Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning
9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning
9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change
9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of
Words
Definition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words.
9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning
A.Historical cause 历史原因
It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed .
*Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science.
Eg.
pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a “pencil”.
atom ==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos ,invisible. Thus atom meant originally “an particle too small to be divided”. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split.
B.Social cause 社会原因
Change in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common words and various technical words is referred to as social
cause of semantic change.
Some technical words have lost their specialized meaning and have come to be used in more general senses.
Eg.
feedback(Electr.) =means “response”in common use ,as in “The teacher likes to have feedback from his students”;
allergic (Med.)=means “being unusually sensitive to the action of particular foods, pollens, insect-bites ,etc.”
*A specific environment may add a fresh and highly technical sense to
a word of general use .
Eg.
energy =(Phys.) ability of matter or radiation to do work
decline =(Gram.) inflect, state the case-forms of
C.Foreign influences 外来文化影响
A particularly important cause .
eg.
-pig ,sheep ,ox(cow)denote the names of both the animals and their meat in the Old English period ,but since the meat was called pork ,mutton and beef respectively among the Norman conquerors, the original terms are now used only as the names of the animals.
-dream meant “joy” in OE, it gets its modern sense from the related Scandinavian word draumr.
D.Linguistic cause 语言上的原因
*Two tendencies: towards ellipsis省略and towards analogy类推.
-Ellipsis as a cause of semantic change often occurs in habitual collocations, such as adj.+n.,or attributive n.+n.,in which the noun is often deleted and only the first element (the attributive )is left ,but retaining the sense of the whole phrase .
eg.
a general –a general officer 一位将军
an editorial–an editorial article一篇社论
bugle–bugle horn 号角
gold–gold medal ,as in the Olympic Games金牌uniform–uniform dress 制服transistor–transistor radio 收音机
daily–daily newspaper 日报duplicate –duplicate copy 副本
-Analogical tendency: New meanings developed in one part of speech are passed on to other parts of speech from the same lexical base.
eg.
diplomatic (外交的，外交上的)which had earlier meant only “skillful in managing international relations,”had by 1826 developed the sense of “tactful in the management of relations of any kind ;artful management it dealing with others.”By 1848，this new meaning had been passed on to the noun diplomacy. （外交；外交手腕；交际手段）
E.Psychological cause 心理学上的原因
*Three forms
a)Euphemism委婉
People have a tendency to use mild, agreeable language when speaking
of an unpleasant or embarrassing fact (such as death, disease, unfortunate events or crime), and of taboo subjects as sex and the excretive processes of the body.
eg. hence death and things related to death
-to pass away
-to breathe one’s last -to cease to think
-to fall asleep -to go west
-to kick the bucket -to be no more
b)Grandiloquence 夸张
Grandiloquence refers to the use of long, important-sounding words for effort .The desire to upgrade or raise the social status of a position, occupation, or institution by changing its common name to one felt to confer greater dignity or importance is another psychological factor in the change of word meaning.
eg.
janitor看门人；守卫；门警–custodian管理人；监护人；保管人
gardener园丁；花匠；园艺家–landscape architect造园技师；环境美化设计家
reform school教养院；少年犯管教所–community home少年感化院；
c)Cynicism 嘲讽
Cynicism: the desire to sneer and to be sarcastic.
eg .
pious虔诚的；敬神的；可嘉的；尽责的--hypocritically virtuous 伪善地善良
fanatic狂热的；盲信的—unreasonably enthusiastic ,almost approaching to madness
grandiloquent夸张的；夸大的；大言不惭的—pompous in language ;given to beautiful talk
sanctimonious假装虔诚的；假装圣洁的；假装诚实的–devout ,holy or sacred
9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change
A.Restriction of meaning (specialization) 词义的缩小/具体化
Restriction of meaning means that a word of wide meaning acquires a narrow , specialized sense which is applicable to only one of the objects it had previously denoted.
eg.
Condition Words Original meaning Meaning after
restriction
meat food,esp.solid
food , as
distinguished
from drink the flesh of animals used as food ,excluding fish and birds
wife woman married woman esp. in
relation to her husband success result ,outcome a favourable or
satisfactory outcome or
result
handle it carefully
B.Extension of meaning (generalization) 词义的扩大/普遍化
Extension of meaning: means the widening of a word’s sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed.
