a basic principle, that is close to raw materials, fuel and consumer principles. This project completed and put into production, you can avoid the raw materials, fuels, and finished the long-haul transport, reduce costs, lower costs; transportation distance may be shortened to reduce the flow of time, speed up cash flow and is conducive to business. If the project's economic size, economies of scale, product standard is a reasonable means of production volume, a number of products under certain conditions, was "increasing returns" of economic phenomena, that is, with the expansion of production volume, unit cost reduction, revenue increase.
Therefore, in order to phase in the investment decision-making control over project cost effective, we must do a good job in the following areas:
(1) the implementation of construction project legal person responsibility system, the construction project from planning to implementation of the whole process of the use of funds and repayment responsibilities to people and projects at the same time establish a system of matching corporate oversight mechanisms, by the competent authorities and supervision of the industry sector establishment of a monitoring group to oversee the use of project funds.
(2) to conduct market analysis and seeking truth from facts, to avoid the blindness of the project decision-making, reduce risk and lower investment, give full consideration to construction projects in the future competitiveness of the market so that more scientific book design and reliability
(3) Capital financial capital must be committed to a formal document, investment funds must be put in place the parties, there must be a funding document to ensure that projects are implemented on schedule after approval. Conditions of the loans should be carefully analyzed and compared to minimize the interest burden and repayment pressure.
(4) Strengthening of engineering geology, hydrogeology, as well as land, water, electricity, transport, environmental protection projects such as the work of the depth of the external conditions, so that there is sufficient basis to estimate the investment. At the same time, extensive research should be to compare similar projects, a serious functional analysis, comparison and choice of multi-program, a full-scale technical feasibility studies and economic evaluation, the finalization of technologically advanced, reliable, economical and rational project construction program in order to estimate more accurate and realistic estimate of the amount of investment in order to make the project cost from the start position in a more reasonable level.
Third, the design phase of the importance of project cost control
Make investment decisions in the project, the project cost control is the key to the design. Design is in the technical and economic implementation of the proposed project to conduct a comprehensive arrangement, is also planning the construction process. Technologically advanced, economical and rational design can reduce the project construction period, savings investment, to improve efficiency. According to expert analysis, design fee generally equal to the construction of the project life-cycle cost of less than 1%, which costs less than 1% of project cost accounts for the impact of degrees above 75%. Because of the general construction projects, selection of materials and equipment accounted for more than 50% of the cost of the project, and in the design phase of architectural forms, structural type, the selection of equipment and materials have been identified in the construction of post-implementation phase, the impact of the project cost a small (10 % or less). This shows that the design quality is crucial to the entire project
The same construction project, the same single unit of work can have different programs, which have different costs, it is therefore necessary to meet the function under the premise of doing a number of options, through technical comparison,
economic analysis and efficiency evaluation, selection of technology selection into the application of economic and rational design, that is, the process of design optimization. Often used to optimize the design of the program, also known as the value of value engineering analysis, that is, as far as possible in meeting the functionality or improve the function of the premise, as far as possible to reduce costs.
Occurred in the cost of all parts of the application of value engineering, construction investment will require a lot of people, financial, and material, and thus the value of engineering construction works great. For a rather mature and effective management methods, value engineering in a number of works have been widely used in construction.
In the engineering design phase correctly handle the technical and economic relationship between the unity of opposites, we can control the key to investment, design and cost management must work closely with staff to make a lot of the technical and economic comparison, in the reduction and control of project efforts, engineering Cost management in the design process should be timely investment analysis on the comparison, the cost of information feedback and dynamic impact on the design, in order to ensure effective control over investment.
At the design stage to project cost control should focus on the following aspects.
(1) to promote the design and the design of the bidding campaign optimization design approach
The assessment team of experts using scientific methods, in accordance with applicable, economic, aesthetic principles, as well as technologically advanced, well-structured to meet the building energy saving and environmental requirements, a comprehensive assessment of the merits of design, selection of the best in determining the successful program. Estimates of selected investment program in general to be close to the scope of construction projects. The design of these two methods both contract design choice and competition, to ensure selection of the design of technologically advanced, innovative and unique, adaptable, and help control project cost. Design units should strive to improve their own quality, clever engineering design ideas, great care, in order to reduce the project cost more than their brains in order to improve design quality, and strive to put at the design stage in the approval of project cost control within the investment limits.
(2) actively pursuing the design limit
The so-called cap design, is in accordance with the approved design of the book and investment is estimated that in the guarantee under the premise of the functional requirements. Preliminary design and budget control, in accordance with the approved budget for the preliminary design and total control of the construction design. Through the ceiling design, every professional, every designer has a target investment limit. During the design process, designers should be more into the program to compare and optimize the design, Not only to ensure that technically advanced and reasonable design, innovative aesthetics, but also the investment limit is not exceeded the target in order to put an end to the design of the project to raise the factor of safety and design standards, or only consider the feasibility of technical
solutions, rather than the phenomenon of economic rationality to ensure effective cost control.
(3) the implementation of the design of reward and punishment system
In order to limit the design of the implementation into practice, the limit should be set up and sound system designed to reward and punishment. To limit the design is done well, cost savings and control of investment there is the effectiveness of the project legal person should be given appropriate incentives and design units. Design to limit the development of the internal design of assessment and incentive methods to limit attention to the design, made to save investment and effective cost control offices and the significant achievements of individuals, should be rewarding. Do not attach importance to limit the design, do not take measures to save the investment, resulting in more than a design limit investment offices and individuals should be given to economic penalties. Do reward and encourage designers to design deep potential economic importance to design the control of a reasonable project cost will be a major breakthrough.
Fourth、the cost control of the implementation phase of construction project
1, the bidding process stage
The implementation of construction project bidding is effective means of construction projects to control the implementation phase of the project cost. If we want To do a good job for bidding, the first we should make sure that qualification is clearance, and resolutely put an end to bribery, such as all the Phenomenon about destruction of all bidding discipline; Secondly, we should strengthen the bid management, to ensure the accuracy and confidentiality of bid preparation; Third, make sure the method of Evaluation and Calibration are Scientific .when select the successful projects as a standard we should concern about the reasonable, short period, reputable companies, construction considerations such as experience. when we evaluation, the first is technical standard assessment, the follow is business assessment,this can ensure open, fair and just.
2, the construction phase
In the construction phase construction ,the goles based on project budget or contract price of Civil works and installation works and project cost control of Civil works and installation works. At this stage the scope for savings has been small, but it is likely to lead to waste,this make us give them adequate attention for the control of project cost.
