文学术语定义
Romanticism ；定义 a movement of the 18th and 19th century. It is the predominance of imagination over reason and formal rules and over the sense of fact or the actual, a psychological desire to escape from unpleasant realities.
具体的概念Romanticism was a movement in literature, philosophy, music and art which developed in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It emphasized individual values and aspirations above those of society as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution. It looked to the Middle Ages and to direct contact with nature for inspiration. It gave impetus to the national liberation movement in 19th-century Europe.
特征：It was the expression of “a real new experience” and contained “an alien quality” for the simple reason that “the spirit of the place” was radically new and alien. 2 It tended to be didactic because of Puritan influence. 3 It was both imitative and independent.
代表Washington Irving The Sketch Book James Fenimore Cooper Leatherstocking Tales
(2)、Transcendentalism定义：A broad, philosophical movement in New England during the Romantic era (peaking between 1835 and 1845). It stressed the role of divinity in nature and the individual…s intuition, and exalted feeling over reason.
特征；1 The Transcendentalists placed emphasis on spirit, or the Over soul , as the most important thing in the universe. 2 The Transcendentalists stressed the
importance of the individual. 3 The Transcendentalists offered a fresh perception of nature as symbolic of the Spirit or God.
代表人物：Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803--1882)拉尔夫.瓦尔多.爱默生Nature 《论自然》Henry David Thoreau (1817--1862)亨利.大卫.梭罗Walden瓦尔登湖Realism: 1. Time: the latter half of the 19th century, esp. 1870s, 1880s
2. Features A: Realism came as a reaction against “the lie” of Romanticism and sentimentalism.
B: It expressed the concern for the world of experience, of the commonplace, and for the familiar and the low.
C: Its style was genteel was graceful by Howells and Henry James, plain and rough by Mark Twain and some other local color writers. D: Realists tried to vividly describe details from observation of actual life.
E: Realists tried to offer an objective rather than an idealized view of human nature and society.
3. Representative writers: William Dean Howells, Henry James and Mark Twain Naturalism的背景Industrialism: Industrialism produced financial giants as well as an industrial proletariat. Slums appeared in great numbers and the city poor lived a life of insecurity, suffering, and violence. Self-reliance disappeared in the fast development of economy
Charles Darwin?s theory: the struggle for existence, survival of the fittest, and natural selection.
Herbert Spencer?s social Dar winism --- the weak and stupid would fall victim in the
natural course of events to economic forces.
Emile Zola?s theory: The purpose of a novelist was to be a scientist, to place his characters in a situation and then to watch the influences of heredity and environment destroy them, or, if they were good enough, to watch them overcome the inimical force of heredity and environment.
特征Humans are controlled by law of heredity and environment. And since they are controlled, they lack freedom of their own will. The universe is cold, godless, indifferent and hostile to human desires. Life becomes a struggle for survival. The naturalists dismiss the realists as far too “genteel”. They find real life at the violent, sensational, sordid, unpleasant, and ugly aspects of life. They write about the life of poverty and crime, and all of these other aspects of life that are not too pleasant to consider.
3. Representatives: Stephen Crane, Norris and Theodore Dreiser
Stephen Crane?s Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893) is the first naturalistic novel in America.
Norris? McTeague is the “first full-bodied naturalistic American novel” and “a consciously naturalistic manifesto.”Theodore Dreiser?s Sister Carrie is the greatest naturalistic work.。
Puritanism: Puritanism is the practices and briefs of puritans. The American puritans accept the doctrine and practice of predestination
Lost generation Lost Generation of the Roaring Twenties
War disfigures and tears away precious lives. Its horrors embed themselves like
an infectious disease in the minds of the survivors, who, when left to salvage the pieces of their former existences, are brushed into obscurity by the individuals attempting to justify the annihilation of the world that was. The era following World War I epitomizes the inheritance of tribulation and sorrow for the generation that remains to retrieve some form of happiness - the lost generation. The Sun Also Rises will maintain a place in history not only for its literary merit, but also for its documentation of what writer Gertrude Stein called the "Lost Generation."
After WWI, many young Americans left their native country, bitter over the war and seeking adventure. A circle of artistic expatriates appeared-- among them Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Sherwood Anderson, Ezra Pound, and Pablo Picasso. Hemingway and Fitzgerald employed their keen social observation in writing The Sun Also Rises and The Great Gatsby, respectively, widely considered the two masterpieces of Lost Generation fiction.