*Two main reasons for this tendency :
1. The predominant developmental trend is in the direction of
differentiation rather than of synthesis;
2. Related to the first ,is that the formation of general concepts from
specific terms is of lesser importance in non-scientific communication though it is rather a characteristic of scientific endeavor .
eg.
Conditi on Words Original
meaning
Meaning after
extended
bird from OE bird ,a
young bird
a general term for
feathered creatures
with two legs and
wings ,usually able to
fly
plant from L planta,a
sprout
a generic term for the
whole botanical
species
lost their thing
(business ,state ,condi
a
council ,court
used as a substitute
for nearly any noun
C.Degeneration of meaning (pejoration) 词义的降格/语义转贬
Two main forms:
1.The failing of word meaning into disrepute, for one reason or another .
eg. silly
1)Originated from the AS s?lig meaning “blessing and happy”
2)Since the blessed people are usually those innocent of evil ,the word
came to mean “innocent” in the 17th century
3)As innocent people are so often those leading simple lives, it later
came to mean “simple”and “simple-minded”, which is often
associated with “lack of intelligence”
4)hence the modern meaning of the word silly :“foolish”.
2.This form may take the form of the gradual extension to so many senses
that any particular meaning which a word may have had is completely lost.
*This form refers to the weakening of meaning resulting from habitual use of particular words on unsuitable occasions.
D.Elevation of meaning (amelioration) 词义的升格/语义改良
Elevation of meaning: a word meaning takes a turn for the better in the course of time, and has either risen from a “snarl” word to a “purr”
word ,or from a slang term to a common word.
eg.
Words Original meaning Meaning after elevation
marshal a horse tender 驯马师officer of highest rank 元帅；司仪
minister an attendant ,a servant
牧师a person at the head of a Department of State 部长；大臣
fond foolish tender and affectionate喜欢的；温柔
的；宠爱的
9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of Words
A. Metaphor隐喻，暗喻
Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison based on association of similarity, in which a word or a phrase ordinarily and primarily used for one thing in applied to another, a process which often results in semantic change or figurative extension of meaning.
eg. food for thought ,a heart of stone ;thunderous applause
a cunning person –fox
a beautiful woman –vision美景
Two types:
a)The similarity between tenor and vehicle may be based on likeness in form
or appearance; on a resemblance in relative position; in quality or in function.
eg. eye of a needle
the teeth of a comb
the bridge of a pair of eyeglasses
the crest of a mountain
b)There is one psychological process which also produces linguistic results
similar to those of metaphor:
eg. synaesthesia. 联觉“which is based on transportation from one sense to another”
*Many words have been used so frequently as metaphors that their metaphorical sense have become well-established in people’s minds. They are called faded metaphors and appear as one of the word’s meanings listed in any standard dictionaries.
B. Metonymy 借喻，转喻，借代
Metonymy is a figure of speech by which an object or idea is described by the name of something closely related to it.
eg. the white house –the president or for the presidential staff of the US
Categories of metonymy:
a)Sign for the person or thing signified;
eg. from the cradle to the grave (for “from infancy until death”)
b)Container for its contents; the place for the people occupying it;
eg. the bottle(for alcoholic drink ) wardrobe(for a person’s collection of clothes)
c)The abstract for the concrete;
eg.the pride(of our university ) the management (for governing body ,board of directors ect.)
d)The concrete for the abstract;
eg. tongue (for language ) the floor (the right of one member to speak, as in “to have the floor )
e) A part for the whole and vice versa;
eg. a sail for a ship (as in “a fleet of fifty sail )
f)The material for the ting made.