(1) strengthen the technical and economic comparison of construction program
Construction is an important work of the design of constructing orgnization. Reasonable constructing program can shorten the period of constructing, ensure the quality of the project and enhance economic efficiency. Comparing and analysing the constructing program from technical and economic view and comparing the three techno-economic index of the quality, duration and cost through qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis can take good use of manpower, material and financial resources, achieving better economic benefits. Consequently, good construction management is an important way of all-round cost management.
(2) a sound system design change Examination and approval system
If design subject need to be change, we should take action as far as possible in advance, because the sooner the change, the smaller loss; Second, before each design ofchanges we must analysis the quality of project and cost, and this should receive the consent of the original design. If it breakthrough the total project cost estimates after the change, this must be approved by the review of the relevant departments, we should prevent these things happened such as increasing design elements ,improving the design standards, increasing the project cost.
(3) check strictly with visa procedures of the project site we should Construct project management system , establish the specialized departments,and through the use of specialized management of professionals for the project, to avoid the phenomenon that project management staff just care visa only, take no concern about the economic accounts, resulting the serious consequences such as investment is out of control.
For Seriously changes of visa procedures we should make the building side, supervision side, the construction site together representatives signed a manner to ensure that the authenticity of the visa, the rationality of the economy of changes and to avoid the disputes caused by the phenomenon of fraud.
(4) do a good job in the completion of the audit settlement price
Clearing refers to the completion of construction enterprises in accordance with the terms of the contract completed by the contractor within the engineering, land quality experience, and in accordance with the contract, the construction units to carry out the final project settlement price. Completion of the project audited settlement is approved in accordance with the construction of the project cost. Therefore, the completion of settlement of the audit is a very important work, should focus on the following:
① check the accuracy of the project check of project Quantity is the most important and most complicated, the most detailed work in process of the settle of completed project, this must be based on completion of the project plan, changed design and construction of the scene .it strictly in accordance with the provisions of the rules one by one in terms of project review to prevent the units of construction to increase the volume of inflated project cost in the settlement on completion of the project.
② examine whether the additional apply is right . check the sub-projects listed in the price in line with the fixed unit price, check whether the name, specification, measurement units and the content consistent with the units of the valuation table; for the unit price of conversion, the first step is to check if the conversion price was fixed allowed, followed check if the conversion price is correct.
③ check if the standards for the admission fee In line with the cost of the fixed and the cost of policies and regulations of the project during the construction. Fifth, the thinking and outlook of project cost management system
From a long time, we generally ignore the the project cost control of preparatory work for the construction phase, and control projects often focus on the cost of the construction phase - the budget review working drawings and reasonable
settlement price Civil project and installation project,little count, although there do , but, after all, is "never too late to mend", achieve very little.
In order to control construction costs effectively, it is necessary for us to shifted the focus of control to the early stages, the first thing we shoulf do is that to attach importance to this and strengthen the work of estimated investment of decision-making phase of the project. in an effort to increase the accuracy of control count of the investment feasibility study. to effectively play its the role of control the construction of the total project cost.
