Preliminary report
Investigation of the anti-in ?ammatory effect of Curcuma longa in Helicobacter pylori -infected patients
Chuchart Koosirirat a ,Sukanya Linpisarn b ,Don Changsom b ,Kriangkrai Chawansuntati b ,Jiraprapa Wipasa b ,?
a Uttaradit Hospital,Ministry of Public Health,Uttaradit 50300,Thailand
b
Research Institute for Health Sciences,PO Box 80CMU,Chiang Mai University,Chiang Mai 50202,Thailand
a b s t r a c t
a r t i c l e i n f o Article history:
Received 19March 2010
Received in revised form 26April 2010Accepted 26April 2010Keywords:Interleukin-8
Helicobacter pylori infection Curcumin
Triple therapy regimen In ?ammatory cytokine
Helicobacter pylori infection of the lining of the stomach induces an array of in ?ammatory cytokine production leading to gastritis and peptic ulcer disease.The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of curcumin on the production of interleukin (IL)-8,IL-1β,tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-αand cyclooxygenase (COX)-2in gastric mucosa from H.pylori -infected gastritis patients.Patients were randomly assigned to receive either OAM (Omeprazole,Amoxicillin and Metronidazole)treatment or a course of curcumin.Gastric biopsies were collected before and after treatment and were examined for the level of in ?ammatory cytokines mRNA by semi-quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction.The eradication rate of H.pylori in patients that received OAM treatment was signi ?cantly higher than the patients that received curcumin (78.9%versus 5.9%).The levels of IL-8mRNA expression in the OAM group signi ?cantly decreased after treatment,but no changes of other cytokines were found.This emphasizes an important role of IL-8in H.pylori infection.The decreases of cytokine production were not found in the curcumin group.We concluded that curcumin alone may have limited anti-bactericidal effect on H.pylori ,and on the production of in ?ammatory cytokines.Nevertheless,other studies have reported that patients treated with curcumin had relieved symptoms.Further investigation should be carried out as the use of curcumin in combination with therapeutic regimens may be bene ?cial as an alternative treatment.
?2010Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.
1.Introduction
Helicobacter pylori is a helix-shaped gram-negative bacterium that infects the lining of the stomach.The host responds to the infection by producing antibody and a variety of cytokines,including interleukin (IL)-1,tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α,inducible nitric oxide (iNOS),and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2which are correlated with the severity of symptoms [1–4].In addition,H.pylori infection induces the secretion of IL-8through the transcription factor nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-kB)activation [5,6].Enhanced gastric mucosal IL-8production leads to the recruitment of neutrophils to the site of infection [7].Enzymes released from neutrophils lead to in ?ammation of gastric tissue.Chronic in ?ammation may eventually cause gastric cancer [8].H.pylori is,therefore,classi ?ed as carcinogen.
According to the Maastricht III consensus and the American College of Gastroenterology Guideline (2007)on the management of H.pylori infection,the treatment includes two or more antibiotics and a proton pump inhibitor and/or bismuth for one or two weeks.However,there
is limitation of using this regimen in certain individuals.Failure of the treatment also occurs in some patients and the eradication rate with the triple therapy regimen is decreasing [9].Previous study has reported that treatment with either triple therapy regimen or histamine-2-antagonist alone can similarly improve symptoms of dyspeptic patients with H.pylori infection to some extent [10].It has also been demonstrated that H.pylori -infected patients treated with Curcuma longa (Turmeric)in combination with other drugs had relieved symptoms despite the eradication of H.pylori succeeded or failed [11–13].
C.longa has long been used widely as herbal medicine for peptic disease.Previous study has shown that curcumin inhibits NF-kB which regulates IL-8production [14].Curcumin extracts suppress the expression of COX-2and iNOS mRNA [15,16]and signi ?cant reduction of serum TNF-αlevel was observed in rats with experimental nephrotoxicity treated with curcumin [17].Curcumin and its extract have also been demonstrated to be able to inhibit H.pylori growth in vitro [18].However,the mechanism by which curcumin can reduce symptoms in H.pylori -infected patients is not clear,in particular,whether it has effects on in ?ammatory cytokine production.We,therefore,have conducted a pilot study to investigate the effect of curcumin on the production of in ?ammatory cytokines in chronic H.pylori -infected gastritis patients.
International Immunopharmacology 10(2010)815–818
?Corresponding author.Tel.:+6653945055;fax:+6653221849.E-mail address:jwipasa@chiangmai.ac.th (J.
Wipasa).1567-5769/$–see front matter ?2010Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.doi:
10.1016/j.intimp.2010.04.021
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Immunopharmacology
j o u r na l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s ev i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /i n t i m p
2.Materials and methods
2.1.Subjects
Study subjects were patients with chronic gastritis who were referred for gastrointestinal endoscopy at the Department of Internal Medicine,Uttaradit Hospital,Thailand.Patients were diagnosed positive to H.pylori if two of the three tests were positive;rapid urease test(CLO test,Ballard Medical Products,Draper,Utah,USA), pathology or culture.The patients were randomly assigned to receive either a one-week course of Omeprazole-based triple regimen(20mg of Omeprazole,1g of Amoxicillin,and800mg of Metronidazole,each given orally twice a day;OAM—manufactured by The Government Pharmaceutical Organization,Bangkok,Thailand)or a four-week course of turmeric tablet(Khaolaor Laboratory;Bangkok,Thailand, 700mg orally three times a day).The dose of turmeric tablets used in this study has proven safe and well tolerated in H.pylori-infected patients[12,13].Each turmeric tablet contained the average of40mg curcumin(as determined by UV-spectrophotometry at the Regional Medical Science Center10,the Ministry of Public Health).The erad-ication was considered successful if all three tests were negative at six weeks after the treatment end.
Four pieces of gastric antrum biopsies were taken at recruitment and at six weeks after the treatment completed and kept in RNA stabilization solution at4°C.All subjects in the curcumin group were given triple drug regimen at the end of study.Cytokine analysis was performed at the Research Institute for Health Sciences,Chiang Mai University.Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Research Institute for Health Sciences,Chiang Mai University,and from the Ministry of Public Health,Thailand.
2.2.RNA preparation and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction(RT-PCR)
Gastric biopsy specimens were homogenized by using QIAshredder (QIAGEN)and total RNA was isolated using RNeasy mini spin column (QIAGEN)and subjected to semi-quantitative RT-PCR.Ten nanograms of total RNA was reversed transcribed and RT-PCR was performed using One-Step RT-PCR kit(QIAGEN)to detect IL-8,IL-1β,TNFαand Cox-2mRNA.Total RNA was reverse transcribed at50°C for30min,and 30cycles of45s denaturation at94°C,45s of annealing at64°C and 1min extension at72°C were employed.Primer sequences are shown in Table1.PCR reaction products were electrophoresed on2%agarose gel,stained with ethidium bromide and quanti?ed by UV translumi-nator image documentation system using GeneSnap program.The levels of PCR products speci?c to cytokines were normalized relative to glyceraldehydes3-phosphate dehydrogenase(GAPDH)amplicon.2.3.Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using Fisher's exact test and t-test(paired and unpaired).