Imagism意象主义Imagist movement is a movement of English and American poets in revolt from romanticism, seeking clarity of expression through the use of precise images. Its first anthology: Des Imagistes, published in 1914, edited by Pound. The principles of the imagist manifesto were laid down by Pound in 1913. The official credo was prepared the 1915 anthology: Some Imagist Poets, edited by Amy Lowell
Major Features of Imagism特征With a spirit of revolt against conventions, imagism was anti-romantic and anti-Victorian. Imagism produced free verse without imposing a rhythmical pattern. In a sense, imagism was equivalent to naturalism in
fiction. Imagism tried to record objective observations of an object or a situation without interpretation or comment by the poet. The imagists remained totally objective. They merely wanted to give the reader an image. That was a picture, or a sound, or a smell, or a taste, or a touch. Imagism required a poet to present just the picture, not his insight.
The southern renaissance 南方文艺复兴a. There was the historically significant conflict between the Hamiltonian north and the Jeffersonian soouth. b. The Civil War stood as the watershed of two differnet stages in many aspects. The South was never more united closely spiritually than before. c. American southern literature can date back to Edgar Allen Poe, and reach its summit with the appearance of the two giants Faulkner and Wolfe. The Southern Renaissance is featured in its unique feeling of guilt, failure and poverty as well.
3. Southern Myths a. Chevalier heritage b. Agrarian virtue c. Plantation aristocracy d. Lost cause
e. White supremacy
f. Purity of womanhood
The local colorism定义Definition It is a type of writing that was popular in the late 19th century, particularly among authors in the American South of the particular region in which the story took place. Local color fiction “exploits the speech, dress, mannerisms, habits of thought which are peculiar to a certain region. Local color writing exists primarily for the portrayal of the people and life of a geographical setting” (Holman 295). Local colorism is the detailed representation in prose fiction of the setting, dialect, customs, dress and ways of thinking and feeling which are
distinctive of a particular region. 2. Local colorists: Mark Twain, Bret Harte, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Willa Cather, John Steinbeck and William Faulkner.
The Jazz Age What repeats frequently in the majority of his books describes the period from 1918-1929, the years between the end of World War I and the start of the Roaring Twenties; ending with the rise of the Great Depression, the traditional values of this age saw great decline while the American stock market soared. The focus of the elements of this age, in some contrast with the Roaring Twenties, in historical and cultural studies, are somewhat different, with a greater emphasis on all Modernism.
The age takes its name from jazz music, which saw a tremendous surge in popularity among many segments of society. Among the prominent concerns and trends of the period are the public embrace of technological developments (typically seen as progress)—cars, air travel and the telephone—as well as new modernist trends in social behavior, the arts, and culture. Central developments included Art Deco design and architecture. In addition, many amateur artists began to aspire including Duke Ellington, Picasso, etc.
New criticism:New Criticism was a dominant trend in English and American literary criticism of the mid twentieth century, from the 1920s to the early 1960s. Its adherents were emphatic in their advocacy of close reading and attention to texts themselves, and their rejection of criticism based on extra-textual sources, especially biography. New Criticism emphasizes explication, or “close reading,” of “the work i tself.” It rejects old historicism?s attention to biographical and sociological matters.
Instead, the objective determination as to “how a piece work” can be found through close focus and analysis, rather than through extraneous and erudite special knowledge. It has long been the pervasive and standard approach to literature in college and high school curricula.
Beat generation: One distinct group of poets in the postwar period is the Confessional School. This includes many people whose poetry seems to share common features such as a ruthless, excruciating self-analysis of one?s own background and heritage, one?s own most private desires and fantasies etc., and the urgent “I …all-tell-it-all-to-you” impulse: Delmore Schwartz, Stanley Kunitz, Theodore Roethke, John Berryman, W.D. Snodgrass, Allen Ginsberg, Robert Lowell, Sylvia Plath, Anne Sexton, and Adrrienne.