Secondly, we should know that the budget estimates must be clear not only to reflect the design, calculation of project cost, but also can affect the dynamic design, optimal design and play the role of control project cost, and promote the role of the rational use of construction funds.
At the same time,we should to take design estimates of invest estimates in the project cost, and working drawings budget, contract price, settlement price, the completion of final accounts (four counting the two prices) to implement the integrated management of change the situation of " the pipe section of the railway police," and this the needs of the industry by deepening structural reforms, through the operation of market price-setting mechanism, we can get a project cost management system with the formation of a unified, coordinated and orderly system, to achieve the goles of rational use of investment, to control costs effectively, achieve the best return on investment in the end, and to gradually establish a project cost management system .this system can adapt the socialist market economic system, and also adopt the situation that China's national conditions in line with international practice.
工程造价管理全过程控制的重要性
一、工程造价管理全过程控制的必要性
谈到工程造价的管理和控制，我们便习惯地想到是工程预决算。确实，就目前的体制和现实而言，工程造价的管理和控制工作就是预决算。即预决算人员根据已经确定的施工图计算工程量、套用定额、计取费用，或在施工结束后根据图纸和施工组织设计以及现场施工签证记录等资料编制竣工决算。这固然是必要的，有用的。但我们也要看到，当预决算人员编制施工图预算或竣工决算时，建设方案和设计图纸都已经确定了的。而施工是以按图施工为原则，那么这时预决算人员所做的工作只是计算设计变更所产生的费用变化以及防止高估冒算。而假如项目在经济上是不合理的，决策存在失误；假如设计方案在技术上不可行或者不是最优，则预决算人员无能为力。也就是说现行体制下，预决算人员的工作只是事后算帐，只能消极地反映已完工程量，只能被动地反映设计和施工。这显然是片面的，不够的，我们必须对建设项目工程造价进行全过程监控。
结合我国的具体情况，造价管理存在的问题如下：
1、不够重视投资决策阶段工程造价的确控
投资决策是产生工程造价源头，这一阶段耗资约占总投资额的%～3%，但能有效提高项目的投资效益。对建设项目进行合理的选择是对经济资源进行优化配置的最直接、最重要的手段，项目投资效益影响到整个国民经济的效率和效益。发达国家对投资决策阶段工程造价的确控十分重视，不惜花大本钱、大力气进行投资决策阶段的工程造价研究，作出相对比较准确的工程造价，进行控制。
长期以来，我国的工程建设存在投资膨胀严重的现象，造成工期越拖越长，工程造价越来越高。原因是缺乏建设前期确定工程造价的有效依据，只能依据专家、决策者们借鉴已完成的项目工程造价进行估算，但又往往因为诸多因素影响，三超”现象相当普遍，究其原因，主要有：
(1) 人为因素造成概算降低。
(2) 设备和材料价格的不按市场行情制定。
(3) 在项目实施过程中，建设单位提出超过设计标准的过高要求
2、设计阶段的工程造价控制不严
设计阶段是建设项目工程造价控制的龙头。在投资计划得以合理确定以后，进入设计阶段，它是把技术与经济有机结合在一起的过程。有效控制工程造价要求在施工图设计中严密、全面。
当前我国的工程设计也实行招投标制、公平竞争，把对设计阶段有效控制工程造价作为选择中标单位的主要标准之一，对全过程造价进行控制的管理。但目前我国大部分设计单位对工程项目的技术与经济进行深入分析不够。在设计中大多重技术轻经济，设计人员似乎只对设计工程的质量负责，对工程造价的高低不太关心。以致无法通过优化设计方案，编制初步设计、概算起到控制总造价的作用。工程设计图的质量和深度等也不够，工程量清单中的工程量错算、漏算，也引起暂估项目的增多，使招投标工作的质量难以保证，因而也无法有效控制工程造价。
3、还未全面采用国际上通用的工程量清单报价方式
在招标投标中采用国际上普遍使用的工程量清单报价方式，是我国工程造价制度改革和招投标制度改革的必然趋势。
在建设领域推行工程招标制度是建立社会主义市场经济和完善建筑市场运行机制的重要举措之一。建设工程招投标在我国全面推行后，在缩短建设工期、确保工程质量、降低工程造价、抵制不正之风方面作用明显。也有效地保障了招标人和投标人的合法权益。随着社会主义市场经济的不断发展，原来的招投标阶段实行预算定额计价模式已不适应，采用国际上普遍使用的工程量清单报价方式进行招投标是必然趋势。建设部颁发了工程量清单计价方法，工程量清单计价是建设工程招投标工作中，由招标人按照国家统一的工程量计算规则提供工程数量，由投标人自主报价，并经评审低价中标的工程造价计价模式。
推行工程量清单计价方法是工程造价深化改革的一项重要措施，是规范招投标行为的有效措施。这种方法有利于改变过去以“量”、“价”“费”定额为主导的静态管理模式，使清单中的工程量不进入竞争，仅限于价格的竞争；有利于正确评价企业实力；有利于保证工程质量、降低工程造价；可减少重复计算工程量的繁杂劳动；简化招投标报价工作；减少工程结算中扯皮与纠纷；逐步与国际上“控
制量、指导价、竞争费”的惯例接轨，深化工程计价主要依据市场变化动态管理的改革，为我国承包商走向国际市场创造条件。
4、施工阶段对工程造价控制不够
在施工阶段还要严格控制设计变更。虽然出于建筑工程的复杂性难免出现施工图在会审中或在施工过程中会有这样那样的问题，但要求设计部门严格把关，避免先干后变的状况，也是避免工程造价突破概算，有效控制工程造价的重耍环节。同时加强合同管理，保障发包方与承包方平等互利。
5、工程竣工结算阶段的工程造价控制不力
建筑工程竣工决算是整个工程造价控制最重要的一环。竣工决算如何能忠实地反映整个工程的实际造价，也反映了发包方和承包方对工程造价管理的能力，及时办好工程竣工决算必须收集、整理竣工结算资料，包括工程竣工图、设计变更通知、各种鉴证材料等。这些资料的收集和取证还必须注意其有效性，如设计变更通知书必须由原设计单位下达的有设计人员的签名和相关印鉴。现场监理的签证必须有甲方工地负责人的签章并征得设计人员的认可等。我国大多数工程项目在工程竣工决算时，施工承包方在竣工决算时，施工承包方在竣工结算书中普遍多算，发包方千方百计乱砍一通，扯皮现象严重，工程结算一拖再拖，有的一拖就是几年，大大影响工程建设项目的使用和建设工程造价的确认。
一个建设项目从酝酿、规划、设计到建成投产包括以下程序：即项目建议书阶段、可行性评估阶段、设计阶段、施工阶段、竣工验收阶段以及后评估。相应地，工程造价的确定与工程建设阶段性工作相适应，一般分为以下几个阶段：在项目建议书和可行性研究阶段编制投资估算，在初步设计阶段编制设计概算，在施工图设计阶段编制施工图预算，对以施工图预算为基础招投标的工程，承包合同价也是以经济合同形式确定的建安工程造价；在工程实施阶段要按承包实际完成的工程量，以合同价为基础，同时考虑物价上涨所引起的造价提高，考虑到设计中难以预计而在实施阶段实际发生的工程和费用，例题确定估算价；在竣工验收阶段，全面汇集在工程建设过程中实际花费的全部费用，编制竣工决算，如实体现该建设工程的实际造价。
"四算两价"互相关联，前者制约后者，后者补充前者。
所谓建设工程造价的管理与控制，就是在投资决策阶段、设计阶段、建设项目承包阶段和建设实施阶段把建设工程造价的发生控制在批准的造价限额以内，
随时纠正发生的偏差，以保证项目管理目标的实现，以求在各个建设项目中能合理使用人力、物力、财力，取得较好的投资效益和社会效益。
二、投资决策阶段工程造价控制的重要性
在建设项目投资决策阶段，项目的各项技术经济决策，对建设工程造价以及项目建成投产后的经济效益，有着决定性的影响，是建设工程造价控制的重要阶段。
作为工程造价管理人员在决策阶段应编制可行性研究报告，并对拟建项目进行经济评价，选择技术上可行、经济上例题的建设方案，并在优化建设方案的基础上，编制高质量的项目投资估算，使其在项目建设中真正起到控制项目总投资的作用。
决策阶段影响工程造价的主要因素有：a、建设标准水平的确定;b、建设地区的选择;c、建设地点（厂址）的选择;d、项目的经济规模;e、工艺评选f、设备选用。
如建设地区的选择，有一个基本原则，即靠近原料、燃料和消费地的原则。这样在项目建成投产后，可避免原料、燃料和成品的远途运输，减少费用，降低成本；可缩短运输距离，减少流通时间，加快资金周转，有利于企业经营。
如项目的经济规模，规模经济标准是指产品的合理生产批量，一些产品的生产在一定条件下呈"收益递增"的经济现象，即随生产批量的扩大，单位成本降低，收益上升。