eg.silver for coins made of silver (as in “￡20 in notes and ￡3 in burglars)
卡特福德英国《翻译的语言学概论》篇章等值 翻译是把一种语言的话语材料用另外一种语言的等值话语予以替代 行文对等形式对应 尤金·奈达美国 翻译是指从语义到语体在译入语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现原语信息 动态对等功能对等 巴尔胡大罗夫苏联《语言与翻译》 意义不变 尽可能完备的传达原文各种类型的语义，包括所指意义、实用意义和语言内部意义 彼得·纽马克英国 表达功能------ 语义翻译 信息功能呼唤功能------- 交际翻译 卡瑟琳娜·莱斯，汉斯·威密尔，克里斯蒂安·诺德。德国功能学派 功能翻译理论 以原语为取向：竺法护西晋，尼古拉斯·封·维尔德国，赛珍珠美国 以译入语为取向：支谦康僧会唐朝，鸠摩罗什东晋，西塞罗贺拉斯古罗马 以翻译目的为导向的翻译标准威密尔德国 泰勒特“翻译三原则”严复“信达雅” 翻译标准：主观向客观、散论到系统、静态向动态、单一向多元发展 第三章 佛经翻译对中国文化产生的影响 语言方面： 佛经翻译大大丰富了汉语词汇；在语法方面，汉语受佛经翻译的影响也不少 文学方面： 印度寓言故事神话传入中国，对中国文学题材内容有影响；对我国文学的思想情趣产生影响；汉译佛典对我国文学文体方面有巨大影响 哲学方面： 佛教对道教的影响；对儒家思想体系的影响，沿用了佛学的辩证逻辑思路 翻译传递的是文化信息；语言是文化的基础，是文化得以流传的载体，是文化的镜子。
译者的责任： 微观上，正确处理文字技术层面上的责任； 宏观上，促进社会发展和文化交流方面的责任 译者在技术层面上的责任： 既不能对不起原作者，也不能对不起译文，往往也就是译者自己的国文 得其精而忘其粗，在其内而忘其内 译者在社会和文化层面上的责任： 要对社会负责；要有稳定的立场 译者的素质： 彼得·马克：本国语方面，掌握丰富的词汇和各种句型；精通外语；能顺利用本国语表达原著意义 尤金·奈达：熟悉原语；精通译语；充分了解所译题材；具备“移情”本领；具备语言表达的才华和丰富的文学想象力 第六章 纽马克《翻译教程》交际翻译 将原语文本的语境意义以其思想内容和语言形式都容易为译入语读者所接受和理解的方式准确地传递出来 汉斯·威密尔翻译是一种目的性行为（功能学派） 目的论的核心概念：翻译方法和翻译策略必须由译文预期目的或功能来决定 施莱尔马赫德国将翻译方法归为两类 1、尽量不动读者而将原作者拉过来,即归化 2、尽量不动原作者，而将读者推过来，即异化（施莱尔马赫本人推崇） 雅各布逊从符号学的角度将翻译分成三类： 语内翻译、语际翻译、符际翻译 总结：翻译不仅仅是纯语言间的文字转换，而首先是一种交际行为，是为了达到特定环境和条件下的特定交际目的 第七章 翻译活动的处理方式分类：全译；节译、摘译、编译、译述（边翻边译） 文体分类：文学翻译、非文学翻译 活动方式分类：笔译、口译
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Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning 9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change 9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of Words Definition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words. 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning A.Historical cause 历史原因 It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed . *Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science. Eg. pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a “pencil”. atom ==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos,invisible. Thus atom meant originally “an particle too small to be divided”. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split.