Part I The Literature of Colonial America I．Historical Introduction The colonial period stretched roughly from the settlement of America in the early 17th century through the end of the 18th. The first permanent settlement in America was established by English in 1607. ( A group of people was sent by the English King James I to hunt for gold. They arrived at Virginia in 1607. They named the James River and build the James town.) II．The pre-revolutionary writing in the colonies was essentially of two kinds: 1) Practical matter-of-fact accounts of farming, hunting, travel, etc. designed to inform people "at home" what life was like in the new world, and, often, to induce their immigration 2) Highly theoretical, generally polemical, discussions of religious questions. III．The First American Writer The first writings that we call American were the narratives and journals of these settlements. They wrote about their voyage to the new land, their lives in the new land, their dealings with Indians. Captain John Smith is the first American writer. A True Relation of such Occurrences and Accidents of Note as Hath Happened in Virginia Since the First Planting of That Colony (1608) A Map of Virginia: A Description of the Country (1612) General History of Virgini a (1624): the Indian princess Pocahontas Captain John Smith was one of the first early 17th-century British settlers in North America. He was one of the founders of the colony of Jamestown, Virginia. His writings about North America became the source of information about the New World for later settlers. One of the things he wrote about that has become an American legend was his capture by the Indians and his rescue by the famous Indian Princess, Pocahontas. IV．Early New England Literature William Bradford and John Winthrop John Cotton and Roger Williams Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor V．Puritan Thoughts 1. The origin of puritan In the mediaeval Europe, there was widespread religious revolution. In the 16th Century, the English King Henry VIII (At that time, the Catholics were not allowed to divorce unless they have the Pope's permission. Henry VIII wanted to divorce his wife because she couldn't bear him a son. But the Pope didn't allow him to divorce, so he) broke away from the Roman Catholic Church & established the Church of
文学是属于社会意识形态的一门特殊的艺术，它运用语言媒介对人类的社会生活进行评价性的审美反映。 理论的任务：①从现象中概况出普遍性问题→解释现象；②实现价值构建。 艾泽拉姆斯的四个视点理论：文学与世界、文学与作家、文学与作品、文学与读者 : 再现论 1、含义：文学本质是人类对于外在自然和社会生活的模仿和再现。 2、发展：①古希腊罗马时期：摹仿说（德谟克利特、亚里士多德、赫拉克利特）；②文艺复兴时期：镜子说（达芬奇）；③19世纪：再现论（别林斯基）；④20世纪：反映论（毛泽东）。 ， 表现论 1、含义：文学本质是主体内在性的一种表现。*主体内在性：包括思想、心灵、情感、想象、灵感、趣味、人格等非常复杂而具有个体性的东西，既具有有条理的理性思想，更具有朦胧的无意识的因素。 2、表现论的优点与缺点：A优点：一是把握到了文艺的主体性、自由性、创造性、虚构性特征。二是把握到了文学的情感性特征。三是能够认识文学的个体性，文学是主观的表现，不同的文学作品是不同人的心灵的外化。B缺陷：它忽视了文学与外在世界的关系，忽视了文学语言的审美特性。而且，它是一种基于主体性哲学视野下的一种文学本质的认识。它容易走向极端，把表现束缚在个人狭隘的主观空间，成为一种狭隘的情感的宣泄，倘若如此，这样的文学就不再是感人的文学，也不是美的文学。 文本性理论 ` 1、文学文本：指语言形态的实体。 2、形式客体论：它是在对抗文学是社会反映观念基础上出现的，主要以俄国形式主义、语义学和新批评、法国结构主义为代表。 3、意向客体论：认为文学的本质是文学在作者创作、读者阅读、欣赏、接受过程中产生的意向性的存在，是一种意向性客体。<意向性客体论避免了形式主义文学本质观的片面性和及极端性，认识到文学的本质是一种互动的意向性过程，而并非静态的纯客体的形式。它强调了读者意识，为接受美学的文学本质观念奠定了基础。> 读者反应说 * 1、读者：文学作品创作的参与者和消费者。 2、特点：①强调读者参与意义生产过程；②极大地抬高了读者主动性和积极性的，关注读者心理个体和社会环境的差异性。 3、评价: 从读者视点来思考文学的本质，强调了文学是读者与文本的一种关系，读者及其阅读是成为文学的一个决定性维度。这种看法改变了以往单纯从作者、世界或作品视点去看文学本质的局限性，打开了文学本质探讨的新维度。但过分强调读者的地位，容易陷入对文学界定的主观主义或相对主义的泥潭中，以至于丧失文学的特殊性。
ⅠColonial America(17th century)殖民主义时期文学 1.In 1492, Christopher Columbus discovered America and he mistook the native people on the new continent for Indians. Character of colonial literature: a.content: religious, political b.form: diary, journal, letters, travel books, sermons, history (personal literature) c.Style: simple. direct, concise d.out of humble origins Early in the 17th century, the English settlements in Virginia and Massachusetts began the main stream of what we recognize as the American national history. The earliest settlers in America included Dutch, Swedes, Germans, French, Spaniards, Italians and Portuguese. The first permanent English settlement in North America was established at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607(北美弗吉尼亚詹姆斯顿) 2.Captain Town Smith, the first American writer 3.Puritan Thoughts: hard work, thrift(节俭), piety(虔诚), sobriety(节制), 这些也成了早期 美国作品主导思想. 典型的清教徒：John Cotton & Roger William, John Cotton was called “the Patriarch of New England(新英格兰教父)” 清教徒采用的文学体裁：narratives(日记) and journals(游记) 清教徒在美国的写作内容： 1）Their voyage to the new land 2）Adapting themselves to unfamiliar climates and crops 3）About dealing with Indians 4）Guide to the new land, endless bounty, invitation to bold spirit 4.Private literature: theological, moral, historical, political 5.The work of two writers, Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor, rose to the level of real poetry. Anne Bradstreet is one of the most interesting of the early poets, 英国最早移民到美国的诗人. The best of the Puritan poets was Edward Taylor. ⅡReason and Revolution(18th century)理性和革命时期文学 1.The War for Independence (1776-1783) ended in the formation of a Federative bourgeois democratic republic - the United States of America. 2.Bourgeois Enlightenment 3.Benjamin Franklin: Poor Richard’s Almanac(穷人理查德的年鉴), an annual collection of proverbs. The Autobiography, 18世纪美国唯一流传至今的自传 ?The Autobiography is, first of all, a Puritan document. It is Puritan because it is a record of self-examination and self-improvement. The Puritans, as a type, were very much given to self-analysis. ?The Autobiography shows Franklin was spokesman for the new order of 18th-century Enlightenment, and that he represented in America all its ideas, that man is basically good and free, by nature endowed by God with certain inalienable rights of liberty and the pursuit of happiness.