因此，为了在投资决策阶段做到有效控制工程造价，必须做好以下几方面的工作：
(1) 推行建设项目法人责任制，将建设项目从筹建到实施全过程中的资金使用和偿还责任落实到人，同时建立与项目法人制度相配套的监督机制，由行业主管部门和监督部门共同设立监察组，监督项目资金的使用情况。
(2) 实事求是地进行市场分析，避免项目决策的盲目性，减少和降低投资风险，充分考虑建设项目在未来市场中的竞争力，使设计任务书更具科学性和可靠性。
(3) 资本金融资必须有正式的承诺文件，投资各方必须做到资金到位，必须有资金文件，确保项目得到批准后能按期实施。对各项贷款的条件应进行认真细致地分析比较，尽量减轻利息负担和还贷压力。
(4) 加强工程地质、水文地质以及征地、水源、供电、运输、环保等工程项目外部条件的工作深度，使投资估算有充分依据。同时应广泛调查研究，比较同类项目，认真进行功能分析、多方案比较和选择，经过充分的技术论证和经济评价后，最终确定技术先进、功能可靠、经济合理的项目建设方案，从而计算出较为准确、切合实际的投资估算额，使工程造价从一开始就定位在一个较为合理的水平上。
三、设计阶段工程造价控制的重要性
在项目作出投资决策后，控制工程造价的关键就在于设计。设计是在技术和经济上对拟建工程的实施进行全面的安排，也是对工程建设进行规划的过程。技术先进、经济合理的设计能使项目建设缩短工期、节省投资、提高效益。据专家分析，设计费一般只相当于建设工程全寿命费用的1%以下，而这1%以下的费用对工程造价的影响度却占75%以上。因为对于一般建设工程，材料和设备选用占工程成本50%以上，而在设计阶段建筑形式、结构类别、设备和材料的选用已经确定，在建设后期实施阶段，对工程造价的影响很小（10%以下）。由此可见，设计质量对整个工程建设至关重要。
同一建设项目，同一单项单位工程，可以有不同的方案，从而有不同的造价，因此，有必要在满足功能的前提下，做多个方案，通过技术比较、经济分析和效益评价，选用技术选进适用、经济合理的设计方案，即设计方案的优化过程。
设计方案优化常采用价值工程又称价值分析法，即在满足功能或尽可能提高功能的前提下尽可能降低成本。
一切发生费用的地方都可应用价值工程，工程建设需大量投入人、财、物，因而价值工程在工程建设方面大有可为。作一种相当成熟而又行之有效的管理方法，价值工程在许多工程建设中得到广泛运用。
在工程设计阶段正确处理技术与经济的对立统一关系，是控制项目投资的关键环节，设计人员和造价管理人员必须密切配合，作好多方案的技术经济比较，在降低和控制项目投资上下功夫，工程造价管理人员在设计过程中应及时对项目投资进行分析对比，反馈造价信息，能动地影响设计，以保证有效地控制投资。
要在设计阶段控制好工程造价应着重做好以下几方面的工作。
(1) 提倡设计招投标和设计方案竞选方式优选设计单位
由专家评定小组采用科学方法，按照适用、经济、美观的原则以及技术先进、结构合理、满足建筑节能和环境等要求，综合评定设计方案的优劣，择优确定中选方案。中选方案的投资估算一般要能接近建设项目的投资范围。这两种设计发包方式既有利于设计方案的选择和竞争，保证选用的设计方案技术先进、新颖独特、适应性强，又有利于控制工程造价。设计单位要努力提高自身素质，在工程设计方案巧妙构思，精雕细琢，在降低工程造价上要多动脑筋，以提高设计质量，力争在设计阶段就把工程造价控制在批准的投资限额内。
(2) 积极推行限额设计
所谓限额设计，就是按照批准的设计任务书和投资估算，在保证功能要求的前提下。控制初步设计及概算，按照批准的初步设计及总概算控制施工图设计。通过限额设计，每一个专业、每一个设计人员都有一个投资限额的目标。在设计过程中，设计人员应进地多方案比较，优化设计，既保证设计在技术上先进合理、新颖美观，又不突破投资限额目标，从而杜绝在工程设计中任意提高安全系数和设计标准，或只考虑技术方案的可行性，而不重视经济合理性的现象，保证工程造价得到有效的控制。
(3) 实行设计的奖罚制度
为使限额设计落实到实处，应建立和健全限额设计的奖罚制度。对限额设计搞得好、节约投资和控制造价确有成效的，项目法人应给予设计单位适当奖励。设计单位要制定本单位内部的限额设计考核和奖惩方法，对重视限额设计，取得节约投资和控制造价有成效的处室及成绩显着的个人，应予以奖励。对不重视限额设计、不采取节约投资的措施，造成某一专业设计超过投资限额的处室和个人应给予经济处罚。做到奖罚分明，激励设计人员深挖设计潜力，重视设计方案的经济合理对控制工程造价将是一个大的突破。
四、建设项目实施阶段的造价控制
1、招标投标阶段
推行建设工程招标投标是控制建设项目实施阶段工程造价的有效手段。要搞好招标投标工作，首先是把好资格审查关，坚决杜绝一切索贿受贿等破坏招标投标纪律的现象；其次，加强标底管理，保证标底编制的准确性和保密性；第三，制定科学的评标定标方法，选择中标单位的标准应从工程报价合理、工期短、企
业信誉良好、施工经验丰富等方面考虑，评标时，先评技术标，后评商务标，做到公开、公平、公正。
2、施工阶段
在施工阶段主要是以施工图预算或建安工程承包合同价为目标，控制建安工程造价。在这一阶段节约的余地已经很小，但浪费的可能性却很大，因而要对工程造价的控制给予足够的重视。
(1) 加强对施工方案的技术经济比较
施工方案是施工组织设计中的一项重要工作内容，合理的施工方案，可以缩短工期，保证工程质量，提高经济效益，对施工方案从技术上和经济上进行对比评价，通过定性分析和定量分析，对质量、工期、造价三项技术经济指标比较，可以合理有效地利用人力、物力、财力资源，取得较好的经济效益，把好施工管理关，是全面造价管理的重要途径。
(2) 健全设计变更审批制度
设计如有变更，一是要尽量提前变更，因为变更越早，损失越小；二是在每一变更设计之前，必须进行工程量及造价增减分析，并经原设计单位同意。如果变更后工程造价突破总概算，必须经有关部门审查，要切实防止通过变更设计增加设计内容、提高设计标准、提高工程造价的情况发生。
(3) 对工程现场签证手续严格把关
通过建设工程监理制度，建立专门部门，利用专业人员对工程实行专业化管理，避免出现工程管理人员只管签证，不算经济帐的现象，造成投资失控的严重后果。为了严肃变更签证手续，应采取建设方、监理方、施工方代表现场联签的方式，保证变更、签证的真实性、合理性、经济性，避免弄虚作假现象及由此引出的纠纷。
(4) 认真做好竣工结算价的审核工作
工程竣工结算是指施工企业按照合同规定的内部全部完成所承包的工程，经验收质量合格，并符合合同要求之后，向建设单位进行的最终工程价款结算。经审核的工程竣工结算是核定建设工程造价的依据。因此，竣工结算的审核是一项非常重要的工作，应着重做好以下：
①审核工程量的准确性。工程量的审核是竣工结算审核过程中最重要、最繁琐、最细致的一项工作，必须以工程竣工图、设计变更及施工现场为依据，严格
按照定额规定的工程量计算规则逐项进行审核，以防止施工单位在工程竣工结算上虚增工程量来增加工程造价。
②审查定额套用是否正确。审查所列分项工程的单价是否与定额单价相符，其名称、规格、计量单位和所包含的内容是否与单位估价表一致；对于换算的单价，首先审查单价的换算是否是定额允许的，其次审查单价换算是否正确。
③审查各项取费标准是否符合费用定额和施工期间有关工程造价政策规定五、工程造价管理体制改革的思考与展望
长期以来，我们普遍忽视工程建设项目前期工作阶段的造价控制，而往往把控制工程造价的主要精力放在施工阶段--审核施工图预算，合理结算建安工程价款，算细帐，这样做尽管也有用，但毕竟是"亡羊补牢"，事倍功半。
要有效的控制建设工程造价，就要坚决把控制重点转移到前期阶段来，首先要重视和加强项目决策阶段的投资估算工作，努力提高可行性研究报告投资控制数的准确度，切实发挥其控制建设项目总造价的作用。
其次，要明确概预算工作不仅要反映设计，计算工程造价，更要能动地影响设计，优化设计，并发挥控制工程造价，促进合理使用建设资金的作用。
同时要对工程造价中的投资估算，设计概算，施工图预算、承包合同价、结算价、竣工决算（四算两价）实行一体化管理，改变"铁路警察各管一段"的状况，而这需要通过深化行业体制改革，通过市场价格的机制的运行，形成统一、协调、有序的工程造价管理体系，达到合理使用投资，有效地控制造价，取得最佳投资效益的目的，逐步建立起适应社会主义市场经济体制，符合中国国情与国际惯例接轨的工程造价管理体制。
会计内部控制中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
内部控制透视：理论与概念 摘要：内部控制是会计程序或控制系统，旨在促进效率或保证一个执行政策或保护资产或避免欺诈和错误。内部是一个组织管理的重要组成部分。它包括计划、方法和程序使用，以满足任务，目标和目的，并在这样做，支持基于业绩的管理。内部控制是管理阶层的平等与控制可以帮助管理者实现资源的预期的有效管理的结果通过。内部控制应减少或违规错误的风险关联未被发现的，但设计和建立有效的内部控制不是一个简单的任务，不可能是一个实现通过快速修复短套。在此讨论了内部文件的概念的不同方面的内部控制和管制。 关键词：内部控制，管理控制，控制环境，控制活动，监督 1、介绍 环境需要新的业务控制变量不为任何潜在的股东和管理人士的响应因子为1，另外应执行/她组织了一个很大的控制权。控制是管理活动的东西或以上施加控制。思想的产生和近十年的发展需要有系统的商业资源和控制这种财富一个新的关注。主题之一热一回合管制的商业资源是分析每个控制成本效益。 作为内部控制和欺诈的第一道防线，维护资产以及预防和侦查错误。内部控制，我们可以说是一种控制整个系统的财务和其他方面的管理制定了为企业的顺利运行;它包括内部的脸颊，内部审计和其他形式的控制。 COSO的内部控制描述如下。内部控制是一个客观的方法用来帮助确保实现。在会计和组织理论，内部控制是指或目标目标的过程实施由组织的结构，工作和权力流动，人员和具体的管理信息系统，旨在帮助组织实现。这是一种手段，其中一个组织的资源被定向，监控和测量。它发挥着无形的（重要的作用，预防和侦查欺诈和保护组织的资源，包括生理（如，机械和财产）和乙二醇，声誉或知识产权，如商标）。在组织水平，内部控制目标与可靠性的目标或战略的财务报告，及时反馈业务上的成就，并遵守法律，法规。在具体的交易水平，内部控制是指第三方采取行动以实现一个具体目标（例如，如何确保本组织的款项，在申请服务提供有效的。）内部控制程序reduce程变异，导