3.Results
3.1.Characteristics of the study subjects
A total of36chronic gastritis patients who con?rmed positive to H.pylori were studied.Seventeen individuals were assigned to receive curcumin and nineteen subjects assigned to receive OAM regimen (Table2).The two groups did not differ in age and sex.Six weeks after the treatment was completed,15of19patients(78.9%)receiving triple drug regimen were found to have successful eradication,whereas only one subject(5.9%)in the curcumin group had successfully eradicated the bacteria.The percentage of eradication rate in the OAM treatment group was signi?cantly higher than in the curcumin group(p b0.0001; Fisher's exact test).
3.2.Cytokine mRNA levels at recruitment
To determine IL-8,IL-1β,TNFαand Cox-2mRNA levels at recruitment,gastric biopsies were subjected to semi-quantitative RT-PCR as described in Materials and methods.Cytokine mRNA expression was normalized to GAPDH mRNA and presented as cytokine mRNA/ GAPDH mRNA ratio.There were no differences in the levels of cytokines at recruitment between the two study groups(Fig.1).
3.3.Effect of treatment on cytokine mRNA levels
Among the seventeen individuals who received curcumin,70.6%, 52.9%,47.1%and52.9%showed increased levels of IL-8,IL-1β,TNFαand Cox-2mRNA,respectively(Fig.2A–D),whereas29.4%,47.1%, 52.9%and47.1%had decreased levels of cytokine mRNA.There was no statistically signi?cant difference in the levels of cytokines before and after treatment.
Among the nineteen subjects in the OAM regimen group,26.3%, 31.6%,36.8%and26.3%had higher level of IL-8,IL-1β,TNFαand Cox-2 mRNA after treatment,whereas73.7%,68.4%,63.2%and73.7%showed a reduction of cytokine production.There were tendencies towards reduction of cytokine production in the OAM treatment group but statistical signi?cance was found with IL-8only(Fig.2E–H).
The proportion of individuals in the OAM regimen group who had a reduction of IL-8production after treatment were signi?cantly higher than in curcumin group(73.7%versus29.4%,p=0.018; Fisher's exact test)and no statistically signi?cant differences in the production of other cytokines were found.
3.4.Cytokine mRNA levels after treatment
Overall,the mean(±SD)of fold decrease in IL-8,IL-1β,TNF-αand COX-2mRNA expression after treatment in individuals that received
Table1
Nucleotides sequences used for detection of cytokine mRNA expression by RT-PCR. GAPDH
Sense(5′–3′)TGAAGGTCGGAGTCAACGGATTTGGT Antisense(5′–3′)CATGTGGGCCATGAGGTCCACCAC
IL-8
Sense(5′–3′)ATTTCTGCAGCTCTGTGTGAA
Antisense(5′–3′)TGAATTCTCAGCCCTCTTCAA
IL1-β
Sense(5′–3′)CAGAGAGTCCTGTGCTGAAT
Antisense(5′–3′)GTAGGAGAGGTCAGAGAGGC
TNFα
Sense(5′–3′)ATGAGCACTGAAAGCATGATC
Antisense(5′–3′)TCACAGGGCAATGATCCCAAAGTAGACCTGCCC COX-2
Sense(5′–3′)GGTCTGGTGCCTGGTCTGATGATG
Antisense(5′–3′)GTCCTTTCAAGGAGAATGGTGC Table2
Characteristics of chronic gastritis patients with H.pylori infection as assigned to receive curcumin or OAM regimen.
Curcumin OAM regimen
Total subjects—no.1719
Sex—no.(%)
Male7(41.2)10(52.6)
Female10(58.8)9(47.4) Age—yr.
Mean±SD48.1±10.0346.7±10.96 Range23–6518–61 Treatment success cases—no.(%)1(5.9)15(78.9)
816 C.Koosirirat et al./International Immunopharmacology10(2010)815–818
curcumin were 1.4±0.46,1.5±0.25,1.9±0.38and 1.8±0.40re-spectively.The expression of cytokine mRNA at the end of study in the OAM treatment group decreased by 9.1±1.93,1.5±0.14,37.2±
34.06and 8.6±3.04fold respectively.The average fold decreases of IL-8and COX-2expression in subjects received OAM treatment regimen were signi ?cantly higher than subjects treated with curcu-min (Fig.3).4.Discussions
Curcumin,the major component of C.longa which is stable at acidic pH has been long used in therapeutics worldwide.Curcumin can interact with a variety of target molecules that regulate the expression of several genes and activities of several enzymes [19,20].Its effects include anti-in ?ammatory,anti-carcinogenic and anti-bacterial.Never-theless,the mechanism of anti-in ?ammatory effect of curcumin in vivo is not clear,particularly whether it affects cytokine production in gastric tissue of patients with H.pylori infection.
In the present study,the eradication rate of subjects in the OAM treatment group was signi ?cantly higher than subjects in the curcumin group.Therefore,it is unlikely that curcumin alone has strong anti-bactericidal effect on H.pylori .Treatment with the triple therapy regimen resulted in a signi ?cant reduction of IL-8mRNA expression,whereas other cytokines were not affected.This data emphasizes the important role of IL-8in H.pylori infection.We did not ?nd an inhibitory effect of curcumin on the expression of cytokine mRNA in the gastric biopsies of H.pylori -infected patients.This differs from a study by Cho,et al.which demonstrated that Zedoarondiol extracted from C.heyneana reduces expression of iNOS,COX-2,TNF α,and IL-1βmRNA of lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7cells through the suppres-sion of NF-κB [21].It is conceivable that the amounts of active ingre-dients in curcumin extracts used in the in vitro studies were more than that contained in our curcumin tablets and the effects of curcumin on cytokine production in vitro may be different from in vivo .It is known that the bioavailability of curcumin in vivo is generally low [19].The possibility of low anti-in ?ammatory effect in our study might partly be due to poor distribution of the crude curcumin tablets.Further investi-gation to enhance its distribution and bioavailability is warranted.It should also be noted that a single dose of curcumin was investigated in this study.Whether a higher dose of curcumin would have an effect on the production of in ?ammatory cytokines in vivo remains to be determined.