比较文学名词解释及简答题复习资料 1、比较文学的定义是什么 比较文学的定义比较文学是以世界性眼光和胸怀来从事不同国家、不同文明和不同学科之间的跨越式文学比较研究。它主要研究各种跨越中文学的同源性、类同性、变异性、异质性和互补性以实证性影响研究、文学变异研究、平行研究和总体文学研究为基本方法论其目的在于以世界性眼光来总结文学规律和文学审美特性加强世界文学的相互了解与整合推动世界文学的发展。 2、简要谈谈比较文学的可比性。比较文学的可比性是比较文学得以存在的立身之本主要有以下几个方面 1同源性。在以同源性为突出特征的影响研究的可比性中影响的种类、影响的途径和接受的实证性方式就成为法国学派比较文学具体的研究内容。除此以外的一切比较文学研究由于缺乏同源性法国学派均否认其属于比较文学。由于在法国学派那里可比性已被人为限制到很小的领域内显而易见这并不是比较文学可比性的全部。 2变异性。出自同源的文学在不同国家、不同文明的传播与交流中在语言翻译层面、文学形象层面、文学文本层面、文化层面产生了文化过滤、误读与“创造性叛逆”产生了形象的变异与接受的变异甚至发生“他国化”式的蜕变这些都是变异学关注的要点在这里差异性成为可比性的核心内容。 3类同性。比较文学发展到以平行研究为特征的美国学派时影响研究的束缚便得以突破。可比性的内容得到进一步拓展类同性和综合性作为平行研究可比性的特征凸现出来。平行研究的对象是彼此毫无直接影响和亲缘联系的不同国家或民族间的文学。因此类同性所指的是没有任何关联的不同国家的文学之间在风格、结构、内容、形式、流派、情节、技巧、手法、情调、形象、主题、思潮乃至文学规律等方面所表现出的相似和契合之处。而综合性则是立足于文学以文学与其他学科进行跨学科比较的一种交叉关系。因此平行研究的可比性就在于类同性与综合性。 4异质性与互补性。异质性与互补性的可比性主要是从跨文明平行研究和总体文学研究的角度来说的因为法、美学派均属于同一欧洲文化体系的比较文学学科理论而随着比较文学发展到以跨文明研究为基本特征的第三阶段异质性作为比较文学的可比性又凸现出来。在跨越异质文化的比较文学研究中如果忽略文化异质性的存在比较文学研究势必会出现简单的同中求异和异中求同的比较前者使得中国文学成为西方观念的注脚本而后者则是一种浅层次的“XY”式的比附。因此在跨文明的比较文学研究中“异质性”是其可比性的根本特征。但“异质性”必须与“互补性”相联系起来。换句话说研究异质性是为了达到互补性。异质性的内容包括文明原生性、独立性只有明确意识到这种特征的存在东西方对话才能得以进行东西方文学才能实现互补。由于多元性是跨文明比较文学研究的基本观念由此才能在中西比较文学及东方文明之间如中国与印度等文学比较研究中使被比较的对象互为参照从浅层次的同异比较向深层次的文化探源发展为实现交互性和总体性奠定基础。交互性则是在上述基础上对被比较的对象进行互释、互证、互补式研究这样最终才能达到总体性。由互补性而达到的总体性原则可以说是对比较文学发展的最高层次的探索也可说是对比较文学诞生初衷的最彻底回归。 上述四类可比性有时是交织在一起的在具体比较研究中不应机械地强行分割开来。 3、什么叫流传学试分析它的特征及研究范围。 流传学也称誉舆学是传统的影响研究模式之一。1931年法国比较文学学者梵第根首先将它引入了比较文学学科理论使之成为比较文学实践中的一种被广泛应用的基本方法。它的主要特点就是从给予影响的放送者出发去研究作为终点的接受者的“他者“情况包括文学流派、潮流、作家及文本等在他国的际遇、影响及被接受的情况。 就本质而言流传学是“实证性”的“文学关系”研究。因此其特征表现为研究方法具有实证性研究对象是文Ч叵怠Ｊ紫攘鞔а芯康摹拔难Ч叵怠笔嵌嘣难Ч叵怠ｈ蟮诟
文学概论复习资料 第十章 基本概念 1．典型：作为文学形象的高级形态之一。是文学言语系统中显出特征的富于魅力的性格，他在叙事性作品中又称典型人物或典型性格。 2．特征化：作家抓住生活中最富有特征性的东西，加以艺术强化、生发的过程。 3．意境：是指抒情性作品中呈现的那种情景交融、虚实相生的形象系统及其所诱发和开拓的审美想象空间也是文学形象的高级形态之一。 4．意象：是指以表达哲理观念为目的，以象征性或荒诞性为其基本特征的，在某些理性观念和抽象思维的指导下创造的具有求解性和多义性的达到人类审美理想境界的表意之象。 思考问题 1．举例说明文学言语与普通言语的不同。 答：文学言语是特殊的言语系统，与一般言语有明显的不同，除了形象性，生动性，凝练性，音乐性等特点外。文学言语还具有内指性。而普通言语是外指性的。而文学言语是指向文本中的艺术世界。文学言语具有心理蕴含性。普通言语侧重运用语言的指称功能。而文学语言更注重表现功能，文学言语具有阻拒性。 2．文学形象的特征：文学形象是主观与客观的统一；文学形象是假定与真实的统一；是个别与一般的统一；是确定性和不确定性的统一。 3．文学典型的审美特征：文学典型的特征性，文学典型必须具有贯穿其全部活动的，统摄其整个生命的“总特征”。文学典型还必须通过局部“特征”，反映和形成总特征；文学典型的艺术魅力，文学典型的艺术魅力应当是来自性格显示的一种生命的魅力，更来自它所显示的灵魂的深度。 典型人物与典型环境的关系：典型性格是在典型环境中形成的。典型环境不仅是形成人物性格的基础，而且还是逼迫着人物的行动，制约着人物性格的发展变化；典型人物也并非永远在环境面前无能为力，在一定条件下它有可以对环境发生反作用；典型环境与典型人物的关系还有相互依存的一面，失去一方，另一方也就不复存在。 4．文学意境的特征：情景交融是意境创造的表现特征，情景交融包括景中藏情式，情中见景式和情景并茂式；虚实相生是意境创造的结构特征；韵味无穷是意境的审美特征。 5．审美意象与一般的意象的不同之处：一般意象以再现生活为目的的典型和以抒情为目的的，而审美意象是以表达哲理观念为目的的。 审美意象的基本特征：审美意象的本质特征是哲理性；表现特征是象征性；形象特征是荒诞性；思维特征是抽象思维的直接参与；鉴赏特征是求解性和多义性。 第十一章 基本概念 1．叙事学：研究叙事艺术的理论和批评方法。 2．事件：由所叙述的人物行为及其后果构成，是最小的叙事单位。 3．表层结构与深层结构：叙事作品是一种话语系统，它的内部结构可以从两个向度进行分析。首先是历时性向度即根据叙述的前后顺序研究句子与句子，事件与事件之间的关系，一般文艺理论中所讲的结构主要是指这种历时性向度的结构关系，其次是共时性向度，研究