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
翻译概论期末复习 1. 基本概念（互译） 补偿compensation 不可译性untranslatability（untranslatable） 达/ 易懂intelligibility/expressiveness 等效原则principle of equivalent effect 等值翻译equivalent translation 动态对等dynamic equivalence 读者反映论reader's response 读者为中心的翻译标准reader-centered for translation 对等物（词语）equivalent 对应（部分对应/ 完全对应）（partial /full ）correspondence 翻译程序/步骤translation procedures 翻译体/翻译腔translationese 翻译学translatology/Translation Studies 风格style 佛经Buddhist Scriptures/sutra 符际翻译intersemiotic translation 改变说法rewording 功能对等functional equivalence 归化domestication/naturalization/adaptation/endogenization/target-accommodating translation 机器翻译machine translation（MT） 交际翻译communicative translation 交替口译consecutive interpreting 解码decode 可译性translatability（translatable）理解understanding/comprehension 流畅fluency 乱译/ 胡译excessively free translation 明析化explicitation 模仿imitation 目的论skopostheorie 诗学poetics 视点转换shift of perspective 释义法/解释法explanation/paraphrase 死译/ 硬译mechanical translation 套译/ 仿译/仿拟imitation 通顺smoothness 同声传译simultaneous interpreting 透明（度）transparency 歪译（意义扭曲）distortion 伪译pseudotranslation 文本text 文本等值textual equivalence 文本为中心的翻译标准text-centered criteria for translation 文化沟(空缺/ 非对应)cultural gap 误译mis-translation 信/ 忠实faithfulness/fidelity 形合hypotaxis 形式对等formal equivalence 形式对应formal correspondence 雅/ 优美elegance/gracefulness 异化foreignization/alienation/exoticization/ exogenization/source-oriented translation 译本/ 译著translated text/translational work 译借(语义转借)calque(loan translation) 译文target text, translation, target version, rendering, rendition 译语/ 译入语target language(TL), receptor language, receiving language 译语读者target-language reader/TL reader/receiving audience 译语文化target-language culture/target culture/receiving culture 译者为中心的翻译标准translator-centered criteria for translation 译者隐形translator ' s invisibility 意合parataxis 意识形态ideology 意译free translation/liberal translation/semantic translation 音译法transliteration 语际翻译interlingual
张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》——解析 第一部分Chapter Ⅰ 英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary) Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。随着词汇学的发展跟完善。人们给词下了较为完整的定义。“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社） 一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。 英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。 第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ 英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation ) (一) 词素（Morphemes） 单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。词素跟音素（phoneme）不同，词素必须同时具备声音和意义两方面，而音素只需要发出声音即可。如k 和u 只是音素，因为它们没有什么具体含义。而a 和i 分别存在于单词tame 和time 中是音素，但当a是定冠词和i表示第一人称时它们则是词素。词素并不等同于音节（syllable ），因为音节并没有什么具体含义。如单词dis·a·gree·a·ble有五个音节却只有三个语素（dis + agree + able ）。词素有不同的形式，同一语素的不同形式即语素变体。 词素可以分为自由词素（free morphemes）和黏着词素（bound morphemes）。自由词素可以单独成为单词，而黏着词素则必须要依附于其他的词素，如-ly , -ness。 词素又可以分为词根和词缀。词根是单词中表示含义的成分，可以是自由或者黏着词素。词缀只能是黏着词素，它又可以分为屈折词缀（inflectional affixes）和派生词缀（derivational affixes ）。屈折词缀跟语法有关，派生词缀又可以分为前缀跟后缀，这都是构成新单词的重要元素。从词素的层面来说，词可以分类为简单词，复杂词以及合成词。词素在词的构成中取到非常重要的作用，因为构词的二大过程----合成和附加都涉及到了词素，前者是词素的联合，后者是黏着词素附加到自由词素上。 (二) 词的构成（word-formation） 1/5页 有很多种途径可以构成词汇，大的方面主要有合成法（compounding），派生法(derivation)和转换法(conversion)三种，小的方面主要有八个过程，分别是首字母法(acronym)，混合法(blending)，截短法(clipping)，专有名词(word from proper names)，逆构法(back-formation)，复制法(reduplication)，新古典法(neo-classical famation)以及混杂法(miscellaneous)。