A Clear Look at Internal Controls: Theory and Concepts Hammed Arad (Philae) Department of accounting, Islamic Azad University, Hamadan, Iran Barak Jamshedy-Navid Faculty Member of Islamic Azad University, Kerman-shah, Iran Abstract: internal control is an accounting procedure or system designed to promote efficiency or assure the implementation of a policy or safeguard assets or avoid fraud and error. Internal Control is a major part of managing an organization. It comprises the plans, methods, and procedures used to meet missions, goals, and objectives and, in doing so, support performance-based management. Internal Control which is equal with management control helps managers achieve desired results through effective stewardship of resources. Internal controls should reduce the risks associated with undetected errors or irregularities, but designing and establishing effective internal controls is not a simple task and cannot be accomplished through a short set of quick fixes. In this paper the concepts of internal controls and different aspects of internal controls are discussed. Keywords: Internal Control, management controls, Control Environment, Control Activities, Monitoring 1. Introduction The necessity of control in new variable business environment is not latent for any person and management as a response factor for stockholders and another should implement a great control over his/her organization. Control is the activity of managing or exerting control over something. he emergence and development of systematic thoughts in recent decade required a new attention to business resource and control over this wealth. One of the hot topic a bout controls over business resource is analyzing the cost-benefit of each control. Internal Controls serve as the first line of defense in safeguarding assets and preventing and detecting errors and fraud. We can say Internal control is a whole system of controls financial and otherwise, established by the management for the smooth running of business; it includes internal cheek, internal audit and other forms of controls. COSO describe Internal Control as follow. Internal controls are the methods employed to help ensure the achievement of an objective. In accounting and organizational theory, Internal control is defined as a process effected by an organization's structure, work and authority flows, people and management information systems, designed to help the organization accomplish specific goals or objectives. It is a means by which an organization's resources are directed, monitored, and measured. It plays an important role in preventing and detecting fraud and protecting the organization's resources, both physical (e.g., machinery and property) and intangible (e.g., reputation or intellectual property such as trademarks). At the organizational level, internal control objectives relate to the reliability of financial reporting, timely feedback on the achievement of operational or strategic goals, and compliance with laws and regulations. At the specific transaction level, internal control refers to the actions taken to achieve a specific objective (e.g., how to ensure the organization's payments to third parties are for valid services rendered.) Internal control
企业成本控制外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
译文： 在价值链的成本控制下减少费用和获得更多的利润 摘要： 根据基于价值链的成本管理理念和基于价值的重要因素是必要的。首先，必须有足够的资源，必须创造了有利的价值投资，同时还需要基于客户价值活动链，以确定他们的成本管理优势的价值链。其次，消耗的资源必须尽量减少，使最小的运营成本价值链和确保成本优势是基于最大商业价值或利润，这是一种成本控制系统内部整个视图的创建和供应的具实践，它也是一种成本控制制度基于价值链，包括足够的控制和必要的资源投资价值的观点，创建和保持消费的资源到合理的水平，具有价值的观点主要对象的第一个因素是构造有利的价值链，从创造顾客价值开始；第二个因素是加强有利的价值链，从供应或生产客户价值开始。因此它是一个新型的理念，去探索成本控制从整个视图的创建和供应的商品更盈利企业获得可持续的竞争优势。 关键词：成本控制，价值链，收益，支出，收入，成本会计 1、介绍 根据价值链理论，企业的目的是创造最大的顾客价值；和企业的竞争优势在于尽可能提供尽可能多的价值给他们的客户，作为低成本可能的。这要求企业必须首先考虑他们是否能为顾客创造价值，和然后考虑在很长一段时间内如何创造它。然而，竞争一直以“商品”（或“产品”）作为最直接的载体，因此，传统的成本控制方法主要集中在对“产品”和生产流程的过程。很显然，这不能解决企业的问题，企业是否或如何能为客户创造价值。换句话说，这至少不能从根本上解决它。 因此，企业必须首先投入足够的资源，以便他们能够创建客户值取向，然后提供它以最少的资源费用。所以在整个视图中对价值创造和提供整体的观点来控制成本，它可以为客户提供完美的动力和操作运行机制运行成本的控制，也可以从根本上彻底克服了传统的成本控制方法的缺点，解决了无法控制的创造和供应不足的真正价值。基于此，本文试图从创作的整体观讨论成本控制提供价值并探讨实现良性循环的策略，也就是说，“创造价值投资成本供应价值创造价值”。 2、成本及其控制的基于价值链理念 2.1基于价值链的成本观念 根据价值链理论，如果企业是要被客户接受，它必须创造和提供能满足其客户的价值。因此，成本（价值或资源支付费用）这不离为创造和提供顾客价值的活动，其活动的价值链。因此，我们应该从价值链角度看成本的重要。