美国文学史复习（colonialism) 第一部分殖民主义时期的文学 一、时期综述 1、清教徒采用的文学体裁：a、narratives 日记b、journals 游记 2、清教徒在美国的写作内容： 1）their voyage to the new land 2) Adapting themselves to unfamiliar climates and crops 3) About dealing with Indians 4) Guide to the new land, endless bounty, invitation to bold spirit 3、清教徒的思想： 1）puritan want to make up pure their religious beliefs and practices 净化信仰和行为方式 2) Wish to restore simplicity to church and the authority of the Bible to the theology. 重建教堂，提供简单服务，建立神圣地位 3）look upon themselves as chosen people, and it follow logically that anyone who challenged their way of life is opposing God's will and is not to be accepted. 认为自己是上帝选民，对他们的生活有异议就是反对上帝 4）puritan opposition to pleasure and the arts sometimes has been exaggerated. 反对对快乐和艺术的追求到了十分荒唐的地步5）religious teaching tended to emphasize the image of a wrathful God.强调上帝严厉的一面，忽视上帝仁慈的一面。 4、典型的清教徒：John Cotton & Roger William 他们的不同：John Cotton was much more concerned with authority than with democracy; William begins the history of religious toleration in America. 5、William的宗教观点：Toleration did not stem from a lack of religious convictions. Instead, it sprang from the idea that simply to be virtuous in conduct and devout in belief did not give anyone the right to force belief on others. He also felt that no political order or church system could identify itself directly with God. 行为上的德，信仰上的诚，并没有给任何人强迫别人该如何行事的权利。没有任何政治秩序和教会体制能够直接体现神本身的意旨。 6、英国最早移民到美国的诗人：Anne Bradstreet 7、在殖民时期最好的清教徒诗人：the best of Puritan poets is Edward Tayor. 学习指南： 1、Could you give a description of American Puritans? 关于美国清教徒的描绘 Like their brothers back in England, were idealists, believing that the church should be restored to the "purity" of the first-century church as established by Jesus Christ himself. To them religion was a matter of primary importance. They made it their chief business to see that man lived and thought and acted in a way which tended to the glory of God. They accepted the doctrine of predestination, original sin and total depravity, and limited atonement through a special infusion of grace from God, all that John Calvin, the great French theologian who lived in Geneva had preached. It was this kind of religious belief that they brought with them into the wildness. There they meaant to prove that were God's chosen people enjoying his blessings on this earth as in Heaven. 2、Hard work, thrift, piety and sobriety were the Puritan values that dominated much of the earliest American writing. 3、The work of two writers, Anne Bradstreet & Edward Taylor, rose to the level of real poetry.