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
第一章语言的社会功能 语言的功能与语言学的功用要区分开来。 向外看：交际工具 向内看：思维工具 第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具 一、语言和说话（言语） 句子的数目可以无限。 句子的长度可以无限。（我知道你不知道我知道你不知道……） 无限的句子中包含着有限的词和为数不多的规则，学话就是掌握这套材料和规则。 说话的单位是句子，语言的单位是从音位到句子的各级单位。 二、语言是人类社会的交际工具 社会：生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体。 没有社会，语言就失去了存在的价值和基础。没有语言，人与人之间的联系就会中断，社会就会解体。 三、语言是人类最重要的交际工具 文字是记录语言的工具，是辅助性的。 旗语，一些代码或标志是在语言文字基础上的交际工具，具有特定的服务领域，如红绿灯之于交通。 表情、身体姿势以及身体距离等也能传达一定的信息，这种信息的不以语言为基础，在交际中也有重要作用，可以补充语言的不足。 当人在谈话时，如果他把双臂抱在胸前，就说明他想要在自己和对方之间设立“障碍”，是一种抗拒的表示。动物式的领地观念仍然存在于人类头脑中，在公共场合人们都会尽量保持“安全距离”。在两个人说话时，如果一个人一只脚前伸，另一个人两脚平放，说明前者处于支配地位，因为他侵入了后者的“地盘”。在饭馆里，人们喜欢背靠墙壁，而面对开阔的位子，是因为他们喜欢“背后被保护”，同时视野开阔，“利于逃跑”。 手语分两种，如果是作为第一语言来使用，比如聋哑人，属于语言；如果只是暂时的方便使用，仍有自己的第一语言，属于辅助语。 第二节语言是思维的工具 萨丕尔——沃尔夫假说认为语言决定思维，但现在一般认为语言与思维是互相独立的，语言是思维的工具，而且是最主要的工具。要注意区分工具和行为本身。作为工具，语言对思维有非常重要的作用。 一、思维离不开语言 一般认为，东亚国家（中日韩）的小孩数学水平要高于欧洲国家，许多人从家庭教育、教学方法等方面找原因。有实验显示这与这些语言的不同的组织数字方式有关：
张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》一书的读后感 摘要语言学 关键词词汇词义语义词的构成 正文 《现代英语词汇学概论》一书共有12章,可以分为四部分.第一部分即ChapterⅠ是英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary),第二部分即Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ的英语词汇的形态结构和构词法(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation )，第三部分即ChapterⅤ到ChapterⅨ的词义及其语义关系(Word meaning and sense relations)，第四部分是Chapter Ⅹ到Chapter ⅩⅡ的英语习语，美国英语，英语词典的使用和选择（English idioms,American English , choice and use of English dictionaries ）. 第一部分Chapter Ⅰ 英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary) Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。随着词汇学的发展跟完善。人们给词下了较为完整的定义。“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社） 一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。 英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。 第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ 英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation ) (一)词素（Morphemes） 单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。词素跟音素（phoneme）不同，词素必须同时具备声音和意义两方面，而音素只需要发出声音即可。如k 和u 只是音素，因为它们没有什么具体含义。而a 和i 分别存在于单词tame 和time 中是音素，但当a是定冠词和i表示第一人称时它们则是词素。词素并不等同于音节（syllable ），因为音节并没有什么具体含义。如单词dis·a·gree·a·ble有五个音节却只有三个语素（dis + agree + able ）。词素有不同的形式，同一语素的不同形式即语素变体。 词素可以分为自由词素（free morphemes）和黏着词素（bound morphemes）。自由词素可以单独成