It has been demonstrated that H.pylori infection activates NF-κB [22]which regulates the production of several cytokines such as IL-8and IL-1β[6,23].We found that patients treated with OAM
regimen
Fig.1.Expression of cytokine mRNA normalized to GAPDH mRNA at baseline before treatment.Patients were assigned to receive either curcumin (triangles)or OAM regimen (circles).The differences between groups were compared by unpaired t -test.Each symbol represents the data of one individual.Solid lines show the mean±95%con ?dence interval of each
group.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/154922000.html,parison of cytokine mRNA expression before and after treatment in patients that received curcumin (left column)or OAM treatment (right column).The pre-and post-treatment data were compared by paired t
-test.
Fig.3.Changes of expression of cytokine production after treatment with turmeric tablet (triangles)or OAM regimen (circles).The differences between groups were compared by unpaired t -test.Each symbol represents the data of one individual.Solid lines show the mean±95%con ?dence interval of each group.
817
C.Koosirirat et al./International Immunopharmacology 10(2010)815–818
had a signi?cant reduction of IL-8mRNA expression only,whereas expression of other cytokines did not alter.Our results suggest that the triple therapy regimen did not inhibit NF-κB directly.The reduction of IL-8is likely due to the removal of cytokine cascade after H.pylori eradication.This is concurrent with a study by Uemura et al.which reported a decline of neutrophils in gastric mucosa after treatment with Omeprazole and antibiotics[24].
The relief of symptoms after curcumin use has been reported previously[11–13].It is,therefore,conceivable that curcumin relieves symptoms through other mechanisms such as inhibition of gastric acid secretion by blocking H2histamine receptor[25].
Curcumin is a natural plant product that has been used for numerous purposes.Although treatment of H.pylori-infected patients with cur-cumin did not alter levels of in?ammatory cytokine mRNA expression and had limited anti-bactericidal effect,it improved common symptoms in the patients.Further investigation for a better understanding of its mechanisms should be carried out.The use of curcumin in combination with therapeutic regimen may bene?t patients in terms of better compliance or may be used as an alternative treatment in drug resistant H.pylori-infected cases.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to all subjects of this study for their participation. We would like to thank the staff of the microbiology laboratory and the Department of Internal Medicine,Uttaradit Hospital,Thailand for technical assistance.
This study was supported by the Thailand Research Fund(TRF), grant number MRG5080110.TRF had no involvement in study design, analysis of data or writing the manuscript.
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JOIN IN 学生用书1 Word List Starter Unit 1.Good afternoon 下午好 2.Good evening 晚上好 3.Good morning 早上好 4.Good night 晚安 5.Stand 站立 Unit 1 6.count [kaunt] （依次）点数 7.javascript:;eight [eit] 八 8.eleven [i'levn] 十一 9.four [f?:] 四 10.five [faiv] 五 11.flag [fl?g] 旗 12.guess [ges] 猜 13.jump [d??mp] 跳 14.nine [nain] 九 15.number ['n?mb?] 数字 16.one [w?n] 一 17.seven ['sevn] 七 18.six [siks] 六 19.ten [ten] 十 20.three [θri:] 三 21.twelve [twelv] 十二 22.two [tu:] 二 23.your [ju?] 你的 24.zero ['zi?r?u] 零、你们的 Unit 2 25.black [bl?k] 黑色26.blue [blu:] 蓝色 27.car [kɑ:] 小汽车 28.colour ['k?l?] 颜色 29.door [d?:] 门 30.favourite [feiv?rit]javascript:; 特别喜爱的 31.green [gri:n] 绿色 32.jeep [d?i:p] 吉普车 33.orange ['?:rind?] 橙黄色 34.pin k [pi?k] 粉红色 35.please [pli:z] 请 36.purple ['p?:pl] 紫色 37.red [red] 红色 38.white [wait] 白色 39.yellow ['jel?u] 黄色 Unit 3 40.blackboard ['bl?kb?:d] 黑板 41.book [buk] 书 42.chair [t???] 椅子 43.desk [desk] 桌子 44.pen [pen] 钢笔 45.pencil ['pensl] 铅笔 46.pencil case [keis] 笔盒 47.ruler ['ru:l?] 尺、直尺 48.schoolbag [sku:l] 书包 49.tree [tri:] 树 50.window ['wind?u] 窗、窗口 Unit 4 51.brown [braun] 棕色 52.cat [k?t] 猫
Join In剑桥小学英语(改编版)入门阶段Unit 1Hello,hello第1单元嗨,嗨 and mime. 1 听,模仿 Stand up Say 'hello' Slap hands Sit down 站起来说"嗨" 拍手坐下来 Good. Let's do up Say 'hello' Slap hands Sit down 好. 我们来再做一遍.站起来说"嗨"拍手坐下来 the pictures. 2 再听一遍给图画编号. up "hello" hands down 1 站起来 2 说"嗨" 3 拍手 4 坐下来说 3. A ,what's yourname 3 一首歌嗨,你叫什么名字 Hello. , what's yourname Hello. Hello. 嗨. 嗨. 嗨, 你叫什么名字嗨,嗨. Hello, what's yourname I'm Toby. I'm Toby. Hello,hello,hello.嗨, 你叫什么名字我叫托比. 我叫托比 . 嗨,嗨,嗨. I'm Toby. I'm Toby. Hello,hello, let's go! 我是托比. 我是托比. 嗨,嗨, 我们一起! Hello. , what's yourname I'm 'm Toby. 嗨.嗨.嗨, 你叫什么名字我叫托比.我叫托比. Hello,hello,hello. I'm 'm Toby. Hello,hello,let's go! 嗨,嗨,嗨.我是托比. 我是托比. 嗨,嗨,我们一起! 4 Listen and stick 4 听和指 What's your name I'm Bob. 你叫什么名字我叫鲍勃. What's your name I'm Rita. What's your name I'm Nick. 你叫什么名字我叫丽塔. 你叫什么名字我叫尼克. What's your name I'm Lisa. 你叫什么名字我叫利萨. 5. A story-Pit'sskateboard. 5 一个故事-彼德的滑板. Pa:Hello,Pit. Pa:好,彼德. Pi:Hello,:What's this Pi:嗨,帕特.Pa:这是什么 Pi:My new :Look!Pi:Goodbye,Pat! Pi:这是我的新滑板.Pi:看!Pi:再见,帕特! Pa:Bye-bye,Pit!Pi:Help!Help!pi:Bye-bye,skateboard! Pa:再见,彼德!Pi:救命!救命!Pi:再见,滑板! Unit 16. Let's learnand act 第1单元6 我们来边学边表演.