比较文学学科理论发展的三个阶段 曹顺庆 任何一门学科，都有其独特的学科理论，而任何学科理论，都不可能凭空产生，而是在学术实践中一步步发展并完善起来的。纵观全世界比较文学发展史，我们可以看到一条较为清晰的比较文学学科理论发展的学术之链。这条学术之链历经影响研究、平行研究和跨文化研究三大阶段，呈累进式的发展态势。这种累进式的发展态势，其特点不但在于跨越各种界限(如国家、民族、语言、学科、文化等等)，而且在于不断跨越之中圈子的不断扩大和视野的一步步拓展。我把这种发展态势称为“涟漪式”结构，即比较文学学科理论的发展，就好比一块石子投入平静的水面，漾起一圈圈涟漪，由小到大，由里到外荡漾开去。但无论有多少个圈子，中心却是稳定的，即始终稳稳地确立在文学这一中心点上。尽管各个发展阶段中曾经或多或少地以各种方式偏离文学(如法国学派过多关注文学“外贸”，忽略了文学性这一问题，又如当今比较文学界“泛文化”的倾向等等)，但并没有从根基上脱离文学这个中心点。 一圈圈的“涟漪”构成了比较文学不同的发展阶段，所有的涟漪便共同构成了比较文学学科理论涟漪式的基本框架。因而，比较文学学科理论不是线性的发展，不是“弑父”般的由后来的理论否定先前的理论，而是层叠式地、累进式地发展。后来的理论虽新，但并不取代先前的理论。例如，美国学派的平行研究、跨学科研究，并不能取代法国学派的影响研究；当今我们倡导的“跨文化研究”(跨越东西方异质文化)，也并不取代“平行研究”与“影响研究”。时至今日，比较文学学科理论涟漪结构的最内圈——“影响研究”仍然有效，仍然在当今的比较文学研究中大显身手，充满学术生命力。不同阶段的学科理论构筑起了自己独特的理论体系，形成了独特的涟漪圈，而这些不同的学科理论又共同构筑起了比较文学学科理论的宏伟大厦。 为什么会形成这样一种“涟漪式”学科理论结构？这是因为比较文学发展的各个阶段中不同的学术文化背景，不同的学术问题，不同的学术切入点所形成的。正因为背景不同，问题不同，切入点不同，所以各阶段皆各自解决了某一方面的学科理论问题，从而形成了各阶段学科理论的互补性，包容性。“涟漪”正是这样构成的。 在这“涟漪式”结构中。每一个“涟漪”都代表着学科发展的某一阶段。迄今为止，比较文学学科理论至少有三大发展阶段，第一阶段在欧洲，第二阶段在北美洲，第三阶段在亚洲。 按照学者们通常的看法，比较文学学科理论的第一阶段是由法国学派所奠定的“影响研究”。然而，纵观比较文学发展史，往往令人疑窦丛生。人们不难发现，最早倡导比较文学和总结比较文学学科理论的，其实并不是(或并不仅仅是)法国学者，例如，最早(1827年)提出“世界文学”观念的德国学者，著名作家歌德，被公认为推动比较文学发展的最重要人物。写出第一部比较文学学科理论专著的人也并不是法国人，而是英国人波斯奈特(H. M.Posnett)。1886年波斯奈特发表了世界上第一部论述比较文学理论的专著《比较文学》，(当时，波斯奈特在新西兰
美国文学史复习1（colonialism) 第一部分殖民主义时期的文学 一、时期综述 1、清教徒采用的文学体裁：a、narratives 日记b、journals 游记 2、清教徒在美国的写作内容： 1）their voyage to the new land 2) Adapting themselves to unfamiliar climates and crops 3) About dealing with Indians 4) Guide to the new land, endless bounty, invitation to bold spirit 3、清教徒的思想： 1）puritan want to make up pure their religious beliefs and practices 净化信仰和行为方式 2) Wish to restore simplicity to church and the authority of the Bible to the theology. 重建教堂，提供简单服务，建立神圣地位 3）look upon themselves as chosen people, and it follow logically that anyone who challenged their way of life is opposing God's will and is not to be accepted. 认为自己是上帝选民，对他们的生活有异议就是反对上帝 4）puritan opposition to pleasure and the arts sometimes has been exaggerated. 反对对快乐和艺术的追求到了十分荒唐的地步5）religious teaching tended to emphasize the image of a wrathful God.强调上帝严厉的一面，忽视上帝仁慈的一面。 4、典型的清教徒：John Cotton & Roger William 他们的不同：John Cotton was much more concerned with authority than with democracy; William begins the history of religious toleration in America. 