从中西翻译大家看译者素养 -----《中西翻译简史》读书报告 《中西翻译简史》（a brief history of translation in china and the west），谢天振等著，这本书共包括十五个章节---翻译与宗教，翻译与知识传播，翻译与民族语，翻译与当代各国的文化交流，可见本书把中西翻译发展的历史放在一起进行描述，既强调中西发展史的共同点，也展示两者发展过程中的各自的独特性。 在编写原则上，本书强调“三抓”：一抓主线，即抓住中西翻译史上的主要事件；二抓主角，即抓住中西翻译史上的主要代表性人物；三抓主题，即中西翻译史上最有代表性的翻译思想和理论。我的心得体会便是从第二条主线入手的，即中西翻译史上的主要代表性人物。 我想着重从翻译大家的身上总结一下作为一名二十一世纪的翻译专业的学生，到底应该具备什么样的素养才算合格甚至是优秀。 首先，让我们看一下他们的所处的时代背景。罗马帝国时期的翻译家如西塞罗，贺拉斯，昆体良，哲罗姆等都是顺应时代的要求，从翻译大量的希腊文化典籍到翻译圣经。中国的翻译思想出现的时间虽然晚得多，但是也是从宗教典籍---佛经开始的。无论中西方翻译大家翻译宗教典籍的目的是出于政治统治，还是为了劳苦大众的信仰服务，我们都不难得出结论，他们的翻译工作正是因为顺应历史的要求才取得了如此伟大的成就。 其次，再来看翻译大家各自的出身情况。哲罗姆的《通俗拉丁文本圣经》是在他任教皇达马苏一世的秘书时完成的。而我国著名僧人中诸如彦琮，玄奘虽所处朝代不同，但都是奉召主持翻译佛经的。我国近代著名的翻译家和文学评论家傅雷，上海市南汇县人，1927年赴法学习，主攻美术理论和艺术评论。而恰恰在1931年回国后，他便开始了穷其一生的法国文学工作，且译作丰硕，共30余种，且风格独特，备受好评。他之所以能取得如此令人瞩目的翻译成就，和他几年的赴法经历不无联系 最后，个人因素。看了著名翻译家的详细介绍之后，还有两点共性不难被发现。一是他们对母语以及至少一门语的熟练应用。二是他们的博学。其中最值得一提的就是中国著名学者和作家钱钟书先生，他从小就接受过良好的古典文学教育，不仅在文学创作上成就卓著，其长篇小说《围城》被译成多种语言广为流传；他在学术研究领域的成就也是举世瞩目，其学术巨著《管锥编》以及诗论《谈艺录》，论文集《七缀集》等都是中国学界的经典之作。 以上是一些列的史实，现在让我们听一下关于译者素养的问题，翻译大家们的看法是怎样的。英国著名翻译理论家泰特勒对译者该具有的专业素质进行了概括，认为译者应该在语言和相关的知识方面是行家，这样才能满足翻译的要求。生活于南北朝时期的彦琮在他的翻译专论《辨证论》中对历代译经的得失进行了分析和评点，并在此基础上提出了一个合格的佛经翻译者所必须具备的八个条件，即“八备”说：“诚心爱法，益人，不殚久时，其备一也；将践觉场，先牢戒足，不染讥恶，其备二也；诠晓三藏，义贯两乘，不苦暗滞，其备三也；旁涉坟史，工缀典词，不过鲁拙，其备四也；襟抱平恕，器量虚融，不好专执，其备五也；耽於道术，淡於名利，不欲官衔，其备六也；要识梵言。乃闲正译，不坠彼学，其备七也；薄阅苍雅，粗谙篆隶，不昧此文，其备八也。热爱佛法，立志帮助别人，不怕费时长久。品行端正，忠实可信，不惹旁人讥疑。彦琮的“八备”说是我国翻译史上较早论及翻译主体译者
Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning ?9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning ?9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change ?9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of Words Definition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words. 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning A.Historical cause 历史原因 It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed . *Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science. Eg. pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning ―a little tail‖ or ―a fine brush‖, like our Chinese ―pen‖毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a ―pencil‖. atom==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos ,invisible. Thus atom meant originally ―an particle too small to be divided‖. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split. B.Social cause 社会原因 Change in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common words and various technical words is referred to as social cause of semantic change. Some technical words have lost their specialized meaning and have come to be used in more general senses. Eg. feedback (Electr.) =means ―response‖ in common use ,as in ―The teacher likes to have feedback from his students‖; allergic(Med.)=means ―being unusually sensitive to the action of particular foods, pollens, insect-bites ,etc.‖ *A specific environment may add a fresh and highly technical sense to a word of general use . Eg. energy=(Phys.) ability of matter or radiation to do work decline=(Gram.) inflect, state the case-forms of C.Foreign influences 外来文化影响 A particularly important cause . eg. -pig ,sheep ,ox(cow)denote the names of both the animals and their meat in the Old English period ,but since the meat was called pork ,mutton and beef respectively among the Norman conquerors, the original terms are now used only as the names of the animals. -dream meant ―joy‖ in OE, it gets its modern sense from the related Scandinavian word draumr.