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附录B 如何监测内部控制 内部控制是任何组织有效运行的关键,董事会、执行长和内部审计人员都为实现这个企业的目标而工作;该内部控制系统是使这些团体确保那些目标的达成的一种手段。控制帮助一个企业有效率地运转。此外,运用一种有效的风险系统,风险可被降低到最小。同时,控制促进经营和与经营有关的信息的可靠性。全美反舞弊性财务报告委员会发起组织(COSO；1992) 在它发布的具有开创性的文件《内部控制整合框架》中,将内部控制定义为：企业风险管理是一个过程，受企业董事会、管理层和其他员工的影响，包括内部控制及其在战略和整个公司的应用，旨在为实现经营的效率和效果、财务报告的可靠性以及法规的遵循提供合理保证。该委员会还指出,一个的内部控制的系统包括五个要素。它们是：控制环境、风险评估、信息和沟通、控制活动、监控。 COSO的定义及五个要素已被证明确实对不同的团体,如董事会和首席执行官起到作用。这些群体对内部控制系统的监管以及系统设计与运行有责任。而且,内部审计人员已经发现COSO的指导是有用的。这群人员可能会被董事会或管理层要求去测试控制。COSO最近发布的一份讨论文件，指出五个要素监控,其中的五个要素的确定在1992 frame work COSO原本。中国发展简报的题为《内部控制-整合框架：内部控制体系监督指南》(COSO，2007)。在文件中,COSO 强调监控的重要性，以及这些信息常常被没有充分利用。 因为董事会、执行长,和内部审计人员都在一个公司的内部控制中扮演着重要角色，内部控制的各要素,包括监测,都对所有的团体有着非常重要的意义。同时,外审计人员对监测有兴趣。《萨班斯-奥克斯利法案》（2002）为外部审计师创建了一个新的监督体制。所有的五个要素,包括监测,必须加以考虑。另外,内部控制审计必须结合对财务报告的检查。在一体化审计之前，在首席执行官的领导下，也许也在内部审计活动的支持下的管理，评估了内控制体系的有效性。随后外部审计人员对控制出具意见。起监督角色的董事会，将阅读内部审计、管理层和首席执行官出具的报告。文件关于监测对每一个团体的指导起了帮助,因为他们分别为各自的角色而劳动。 第一，什么是监测。监测的组成可评估内部控制系统在过去一段时间发挥效用的质量。其对控制功能的评估有助于企业确定其控制在有效地运作中。在执行监测活动时，相关人员参与审查系统的设计及其运行效果。这种检查必须进行及时,目的是为了提供给企业最大的利益。管理层负责做出适当的行动以回应这些结果。当事人对内部控制有兴趣,可以充分依赖这个内部控制系统,如果合适的监
中英文翻译 原文 Logistics costs and controlling Abstract Logistic costs are defined differently in companies. In many cases, the reported logistic costs of companies even within the same business differ more than justified by their operations. Some companies do not count interest and depreciation on inventories as logistic costs. Others include the distribution costs of their suppliers or the purchasing costs. In some cases, even the purchase value of the procured goods is included in the logistic costs (Baumgarten et al. 1993; Gudehus and Kotzab 2004; Weber 2002). Logistic costs are defined differently in companies. In many cases, the reported logistic costs of companies even within the same business differ more than justified by their operations. Some companies do not count interest and depreciation on inventories as logistic costs. Others include the distribution costs of their suppliers or the purchasing costs. In some cases, even the purchase value of the procured goods is included in the logistic costs (Baumgarten et al. 1993; Gudehus and Kotzab 2004; Weber 2002).
外文出处：Maijoor S. The Internal Control Explosion[J]. International Journal of Auditing, 2000, 4(1):101–109. 内部控制爆炸① 摘要：Power的1997版书以审计社会为主题的探讨使得审计活动在联合王国（英国）和北美得到扩散。由审计爆炸一同带动的是内部控制制度的兴起。审计已经从审计结果转向审计制度和内部控制，它已内部控制爆炸然成为公众对公司治理和审计监管政策的辩论主题。Power表示对什么是有效的内部控制各方说法不一。本人对内部控制研究方面有一个合理的解释。内部控制对非常不同概念的各个领域的会计进行探究，并研究如何控制不同水平的组织。因此，内部控制研究的各类之间的交叉影响是有限的，而且，许多内部会计控制是研究是再更宽广的公司治理问题的背景下进行的。所以，许多有关内部控制制度对公司治理的价值观点扔需要进行研究。 关键词：机构理论；公司治理；外部审计；内部审计；内部控制制度；管理控制 1 概述 Power的1997版书以审计社会为主题的探讨使得审计活动在联合王国（英国）和北美得到扩散。由审计爆炸一同带动的是内部控制制度的兴起。审计已经从审计结果转向审计制度和内部控制，它已然成为公众对公司治理和审计监管政策的辩论主题。例如，在最近的对于欧洲联盟内外部审计服务的内部市场形成的辩论中，监管建议建立关于内部控制和内部审计制度。虽然对有关内部控制的价值期望高，但Power表示对什么是有效的内部控制各方说法不一。本人对内部控制研究方面有一个合理的解释。内部控制是对非常不同概念的各个领域的会计进行探究，并研究如何控制不同水平的组织。因此，内部控制研究的各类之间的交叉影响是有限的，而且，许多内部会计控制是研究是再更宽广的公司治理问题的背景下进行的。所以，许多有关内部控制制度对公司治理的价值观点扔需要进行研究。 在审计和公司治理的公共政策辩论中，内部控制的概念越来越得到重视。公共越来①Maastricht Accounting and Auditing Research and Education Center (MARC), Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Universiteit Maastricht, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands s.maijoor@marc.unimaas.nl Fax: 31-43-3884876 Tel: 31-43-3883783
外文翻译 原文 Cost Control Material Source:Encyclopedia of business,2 and ed. Author:Anthony, Robet N 1 Cost Control Cost control, also known as cost management or cost containment, is a broad set of cost accounting methods and management techniques with the common goal of improving business cost-efficiency by reducing costs, or at least restricting their rate of growth. Businesses use cost control methods to monitor, evaluate, and ultimately enhance the efficiency of specific areas, such as departments, divisions, or product lines, within their operations. During the 1990s cost control initiatives received paramount attention from corporate America. Often taking the form of corporate restructuring, divestment of peripheral activities, mass layoffs, or outsourcing, cost control strategies were seen as necessary to preserve—or boost—corporate profits and to maintain—or gain—a competitive advantage. The objective was often to be the low-cost producer in a given industry, which would typically allow the company to take a greater profit per unit of sales than its competitors at a given price level. Some cost control proponents believe that such strategic cost-cutting must be planned carefully, as not all cost reduction techniques yield the same benefits. In a notable late 1990s example, chief executive Albert J. Dunlap, nicknamed "Chainsaw Al" because of his penchant for deep cost cutting at the companies he headed, failed to restore the ailing small appliance maker Sunbeam Corporation to profitability despite his drastic cost reduction tactics. Dunlap laid off thousands of workers and sold off business units, but made little contribution to Sunbeam's competitive position or share price in his two years as CEO. Consequently, in 1998 Sunbeam's board fired Dunlap, having lost confidence in his "one-trick" approach to management. A complex business requires frequent information about operations in order to plan for the future, to control present activities, and to evaluate the past performance of managers, employees, and related business segments. To be successful,