5、William的宗教观点：Toleration did not stem from a lack of religious convictions. Instead, it sprang from the idea that simply to be virtuous in conduct and devout in belief did not give anyone the right to force belief on others. He also felt that no political order or church system could identify itself directly with God. 行为上的德，信仰上的诚，并没有给任何人强迫别人该如何行事的权利。没有任何政治秩序和教会体制能够直接体现神本身的意旨。 6、英国最早移民到美国的诗人：Anne Bradstreet 7、在殖民时期最好的清教徒诗人：the best of Puritan poets is Edward Tayor. 学习指南： 1、Could you give a description of American Puritans? 关于美国清教徒的描绘 Like their brothers back in England, were idealists, believing that the church should be restored to the "purity" of the first-century church as established by Jesus Christ himself. To them religion was a matter of primary importance. They made it their chief business to see that man lived and thought and acted in a way which tended to the glory of God. They accepted the doctrine of predestination, original sin and total depravity, and limited atonement through a special infusion of grace from God, all that John Calvin, the great French theologian who lived in Geneva had preached. It was this kind of religious belief that they brought with them into the wildness. There they meaant to prove that were God's chosen people enjoying his blessings on this earth as in Heaven. 2、Hard work, thrift, piety and sobriety were the Puritan values that dominated much of the earliest American writing. 3、The work of two writers, Anne Bradstreet & Edward Taylor, rose to the level of real poetry. 4、The earliest settlers included Dutch, Swedes, Germans, French, Spaniards Italian, and Portuguese. 美国文学史复习2（reasoning and revolution) (2009-01-17 15:54:25) 一、美国的性质： The war for Independence ended in the formation of a Federative bourgeois democratic republic - the United States of America. 联邦的资产阶级民主共和国--美利坚合众国。 二、代表作家： 1、Benjamin Franklin 本杰明·富兰克林1706-1790 1）"Poor Richard's Almanac" 穷人查理德的年鉴annual collection of proverbs 流行谚语集 It soon became the most popular book of its kind, largely because of Franklin's shrewd humor, and first spread his reputation 2) Founded the Junto, a club for informal discussion of scientific, economic and political ideas. 建立了一个秘密俱乐部，讨论的主题是政治、经济和科学等时事方面的问题 3）established America's first circulating library, founded the college--University of Pennsylvania. 建立了美国第一个可租借的图书馆，还创办了一所大学——就是现在的宾夕法尼亚大学。 4）first applied the terms "positive" and "negative" to electrical charges. 