Join In剑桥小学英语(改编版)入门阶段 Unit 1Hello,hello第1单元嗨,嗨 1.Listen and mime. 1 听,模仿 Stand up Say 'hello' Slap hands Sit down 站起来说"嗨" 拍手坐下来 Good. Let's do itagain.Stand up Say 'hello' Slap hands Sit down 好. 我们来再做一遍.站起来说"嗨"拍手坐下来 2.listen again.Number the pictures. 2 再听一遍给图画编号. 1.Stand up 2.Say "hello" 3.Slap hands 4.Sit down 1 站起来 2 说"嗨" 3 拍手 4 坐下来说 3. A song.Hello,what's yourname? 3 一首歌嗨,你叫什么名字? Hello. Hello.Hello, what's yourname? Hello. Hello. 嗨. 嗨. 嗨, 你叫什么名字? 嗨,嗨. Hello, what's yourname? I'm Toby. I'm Toby. Hello,hello,hello. 嗨, 你叫什么名字? 我叫托比. 我叫托比 . 嗨,嗨,嗨. I'm Toby. I'm Toby. Hello,hello, let's go! 我是托比. 我是托比. 嗨,嗨, 我们一起! Hello. Hello.Hello, what's yourname? I'm Toby.I'm Toby. 嗨.嗨.嗨, 你叫什么名字? 我叫托比.我叫托比. Hello,hello,hello. I'm Toby.I'm Toby. Hello,hello,let's go! 嗨,嗨,嗨.我是托比. 我是托比. 嗨,嗨,我们一起! 4 Listen and stick 4 听和指 What's your name? I'm Bob. 你叫什么名字? 我叫鲍勃. What's your name ? I'm Rita. What's your name ? I'm Nick. 你叫什么名字? 我叫丽塔. 你叫什么名字? 我叫尼克. What's your name ? I'm Lisa. 你叫什么名字? 我叫利萨. 5. A story-Pit'sskateboard. 5 一个故事-彼德的滑板. Pa:Hello,Pit. Pa:好,彼德. Pi:Hello,Pat.Pa:What's this? Pi:嗨,帕特.Pa:这是什么? Pi:My new skateboard.Pi:Look!Pi:Goodbye,Pat! Pi:这是我的新滑板.Pi:看!Pi:再见,帕特! Pa:Bye-bye,Pit!Pi:Help!Help!pi:Bye-bye,skateboard! Pa:再见,彼德!Pi:救命!救命!Pi:再见,滑板! Unit 16. Let's learnand act 第1单元6 我们来边学边表演.
常用标点符号用法简表 标点符号栏目对每一种汉语标点符号都有详细分析，下表中未完全添加链接，请需要的同学或朋友到该栏目查询。名称符号用法说明举例句号。表示一句话完了之后的停顿。中国共产党是全中国人民的领导核心。逗号，表示一句话中间的停顿。全世界各国人民的正义斗争，都是互相支持的。顿号、表示句中并列的词或词组之间的停顿。能源是发展农业、工业、国防、科学技术和提高人民生活的重要物质基础。分号；表示一句话中并列分句之间的停顿。不批判唯心论，就不能发展唯物论；不批判形而上学，就不能发展唯物辩证法。冒号：用以提示下文。马克思主义哲学告诉我们：正确的认识来源于社会实践。问号？用在问句之后。是谁创造了人类？是我们劳动群众。感情号①！1.表示强烈的感情。2.表示感叹句末尾的停顿。战无不胜的马克思主义、列宁主义、毛泽东思想万岁！引号 ②“ ” ‘ ’ ╗╚ ┐└1.表示引用的部分。毛泽东同志在《论十大关系》一文中说：“我们要调动一切直接的和间接的力量，为把我国建设成为一个强大的社会主义国家而奋斗。”2.表示特定的称谓或需要着重指出的部分。他们当中许多人是身体好、学习好、工作好的“三好”学生。 3.表示讽刺或否定的意思。这伙政治骗子恬不知耻地自封为“理论家”。括号③（）表示文中注释的部分。这篇小说环境描写十分出色，它的描写（无论是野外，或是室内）处处与故事的发展扣得很紧。省略号④……表示文中省略的部分。这个县办工厂现在可以生产车床、电机、变压器、水泵、电线……上百种产品。破折号⑤——1.表示底下是解释、说明的部
分，有括号的作用。知识的问题是一个科学问题，来不得半点的虚伪和骄 傲，决定地需要的倒是其反面——诚实和谦逊的态度。2.表示意思的递进。 团结——批评和自我批评——团结3.表示意思的转折。很白很亮的一堆洋 钱！而且是他的——现在不见了！连接号⑥—1.表示时间、地点、数目等 的起止。抗日战争时期（1937-1945年）“北京—上海”直达快车2.表 示相关的人或事物的联系。亚洲—太平洋地区书名号⑦《》〈〉表示 书籍、文件、报刊、文章等的名称。《矛盾论》《中华人民共和国宪法》《人 民日报》《红旗》杂志《学习〈为人民服务〉》间隔号·1.表示月份和日期 之间的分界。一二·九运动2.表示某些民族人名中的音界。诺尔曼·白求 恩着重号.表示文中需要强调的部分。学习马克思列宁主义，要按照毛泽 东同志倡导的方法，理论联系实际。······
常用网络通信协议简介 常用网络通信协议 物理层: DTE(Data Terminal Equipment):数据终端设备 DCE(Data Communications Equipment):数据电路端接设备 #窄宽接入: PSTN ( Public Switched Telephone Network )公共交换电话网络 ISDN(Integrated Services Digital Network)ISDN综合业务数字网 ISDN有6种信道: A信道 4khz模拟信道 B信道 64kbps用于语音数据、调整数据、数字传真 C信道 8kbps/16kbps的数字信道，用于传输低速数据 D信道 16kbps数字信道，用于传输用户接入信令 E信道 64kbps数字信道，用于传输内部信令 H信道 384kbps高速数据传输数字信道，用于图像、视频会议、快速传真等. B代表承载， D代表Delta. ISDN有3种标准化接入速率: 基本速率接口(BRI)由2个B信道，每个带宽64kbps和一个带宽16kbps的D信道组成。三个信道设计成2B+D。 主速率接口(PRI) - 由很多的B信道和一个带宽64Kbps的D信道组成，B信道的数量取决于不同的国家: 北美和日本: 23B+1D, 总位速率1.544 Mbit/s (T1) 欧洲，澳大利亚:30B+2D,总位速率2.048 Mbit/s (E1) FR(Frame Relay)帧中继