外文翻译 原文 Cost-Containment and Cost-Management Strategies Material Source: Author: Alan f. Goldberg ,William P. Fleming The leadership and boards of trustees of all healthcare organizations are the ultimate stewards of the limited resources available to best meet community needs. The strategic planning process leads the organization down a clear path of setting priorities, making choices, and taking action. The day a new cancer center opens or the latest technology arrives is an exciting one for the community. After the ribbon cutting, these new programs become the responsibility of the hospital's service line directors or clinical managers. Their staffing is based on projections and other assumptions that may or may not be on point but have a direct impact on the operations and finances of the organization. As part of normal decision making for a hospital's new initiatives, a payer mix and revenue stream were predicted. Now two significant environmental events have made projections more uncertain and put aggressive cost management on center stage: the economic downturn and payment reform. The economic downturn affecting hospitals began in the fall of 2008. Its broad impact on the organization was described by Goldberg and Petasnick (2010): With credit markets drying up, unemployment rising, consumer confidence eroding, and employee morale shaken, healthcare system executives had their hands full. The combined result of the turmoil made the old adage "cash is king" truer than ever. As consumers pulled back and individuals lost health insurance, hospitals experienced losses in volume for elective, nonemergent healthcare. Financial operating results suffered. Meanwhile, losses in investment values eliminated the safety net reserves created by nonoperating income. Many hospitals and healthcare systems were forced to consider or enact layoffs and postpone or cancel capital-intensive projects. All were required to rethink their strategic plans. Because of the economic downturn and high unemployment, which led to income declines and individuals losing job-based healthcare coverage, Medicaid enrollment is projected to increase 10.5 percent in fiscal 2010.
文献出处:Lakis V, Giriūnas L. THE CONCEPT OF INTERNAL CONTROL SYSTEM: THEORETICAL ASPECT[J]. Ekonomika/Economics, 2012, 91(2). 原文 THE CONCEPT OF INTERNALCONTROLSYSTEM: THEORETICALASPECT Vaclovas Lakis, Lukas Giriūnas* Vilnius University, Lithuania Introduction One of the basic instruments of enterprise control, whose implementation in modern economic conditions provide conditions for achieving a competitive advantage over other enterprises is the creation of an effective internal control system. In the industry sector, the market is constantly changing, and this requires changing the attitude to internal control from treating it only in the financial aspect to the management of the control process. Internal control as such becomes an instrument and means of risk control, which helps the enterprise to achieve its goals and to perform its tasks. Only an effective internal control in the enterprise is able to help objectively assessing the potential development and tendencies of enterprise performance and thus to detect and eliminate the threats and risks in due time as well as to maintain a particular fixed level of risk and to provide for its reasonable
ERP系统中英文对照外文翻译文献 (文档含英文原文和中文翻译) ERP系统在财务报告内部控制的作用 【摘要】：萨班斯-奥克斯利法案法例中强调，ERP系统的重要作用是运用内部控制反映公司的基本建设，为此 ERP系统软件开发供应商也增加了对内部控制的应用。他们认为，这些内置的控制和其他功能将帮助企业改善其财务报告内部控制就如萨班斯法案要求的那样。这项研究测试，通过检查萨班斯法案第404条在1994年和2003年之间实施ERP 系统的公司合规内控数据。其结果表明，应用ERP 的公司相对于未应用ERP的样本公司较少报告内部控制弱点。它还发现，这种差异存在一般控制和特别控制中。