Chapter 1 Language语言 1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2. Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language. 3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. 4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention. 5. discreteness(离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. 6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users. 7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure. 8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance. 9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 1. ★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language. First, language is a system. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense. The third feature of language is symbolic nature. 2. ★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1) Productivity. 2) Discreteness. 3) Displacement 4) Arbitrariness. 5) Cultural transmission 6) Duality of structure. 7) Interchangeability. 3. Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other. 4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I. H alliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1) Instrumental function. 工具功能 2) Regulatory function. 调节功能 3) Representational function. 表现功能 4) Interactional function. 互动功能 5) Personal function. 自指性功能 6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h] 7) Imaginative function. 想象功能 II. A dult language has three functional components as following: 1) Interpersonal components. 人际 2) Ideational components.概念 3) Textual components.语篇
翻译概论参考答案
在理论层面上，对翻译过程进行过比较有系统的研究，这些研究有别于一般的 经验总结，其目的在于通过对翻译过程的多角度的考察，对翻译过程中所涉及 的各种要素之间的矛盾有进一步的认识，进而为处理这些矛盾提供理论依据； 同时对整个翻译过程的步骤进行科学的分析，从理论上探索可行的翻译之路。 主要有以下几种倾向： 1 选取某一角度对翻译过程的某种特征进行研究。 2 对翻译过程的全面考察，并借助某种理论，对其进行模式化探索。 3 对翻译过程的理论概括与理性剖析。 通过梳理和总结众多翻译家及翻译研究者对翻译过程的经验性或理论性的认 识，我们对狭义的翻译过程有了一个初步的了解。尽管不同学者研究的侧重点、 所借鉴的理论和研究方法各有不同，但他们对狭义翻译过程的认识从本质上来 说是一致的。也就是：狭义的翻译过程是译者将出发语文本转换成最终的目的 与文本的过程，而译者的理解与再表达是这一过程的两个基本步骤。在这两个 步骤中，理解总是先于表达，它是一切翻译活动的前提。对原文本理解的好坏 直接影响到译文的质量。 三．试分析“复译”现象产生的原因。 从文本的生成，传播的生命历程来看，首先遇到的便是“时间”与“空间”。 一个文本的生命，既有时间意义上的延续，也有空间意义上的拓展。而无论是 时间上的延续还是空间的拓展，“语言”的问题便不可避免地凸现出来。语内 翻译所涉及的原语与译入语之间主要是时间上的差距，而语际翻译，除了时间 上的差距之外，还要面对不同空间或文化语境中所使用的不同语言。从理解层 面上说，从前不可译的因素在新环境下可能变得可译，从表达层面上说，旧译 本的语言可能变得不可理解甚至不可接受，这一切都召唤着复译的产生，以推 动文本的生命继续发展。正是这种不断延续的翻译，构成了我们所说的“复译” 现象。 四.试阐述为什么翻译的根本任务是意义的再生。 加拿大的维纳和达尔贝勒在《法英比较修辞》一书中明确指出：“译者总是 从意义出发，在语义的范围内进行所有的转换活动。”也就是说，“意义”既是翻译的出发点，也是翻译的归宿。美国翻译理论家奈达也有一句著名的言论：“翻译，即译意”。此外，古今中外众多翻译理论家在对翻译作出定义时，都 把原文的意义的传达当作翻译的根本任务。于是，我们可以这么说：“意义” 是翻译活动致力传达的东西，是翻译的核心和根本。 五. 简述索绪尔的语言意义观与传统语言意义观的不同之处，并分析索绪尔的 语言意义观给翻译活动带来的启示。 1. 传统语言意义观 传统语言意义观即“语言为分类命名集”的观点。这一观点是相当普遍的， 无论在东方还是在西方。这种语言观有着悠久的历史。将语言视作是“分类命 名集”的观点首先强调了指称和概念的一一对应，有一个事物，就有一个与之 对应的名称。其次，这种语言观也暗示着指称和概念。由传统语言观，我们可 以得到以下结论：语言的不同，只是外在的语言符号的差异，或者说只是“名” 的差异。正是在这种语言观和语言意义观的影响下，在相当长的一个历史时期 内，字对字、词对词的的翻译方法被许多翻译家当做最可信、最可靠且最可行 的翻译方法，当做对原文忠实的根本保证。 2. 索绪尔的语言意义观