X.25 X.25网络是第一个面向连接的网络,也是第一个公共数据网络. #宽带接入: ADSL:(Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line)非对称数字用户环路 HFC(Hybrid Fiber,Coaxial)光纤和同轴电缆相结合的混合网络 PLC:电力线通信技术 #传输网: SDH:(Synchronous Digital Hierarchy)同步数字体系 DWDM:密集型光波复用(DWDM:Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing)是能组合一组光波长用一根光纤进行传送。这是一项用来在现有的光纤骨干网上提高带宽的激光技术。更确切地说，该技术是在一根指定的光纤中，多路复用单个光纤载波的紧密光谱间距，以便利用可以达到的传输性能(例如，达到最小程度的色散或者衰减)。 #无线/卫星: LMDS:(Local Multipoint Distribution Services)作区域多点传输服务。这是一种微波的宽带业务，工作在28GHz附近频段，在较近的距离双向传输话音、数据和图像等信息。 GPRS:(General Packet Radio Service)通用分组无线服务技术。 3G:(3rd-generation，3G)第三代移动通信技术 DBS:(Direct Broadcasting Satellite Service)直播卫星业务 VAST: 协议:RS-232、RS-449、X.21、V.35、ISDN、FDDI、IEEE802.3、IEEE802.4、IEEE802.5等。 RS-232:是个人计算机上的通讯接口之一，由电子工业协会(Electronic Industries
一、基本定义 句子，前后都有停顿，并带有一定的句调，表示相对完整的意义。句子前后或中间的停顿，在口头语言中，表现出来就是时间间隔，在书面语言中，就用标点符号来表示。一般来说，汉语中的句子分以下几种： 陈述句： 用来说明事实的句子。 祈使句： 用来要求听话人做某件事情的句子。 疑问句： 用来提出问题的句子。 感叹句： 用来抒发某种强烈感情的句子。 复句、分句： 意思上有密切联系的小句子组织在一起构成一个大句子。这样的大句子叫复句，复句中的每个小句子叫分句。 构成句子的语言单位是词语，即词和短语（词组）。词即最小的能独立运用的语言单位。短语，即由两个或两个以上的词按一定的语法规则组成的表达一定意义的语言单位，也叫词组。 标点符号是书面语言的有机组成部分，是书面语言不可缺少的辅助工具。它帮助人们确切地表达思想感情和理解书面语言。 二、用法简表 名称
句号① 问号符号用法说明。？1．用于陈述句的末尾。 2．用于语气舒缓的祈使句末尾。 1．用于疑问句的末尾。 2．用于反问句的末尾。 1．用于感叹句的末尾。 叹号！ 2．用于语气强烈的祈使句末尾。 3．用于语气强烈的反问句末尾。举例 xx是xx的首都。 请您稍等一下。 他叫什么名字？ 难道你不了解我吗？为祖国的繁荣昌盛而奋斗！停止射击！ 我哪里比得上他呀！ 1．句子内部主语与谓语之间如需停顿，用逗号。我们看得见的星星，绝大多数是恒星。 2．句子内部动词与宾语之间如需停顿，用逗号。应该看到，科学需要一个人贡献出毕生的精力。 3．句子内部状语后边如需停顿，用逗号。对于这个城市，他并不陌生。 4．复句内各分句之间的停顿，除了有时要用分号据说苏州园林有一百多处，我到过的不外，都要用逗号。过十多处。 顿号、用于句子内部并列词语之间的停顿。
五年级下英语月考试卷-全能练考-Join in剑桥英语 姓名：日期：总分：100 一、根据意思，写出单词。（10′） Fanny:Jackie, ________[猜] my animal,my ________最喜欢的 animal.OK? Jackie:Ok!Mm…Has it got a nose? Fanny:Yes,it’s got a big long nose,…and two long ________[牙齿]. Jackie:Does it live in ________[美国]? Fanny:No,no.It lives ________[在] Africa and Asia. Jackie:Can it ________[飞]? Fanny:I’m sorry it can’t. Jackie:Is it big? Fanny:Yes,it’s very big and ________[重的]. Jackie:What ________[颜色] is it?Is it white or ________[黑色]? Fanny:It’s white. Jackie:Oh,I see.It’s ________[大象]. 二、找出不同类的单词。（10′） （）1 A.sofa B.table C.check （）2 A.noodle https://www.doczj.com/doc/154922000.html,k C.way （）3 A.fish B.wolf C.lion （）4 A.bike B.car C.write （）5 A.tree B.farm C.grass （）6 A.big B.small C.other ( ）7 A.eat B.listen C.brown
《剑桥小学英语Join In ——Book 3 下学期》教材教法分析2012-03-12 18:50:43| 分类：JOIN IN 教案| 标签：|字号大中小订阅. 一、学情分析： 作为毕业班的学生，六年级的孩子在英语学习上具有非常显著的特点： 1、因为教材的编排体系和课时不足，某些知识学生已遗忘，知识回生的现象很突出。 2、有的学生因受学习习惯及学习能力的制约，有些知识掌握较差，学生学习个体的差异性，学习情况参差不齐、两级分化的情况明显，对英语感兴趣的孩子很喜欢英语，不喜欢英语的孩子很难学进去了。 3、六年级的孩子已经进入青春前期，他们跟三、四、五年级的孩子相比已经有了很大的不同。他们自尊心强，好胜心强，集体荣誉感也强，有自己的评判标准和思想，对知识的学习趋于理性化，更有自主学习的欲望和探索的要求。 六年级学生在英语学习上的两极分化已经给教师的教学带来很大的挑战，在教学中教师要注意引导学生调整学习方式： 1、注重培养学生自主学习的态度 如何抓住学习课堂上的学习注意力，吸引他们的视线，保持他们高涨的学习激情，注重过程的趣味化和学习内容的简易化。 2、给予学生独立思考的空间。 3、鼓励学生坚持课前预习、课后复习的好习惯。 六年级教材中的单词、句子量比较多，难点也比较多，学生课前回家预习，不懂的地方查英汉词典或者其它资料，上课可以达到事半功倍的效果，课后复习也可以很好的消化课堂上的内容。 4、注意培养学生合作学习的习惯。 5、重在培养学生探究的能力：学习内容以问题的方式呈现、留给学生更多的发展空间。 二、教材分析： （一）.教材特点： 1．以学生为主体，全面提高学生的素质。
CISCO BGP协议精简技术要点 1. BGP特征1) BGP是一种域间路由选择协议（IDRP），自主系统号是一个16位的数字，其取值范围为1~65535，64512~65535的AS号保留给私有: 2) 在不同自主系统中的路由器之间运行BGP时，被称为外部BGP（EBGP）；在位于同一个自主系统中的路由器之间运行BGP时，被称为内部BGP（IBGP）; 3) EBGP通常彼此直接连接的，TTL值默认值为1；IBGP路由器无需直接连接，但邻居的建立需要IGP，传输是不需要IGP的； 4) BGP路由器只需发送增量更新，BGP发送存活消息； 5) 获悉外部网络的方式：将所有BGP路由重分布到IGP；在AS的所有路由器运行IBGP； 6) BGP维护：优化；与IGP同步；下一跳可达； 7) 运行IBGP的路由器从邻居学到的路由不会传给其它的路由器； 8) BGP水平分割，只有优化的路由才有可能传播； 2. BGP消息类型1) 打开消息(open)：包含hold time和BGP路由ID； 2) 存活消息（keeplive）：三倍于hold时间； 3) 更新消息（update）：在BGP最优的路由才能更新； 4) 通知消息（notification）：BGP路由出错和BGP连接被管理性关闭； 3. BGP状态1) Idle：查找路由表，路由器执行资源初始化，发起一个TCP连接，并且倾听远程BGP 2) Connect：找到路由表进行TCP的三次握手，TCP连接成功转到Open sent状态，如果失败，转到idle重新连接； 3) Open sent：打开信息发送报文； 4) Open confirm：收到对方发来的open消息，邻居关系协商完成； 5) Established：最终状态。 