关键词：企业资源规划；ERP；萨班斯-奥克斯利法案；萨班斯法案第404条；内部控制1简介 2002年的萨班斯法案要求企业将其内部控制的有效性的报告与财务报告作为一个整体努力，以减少欺诈和恢复完整的财务报告过程的一部分。ERP系统软件开发供应商已强调，ERP系统的重要作用是运用“内置”控制反映公司基本建设。他们在营销理念强调了产品的功能，声称这些系统将帮助企业按萨班斯法案所要求提高内部控制的有效性。 这些供应商的声明激发了关于ERP系统对内部控制的影响一项有趣的实证问题研究。具体来说，是不是实现ERP系统的企业或多或少可能比未实现ERP系统的公司较少在其年度报告报告内部控制弱点？已经进行过这特定区域研究的经验/档案相对较少的，因为之前萨班斯法案内部控制的数据并没有被公开报道。这项研究的方法通过在文献资料检查一个已经宣布实施ERP系统和一个还没有类似的公司控制样本公司的抽样调查的内部控制数据来发现差距。 内部控制是在公司使用的以解决代理问题的许多机制之一。其他的机制还包括财务报告，编制预算，审计委员会和外部审计（Jensen和佩恩2003）。研究表明，内部控制降低了代理成本（Abdel-khalik 1993；Barefield 等，1993），有些甚至争辩说，即使没有萨班斯法案的要求，企业也有经济诱因报告内部控制（Deumes和Knechel，2008年）。他们的论点假定这些额外提供给有关的代理行为主体的信息可以减少了信息不对称和降低投资者的风险以及权益资本成本。其他的研究发现，内部控制报告与公司盈余质量有关, （Chan 等， 2008；Ashbaugh-Skaife等，2008） ERP系统提供了一种机制，运用内部控制，旨在保证控制的准确性和快速，准确的财务报告财务信息的可靠性报告给股东。 除了提供有关代理行为的外部委托人的增加保证，ERP系统也应有助于减轻大型企业各层次之间的管理的代理问题。使用内建控制以增加透明度的应该使各级代理商从中不可观察的行为中受益变得更加困难。这是可能的，但是，企业实施ERP系统可能无法利用的所有的内建的控制功能，无论是对经营合法的原因或者是因为管理层为了操纵盈余希望避免增加透明度的目的。通过这些控制措施的成效的检查，这项研究不仅扩展了研究机构的理论流，还考察这种盈余管理与内部控制、一般控制和特别控制之间相关的整体检验假说。 这项研究使用了108家在1994年和2003年之间宣布实施ERP系统的样本公司，与
项目成本控制 1施工企业成本控制原则 施工企业的成本控制是以施工项目成本控制为中心，施工项目成本控制原则是企业成本管理的基础和核心，施工企业项目经理部在对项目施工过程进行成本控制时，必须遵循以下基本原则。 1.1成本最低化原则。施工项目成本控制的根本目的，在于通过成本管理的各种手段，促进不断降低施工项目成本，以达到可能实现最低的目标成本的要求。在实行成本最低化原则时，应注意降低成本的可能性和合理的成本最低化。一方面挖掘各种降低成本的能力，使可能性变为现实；另一方面要从实际出发，制定通过主观努力可能达到合理的最低成本水平。 1.2全面成本控制原则。全面成本管理是全企业、全员和全过程的管理，亦称“三全”管理。项目成本的全员控制有一个系统的实质性内容，包括各部门、各单位的责任网络和班组经济核算等等，应防止成本控制人人有责，人人不管。项目成本的全过程控制要求成本控制工作要随着项目施工进展的各个阶段连续进行，既不能疏漏，又不能时紧时松，应使施工项目成本自始至终置于有效的控制之下。 1.3动态控制原则。施工项目是一次性的，成本控制应强调项目的中间控制，即动 态控制。因为施工准备阶段的成本控制只是根据施工组织设计的具体内容确定成本目标、编制成本计划、制订成本控制的方案，为今后的成本控制作好准备。而竣工阶段的成本控制，由于成本盈亏已基本定局，即使发生了偏差，也已来不及纠正。 1.4目标管理原则。目标管理的内容包括：目标的设定和分解，目标的责任到位和执行，检查目标的执行结果，评价目标和修正目标，形成目标管理的计划、实施、检查、处理循环，即 PDCA 循环。 1.5责、权、利相结的原则。在项目施工过程中，项目经理部各部门、各班组在肩负成本控制责任的同时，享有成本控制的权力，同时项目经理要对各部门、各班组在成本控制中的业绩进行定期的检查和考评，实行有奖有罚。只有真正做好责、权、利相结合的成本控制，才能收到预期的效果。
Reference for business,Encyclopedia of Business.2nd ed,Cos Des Cost control Roger J. Binder Abstract Cost control, also known as cost management or cost containment, is a broad set of cost accounting methods and management techniques with the common goal of improving business cost-efficiency by reducing costs, or at least restricting their rate of growth. Businesses use cost control methods to monitor, evaluate, and ultimately enhance the efficiency of specific areas, such as departments, divisions, or product lines, within their operations. Control of the business entity, then, is essentially a managerial and supervisory function. Control consists of those actions necessary to assure that the entity's resources and operations are focused on attaining established objectives, goals and plans. Control, exercised continuously, flags potential problems so that crises may be prevented. It also standardizes the quality and quantity of output, and provides managers with objective information about employee performance. Management compares actual performance to predetermined standards and takes action when necessary to correct variances from the standards. Keywords: Cost control；Applications；Control reports；Standards；Strategic Cost control, also known as cost management or cost containment, is a broad set of cost accounting methods and management techniques with the common goal of improving business cost-efficiency by reducing costs, or at least restricting their rate of growth. Businesses use cost control methods to monitor, evaluate, and ultimately enhance the efficiency of specific areas, such as departments, divisions, or product lines, within their operations. During the 1990s cost control initiatives received paramount attention from corporate America. Often taking the form of corporate restructuring, divestment of
内部控制理论与概念中英文对照外文翻译文献 内部控制理论与概念中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
内部控制透视：理论与概念 环境需要新的业务控制变量不为任何潜在的股东和管理人士的响应因子为1，另外应执行/她组织了一个很大的控制权。控制是管理活动的东西或以上施加控制。思想的产生和近十年的发展需要有系统的商业资源和控制这种财富一个新的关注。主题之一热一回合管制的商业资源是分析每个控制成本效益。 作为内部控制和欺诈的第一道防线，维护资产以及预防和侦查错误。内部控制，我们可以说是一种控制整个系统的财务和其他方面的管理制定了为企业的顺利运行;它包括内部的脸颊，内部审计和其他形式的控制。 COSO的内部控制描述如下。内部控制是一个客观的方法用来帮助确保实现。在会计和组织理论，内部控制是指或目标目标的过程实施由组织的结构，工作和权力流动，人员和具体的管理信息系统，旨在帮助组织实现。这是一种手段，其中一个组织的资源被定向，监控和测量。它发挥着无形的（重要的作用，预防和侦查欺诈和保护组织的资源，包括生理（如，机械和财产）和乙二醇，声誉或知识产权，如商标）。在组织水平，内部控制目标与可靠性的目标或战略的财务报告，及时反馈业务上的成就，并遵守法律，法规。在具体的交易水平，内部控制是指第三方采取行动以实现一个具体目标（例如，如何确保本组织的款项，在申请服务提供有效的。）内部控制程序reduce程变异，导致更加具有可预见性outcomes。在业务实体内部控制也被称为业务控制。它们是日常的工具使用的经理。 所有管理人员使用的内部控制，以帮助确保他们的经营单位，按照计划，他们使用的方法-政策、程序、组织设计和身体的障碍构成。内部控制是对以下组合： 1、财务控制 2、其他控件。 根据内部控制研究所印度特许会计师是该组织计划和所有的方法和程序，通过了包括一个由管理机构，以协助实现业务管理的目的是确保尽可能高效有序进行可能的坚持管理政策，对资产的安全护卫预防和信息检测欺诈行为和错误的准确性和完整性的财务会计的可靠记录，及时编制，控制系统内部的事务以外延伸涉及到会计系统的功能。换句话说内部控制系统的控制下由管理奠定了它的对象的顺利运行的业务的成就。这些控件可以分为两个部分，即财务控制和其他控制。