4. BGP属性1) 公认属性：公认属性是所有厂商BGP实现都必须能够识别的属性，公认强制属性必须出现所有BGP路由更新中；公认自由决定属性可以不出现在BGP更新中； 2) 可选属性：非公认属性被称为是可选的，可选属性可以是传递的或非传递的； 3) BGP定义的属性：公认强制属性；公认自由决定的属性；可选传递属性；可选非传递属性； 4) AS路径属性：一种公认强制属性，用来避免环路； 5) 下一跳属性：BGP中的跳指的是AS，而不是路由器，对于另一个AS中的网络而言，下一跳是前往该网络的路径中，下一个AS的入口IP地址； 6) 源头：源头是公认强制属性，它定义路径信息的源头，指明路由是通过什么方式学到的。n IGP：路由在起始AS的内部； n EGP：路由是通过EGP获悉的，在BGP表中用e表示，例如：重分布； n 不完全：路由的源头未知或是通过其它方法获悉的，例如：重分布或静态路由过来的；
五 年 级 英 语 测 试 卷 学校 班级 姓名 听力部分（共20分） 一、Listen and colour . 听数字，涂颜色。（5分） 二、 Listen and tick . 听录音，在相应的格子里打“√”。 （6分） 三、Listen and number.听录音，标序号。（9分） pig fox lion cow snake duck
sheep 笔试部分（共80分） 一、Write the questions.将完整的句子写在下面的横线上。(10分) got it Has eyes on a farm it live sheep a it other animals eat it it Is 二、Look and choose.看看它们是谁，将字母填入括号内。(8分) A. B. C. D.
E. F. G. H. ( ) pig ( ) fox ( ) sheep ( ) cat ( ) snake ( ) lion ( ) mouse ( ) elephant 三、Look at the pictures and write the questions.看图片，根据答语写出相应的问题。(10分) No,it doesn’t. Yes,it is.
Yes,it does. Yes,it has. Yes,it does. 四、Choose the right answer.选择正确的答案。(18分) 1、it live on a farm？ 2. it fly？
3. it a cow？ 4. it eat chicken？ 5. you swim？ 6. you all right？ 五、Fill in the numbers.对话排序。(6分) Goodbye. Two apples , please. 45P , please. Thank you.
第五章网络通信协议 5．1 引言、 网络基础结构：物理层和数据链路层协议构成网络硬件支撑环境 网络传输协议在此基础上提供面向连接或无连接的数据传输服务，支持各种网络应用。 TCP/IP是OSI/RF的简化， 基于硬件层次是上的四个概念性层次构成： 应用层、传送层、网络层、（IP层）、和网络接口层（数据链路层） 功能： 1）链路层（网络接口层） TCP/IP的最低层 负责接收IP数据报并送至选定的网络 数据链路层通过网络接口方式与下层进行通信，网络接口一般包括操作系统的设备驱动程序以及计算机中相应的网络接口卡，通过网络接口处理与电缆接口的物理硬件细节。 2）网络层 IP层或Internet层 IP层处理机器之间的通信，接收来自传输层的请求，将带有目的地址的分组分发出去。具体过程： 将分组封装到数据中 切入数据报头 使用路由算法以决定是直接将数据报送到目的主机还是传给路由器 把数据报送至相应的网络接口来传送 IP层还要处理接口收到的数据报，检验其正确性，并决定是本地接收还是路由至相应的目的站 IP（网络网际协议）、ICMP（国际控制报文协议）、IGMP（国际组管理协议）构成了TCP/IP协议簇中的网络层 3）传输层 提供应用层之间的通信（端到端的通信）
管理信息流，提供可靠的传输服务，以确保数据无差错地按顺序到达 传输层软件将要传送的数据流划分成分组，并连同目的地传至下一层 TCP/IP协议簇中有两类非常不同的传输层协议：TCP，UDP TCP协议提供了两主机之间的可靠数据流 将应用层传递给它的数据分割为适于网络的数据块 接收分组数据包的确认 为发送的分组设置超时间隔以保证对方收到该分组等 UDP只为应用层提供了相当简单的服务 负责向对方发送称为数据报的分组，但不保证这些数据报可以到达对方 因此必须在应用层设置一些可靠机制以保证数据的正确接收 4）应用层 在最高层，用户通过调用应用程序来访问TCP/IP互相网络提供的多种服务 应用程序负责接收和发送数据流 每个应用程序选择所需的传送服务类型，可以是独立的报文序列或是连续的字节流应用程序将数据按要求的格式传送给传输层 在TCP/IP许多应用程序中都提供了一些公共的应用服务 Telnet, FTP, SMTP（简单的邮件传输协议，邮件服务），SNMP（简单的网络管理协议）管理TCP/IP协议的因特网协会 因特网结构委员会 因特网工程任务组因特网研究任务组
2011-2012 学年度上学期六年级复习题（Unit2-Unit3 ） 一、听力部分 1、听录音排序 ( ) () ()() () 2、听录音，找出与你所听到的单词属同一类的单词 （） 1. A. spaceman B. pond C . tiger （） 2. A.mascots B. potato C . jeans （） 3. A. door B. behind C . golden （） 4. A. sometimes B. shop C . prince （） 5. A. chair B. who C . sell 3、听录音，将下面人物与他的梦连线 Sarah Tim Juliet Jenny Peter 4、听短文，请在属于Mr. Brown的物品下面打√ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 5、听问句选答句 （） 1. A. Yes, I am B. Yes, I have C . Yes, you do （） 2. A.Pink B. A friendship band C . Yes. （） 3. A. OK B. Bye-bye. C . Thanks, too. （） 4. A. Monday. B. Some juice. C . Kitty. （） 5. A. I ’ve got a shookbag. B. I ’m a student. C . It has got a round face. 6、听短文，选择正确答案 （） 1. Where is Xiaoqing from? She is from . A.Hebei B. Hubei C . Hunan （） 2. She goes to school at . A.7:00 B.7:30 C . 7:15 （） 3. How many classes in the afternoon? classes. A. four B. three C . two （） 4. Where is Xiaoqing at twelve o ’clock? She is . A. at home B. at school C .in the park （） 5. What does she do from seven to half past eight? She . A.watches TV B. reads the book C. does homework
Starter Unit Good to see you again知识总结 一. 短语 1. dance with me 和我一起跳舞 2. sing with me 和我一起唱歌 3. clap your hands 拍拍你的手 4. jump up high 高高跳起 5.shake your arms and your legs晃晃你的胳膊和腿 6. bend your knees 弯曲你的膝盖 7. touch your toes 触摸你的脚趾8. stand nose to nose鼻子贴鼻子站 二. 句子 1. ---Good morning. 早上好。 ---Good morning, Mr Li. 早上好，李老师。 2. ---Good afternoon. 下午好。 ---Good afternoon, Mr Brown. 下午好，布朗先生。 3. ---Good evening，Lisa. 晚上好,丽莎。 ---Good evening, Bob. 晚上好，鲍勃。 4. ---Good night. 晚安。 ----Good night. 晚安。 5. ---What’s your name? 你叫什么名字？ ---I’m Bob./ My name is Bob. 我叫鲍勃。 6. ---Open the window, please. 请打开窗户。 ---Yes ,Miss. 好的，老师。 7. ---What colour is it? 它是什么颜色？ 它是蓝红白混合的。 ---It’s blue, red and white. 皮特的桌子上是什么？ 8. ---What’s on Pit’s table? ---A schoolbag, an eraser and two books. 一个书包，一个橡皮和两本书。 9. ---What time is it? 几点钟？ 两点钟。 ---It’s two. 10.---What’s this? 这是什么？ ---My guitar. 我的吉他。
重点掌握网络协议标准规范大全 在网络的各层中存在着许多协议，它是定义通过网络进行通信的规则，接收方的发送方同层的协议必须一致，否则一方将无法识别另一方发出的信息，以这种规则规定双方完成信息在计算机之间的传送过程。下面就对网络协议规范作个概述。 ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)地址解析协议 它是用于映射计算 机的物理地址和临时指定的网络地址。启动时它选择一个协议(网络层)地址，并检查这个地址是否已经有别的计算机使用，如果没有被使用，此结点被使用这个地址，如果此地址已经被别的计算机使用，正在使用此地址的计算机会通告这一信息，只有再选另一个地址了。
SNMP(Simple Network Management P)网络管理协议 它是TCP/IP协议中的一部份，它为本地和远端的网络设备管理提供了一个标准化途径，是分布式环境中的集中化管理的重要组成部份。 AppleShare protocol(AppleShare协议) 它是Apple机上的通信协议，它允许计算机从服务器上请求服务或者和服务器交换文件。AppleShare可以在TCP/IP协议或其它网络协议如IPX、AppleTalk上进行工作。使用它时，用户可以访问文件，应用程序，打印机和其它远程服务器上的资源。它可以和配置了AppleShare协议的任何服务器进行通信，Macintosh、Mac OS、Windows NT和Novell Netware都支持AppleShare协议。 AppleTalk协议 它是Macintosh计算机使用的主要网络协议。Windows NT服务器有
外研社剑桥小学英语Join_in四年级上册整体课时教案Starter Unit Let's begin 第一学时: The pupils learn to understand: How are you today? I’m fine/OK. Goodbye. The pupils learn to use: What’s your name? I’m (Alice). How are you? I’m fine. I’m OK. Activities and skills: Decoding meaning from teacher input. Using phrases for interaction in class. Greeting each other. I Introduce oneself. Asking someone’s mane. Teaching process: Step 1: Warm—up. Sing a song. Hello, what’s your name? Step 2: Presentation. 1. What’s your name? I’m…. (1) The teacher introduces herself, saying: Hello, /Good morning, I’m Miss Sun. (2) Asks a volunteer’s name:
What’s your name? The teacher prompt the pupil by whispering, I’m (Alice). (3) Asks all the pupils the same question and help those who need it by whispering I’m…. 2. How are you today? I’m fine. I’m OK. (1) The teacher explains the meaning of How are you today? (2) Tell the class to ask the question all together and introduce two answers, I’m (not very) fine/I’m Ok. (3) Asks all the pupils the same question and make sure that all the students can reply. Step3: Speak English in class. 1. Tells the pupils to open their books at page3, look at the four photographs, and listen to the tape. 2. Asks the pupils to dramatise the situations depicted in the four photographs. A volunteer will play the part of the parts of the other pupils, answering as a group. 第二学时: The pupils learn to use these new words: Sandwich, hamburger, hot dog, puller, cowboy, jeans, cinema, walkman, snack bar, Taxi, clown, superstar.
常用标点符号主要用法 问号 1、用在特指问句后。如：(7)你今年多大了？ 2、用在反问句后。如：(8)为什么我们不能刻苦一点呢？ ?提示：反问句若语气缓和，末尾可用句号；若语气重可用感叹号。如：(9)国家 主席可以活活被整死；堂堂大元帅受辱骂；……这哪里还有什么尊重可言！ 3、用在设问句后。如：(10)我们能让你计划实现吗？不会的。 4、用在选择问句中。如：(11)我们是革命呢，还是要现大洋？ ( 12)你到底是去，还是不去？ 5、用在表疑问的独词句后。如：(13)我？不可能吧。 ?提示：若疑问句为倒装句，问号应放在句末。如：(14)到底出了什么问题，你的 车？(若说成：“到底出了什么问题？你的车。”则错误。) ?特别提示： 句号、问号均表示句末停顿。句号用于陈述句末尾，问号用于疑问句末尾。有些句 中虽有疑问词，但全句并不是疑问句，句末只能用句号，不能用问号。 例如：(17)……最后应求出铜块的体积是多少？ (18)面对千姿百态、纷繁芜杂的期刊世界，有哪位期刊编辑不想通过期刊版面设 计为刊物分朱布白、添花增色呢？ (19)关于什么是智力？国内外争论多年也没有定论。 (17) (18) ( 19)三句都是非疑问句，(17) (18)句中问号均应改为句号，(19)句中的问号应改为逗号。 感叹号 ?特别提示： 1、在表感叹或祈使语气的主谓倒装句中，感叹号要放在句末。 如：(20)多么雄伟壮观啊，万里长城！ 2、句前有叹词，后是感叹句，叹号放在句末。 如：(21)啊，这儿多么美丽！ 下面介绍句中点号的用法。句中点号包括逗号、分号、顿号、和冒号四种。 逗号 提示：复句内各分句之间的停顿，除了有时用分号外，都要用逗号。 顿号 用于句中并列的词、词组之间较小的停顿。 如：(22)邓颖超的品德、人格、风范为中华民族树立了一座精神丰碑。 (23)从1918年起，鲁迅陆续发表了《狂人日记》、《药》、《祝福》等短篇小说。 ?特别提示：以下九种情况不用顿号。 1、不定数的两个数字间不用顿号。 如：(24)你的年龄大概是十六七岁。(不能写成“十六、七岁”) ?【注意】相邻的两个数字而非约数之间要用顿号。
Join in三年级上册知识点 1.见面打招呼 Hello! = Hi! 你好 Good morning! 早上好！ Good afternoon! 下午好！ Good evening! 晚上好！ (注意：Good night的意思是“晚安”) 2.询问身体健康状况 How are you? 你好吗？ I’m fine. = I’m OK.我很好。 3.临走分别 Goodbye. = Bye bye. 再见。 See you tomorrow. 明天见。 4.Miss小姐Mr先生 5.询问名字 -What’s your name? 你叫什么名字？ -I’m Toby. = My name is Toby. = Toby.我叫托比。 6.Let’s+动词原形 如Let’s go! 我们走吧！ Let’s begin! 我们开始吧！ 7. Are you ready? 你准备好了吗？ I’m ready. 我准备好了。 8.十二个动词 look看listen听mime比划着表达speak讲read读write写draw画colour涂sing唱think想guess猜play玩9.询问物体 -What’s this? 这是什么？ -It’s my dog. / It’s a dog. / My dog. 这是我的狗。 10.my/your+名词 如my apple我的苹果 your apple你的苹果 11.数字0-10 zero零one一two二three三four四five五six六seven七eight八nine九ten十12.询问电话号码 -What’s your phone number? 你的电话号码是多少？ -It’s . / . 13.guess sth 猜东西 如Guess the number. 猜数字 14. What’s in the box? 盒子里有什么？ 15.询问数量 -How many? 多少？ -Nine. 九个。 16. Here is / are sth. 这是……
1-24论述具有五层协议的网络体系结构的要点，包括各层的主要功能。 答：综合OSI 和TCP/IP 的优点，采用一种原理体系结构。各层的主要功能： 物理层物理层的任务就是透明地传送比特流。（注意：传递信息的物理媒体，如双绞 线、同轴电缆、光缆等，是在物理层的下面，当做第0 层。）物理层还要确定连接电缆插头的定义及连接法。 数据链路层数据链路层的任务是在两个相邻结点间的线路上无差错地传送以帧（frame）为单位的数据。每一帧包括数据和必要的控制信息。 网络层网络层的任务就是要选择合适的路由，使发送站的运输层所传下来的分组能够正确无误地按照地址找到目的站，并交付给目的站的运输层。 运输层运输层的任务是向上一层的进行通信的两个进程之间提供一个可靠的端到端服务，使它们看不见运输层以下的数据通信的细节。 应用层应用层直接为用户的应用进程提供服务。 1-25试举出日常生活中有关“透明”这种名词的例子。答：电视，计算机视窗操作系统、工农业产品 1-26 试解释以下名词：协议栈、实体、对等层、协议数据单元、服务访问点、客户、服务器、客户-服务器方式。 答：实体(entity) 表示任何可发送或接收信息的硬件或软件进程。 协议是控制两个对等实体进行通信的规则的集合。 客户(client)和服务器(server)都是指通信中所涉及的两个应用进程。客户是服务的请求方，服务器是服务的提供方。 客户服务器方式所描述的是进程之间服务和被服务的关系。 协议栈:指计算机网络体系结构采用分层模型后,每层的主要功能由对等层协议的运行来实现,因而每层可用一些主要协议来表征,几个层次画在一起很像一个栈的结构. 对等层:在网络体系结构中,通信双方实现同样功能的层. 协议数据单元:对等层实体进行信息交换的数据单位. 服务访问点:在同一系统中相邻两层的实体进行交互（即交换信息）的地方.服务访问点SAP是一个抽象的概念,它实体上就是一个逻辑接口. 1-26试解释everything over IP 和IP over everthing 的含义。 答：TCP/IP协议可以为各式各样的应用提供服务（所谓的everything over ip） 允许IP协议在各式各样的网络构成的互联网上运行（所谓的ip over everything） 第二章物理层 2-01 物理层要解决哪些问题？物理层的主要特点是什么？ 答：物理层要解决的主要问题： （1）物理层要尽可能地屏蔽掉物理设备和传输媒体，通信手段的不同，使数据链路层感觉不到这 些差异，只考虑完成本层的协议和服务。 （2）给其服务用户（数据链路层）在一条物理的传输媒体上传送和接收比特流（一般为串行按顺 序传输的比特流）的能力，为此，物理层应该解决物理连接的建立、维持和释放问题。 （3）在两个相邻系统之间唯一地标识数据电路 物理层的主要特点： （1）由于在OSI之前，许多物理规程或协议已经制定出来了，而且在数据通信领域中，这些物 理规程已被许多商品化的设备所采用，加之，物理层协议涉及的范围广泛，所以至今没有按OSI 的抽象模型制定一套新的物理层协议，而是沿用已存在的物理规程，将物理层确定为描述与传 输媒体接口的机械，电气，功能和规程特性。 （2）由于物理连接的方式很多，传输媒体的种类也很多，因此，具体的物理协议相当复杂。 2-02 归层与协议有什么区别？答：规程专指物理层协议 2-03 试给出数据通信系统的模型并说明其主要组成构建的作用。 答：源点：源点设备产生要传输的数据。源点又称为源站。 发送器：通常源点生成的数据要通过发送器编码后才能在传输系统中进行传输。 接收器：接收传输系统传送过来的信号，并将其转换为能够被目的设备处理的信息。 终点：终点设备从接收器获取传送过来的信息。终点又称为目的站 传输系统：信号物理通道 2-04 试解释以下名词：数据，信号，模拟数据，模拟信号，基带信号，带通信号，数字数据，数字信号，码元，单工通信，半双工通信，全双工通信，串行传输，并行传输。 答：数据：是运送信息的实体。 信号：则是数据的电气的或电磁的表现。 模拟数据：运送信息的模拟信号。 模拟信号：连续变化的信号。 数字信号：取值为有限的几个离散值的信号。 数字数据：取值为不连续数值的数据。 码元(code)：在使用时间域（或简称为时域）的波形表示数字信号时，代表不同离散数值的基本波形。 单工通信：即只有一个方向的通信而没有反方向的交互。 半双工通信：即通信和双方都可以发送信息，但不能双方同时发送（当然也不能同时接收）。这种通信方式是一方发送另一方接收，过一段时间再反过来。