5)As a representative of the Colonies, he tried in vain to counsel the British toward policies that would let America grow and flourish in association with England. He conducted the difficulty negotiations with France that brought financial and military support for America in the war. 作为殖民地的代表，他不断建议英国改变政策，使美国可以和英国一起发展、繁荣。他说服法国支持美国的独立战争。 6）As an author he had power of expression, simplicity, a subtle humor, sarcastic.作为作家具有非凡的才能，表达简洁明了，幽默，讽刺天才、 7）The Way to Wealth致富之道The Autobiography自传18世纪美国唯一流传至今的自传
第一章文学理论的性质和形态 1文艺学：文艺学是一门以文学为对象，以揭示文学基本规律，介绍相关知识为目的的学科，包括三个分支，即文学理论、文学批评、文学史。这三个分支具有不同的研究对象和任务。它们之间既、相互独立相互联系、相互渗透、文学理论作为研究文学普遍规律的学科，有独特的研究对象和任务，具有鲜明的实践性和价值取向。 文学作为一种极为复杂的、广延性极强的事物，决定了其研究视角和方法的多样性，也使得文学理论呈现出不同的形态。文学哲学、文学社会学、文学心理学、文学信息学、文学符号学、文学价值学、文学文化学等是文学理论的基本形态。 2、文学理论：文艺学的主要组成部分。它常常从美学、认识论、社会学、心理学等各种角度研究文学的本质、特征、内在构成和外在关系的基本原理和原则。文学理论的任务在于揭示文学作为审美文化现象的本质：既要对文学不同于其他文化现象的特质做出说明文学理论是不断发展变化着的文学实践的理论总结，因此，其自身也有一个发展的过程。研究文学活动的基本规律、基本原理、范畴、文学研究的方法的一门学科。 第二章马克思主义文学理论与中国当代文学理论建设 3艺术生产论：马克思随着时代发展把文学活动理解为“艺术生产”活动，“艺术生产”是把物质生产与作为精神生产的艺术生产相比较，艺术生产是指实际的艺术创作过程。马克思的艺术生产具有多重含义 第一种意义是把物质生产与精神生产相比较，主要从经济学的观点来看待文学艺术活动的结果，并不专指某一特定历史时期的艺术现象。 第二种意义是指艺术生产是实际的的艺术创作过程。 第三种意义，专指在资本发展时期，一切艺术的生产是资本的创造价值，一切艺术品都具有商品的属性。这种意义是马克思在《资本论》的“剩余价值理论”中经常提到的。 我们应该从第一种和第三种意义来理解马克思的艺术生产论，因为这种理论强调了文学艺术不是孤立存在的，它的发展是社会的政治经济形态的发展密切相关的，我们必须归根到底从社会物质生产和精神生产的实践中，从生产消费、分配、交换的关系中，才可能获得对文学艺术的真正理解和最终解释，这样就给我们揭示文学发展寻找到一个更为广阔的视野。 4 文学审美意识形态论：文学艺术是建立在社会经济基础之上的上层建筑，是上层建筑中的一种社会意识形态。把文学艺术看成是“审美意识形态”，意味着文学艺术是社会意识形态的变体，它既具有意识形态的性质，又具有审美的性质，是这两者的有机结合。 它是指与现实社会生活密切缠绕的审美表现领域，其集中形态是文学、音乐、戏剧、绘画、雕塑等艺术活动。审美意识形态在意识形态中具有特殊性：它一方面被看做意识形态中的富于审美特性的种类，但另一方面又渗透着社会生活以及其他意识形态的因子，与它们复杂地交织在一起。因此，审美意识形态不是审美与意识形态的简单相加，而是指在审美表现过程中审美与社会生活状况相互浸染、彼此渗透的状况。 中国的文学艺术学者也在20世纪80年代的初、中期，从反思“文学为政治服务”的口号的失误寻求从审美的视角来探讨文学的性质，同样也得出文学是一种”“审美意识形态式”或“审美反应”的结论，在这方面，蒋孔阳、李泽厚、钱中文、王元骧、王向峰、胡经之等学者都做出了不懈的努力，补充完善了马克思主义关于文学艺术作为一种特殊意识形态形式的思想， 第三章文学作为活动
1．比较文学作为一门独立学科在19世纪70年代末至90年代得以诞生。比较文学作为一个学科成立的一个标志是法国学派强调影响研究的国际文学关系史理论的提出。 2．比较文学的代表性人物及其著作： ●最早使用比较文学这一术语的是英国批评家马修阿诺德。 ●最早使比较文学一词进入比较文学学科理论的是波斯奈特，1886年，他出版世界上第一部比较文学理论专著《比较文学》。 ●在意大利，1871年，桑克蒂斯开始主持比较文学的讲座。 ●1827年，最早提出“世界文学”观念的是歌德。 ●1877年，世界上第一本比较文学杂志创刊于匈牙利的克劳森堡，名为《世界比较文学报》。 ●1887年，德国学者马克斯·科赫创办《比较文学杂志》，1901年创办《比较文学史研究》。 ●意大利学者克罗齐对比较文学的学科和理性发起挑战。 ●1937年，戴望舒译梵?第根《比较文学论》。 ●我国第一部比较文学理论专著——卢康华、孙景尧的《比较文学导论》，也是内地第一部比较文学概论性著作。 ●在西方著名的比较文学学者中，巴斯奈特是宣判比较文学夭折的第一人。 ●翻译文本研究：勒菲弗尔“操控理论” 3. 法国学派的四大代表人物：巴尔登斯伯格、梵.第根、卡雷、基亚，他们提出了要去掉比较文学的随意性，加强实证性；放弃无影响关系的平行比较，而集中研究各国的关系史；摆脱不确定的美学意义，而取得一个科学的含义（关键所在） 4．法国文学批评家布吕奈尔最早把实证主义用于文学研究，强调把一部作品对另一部作品的影响提到首位。 5．影响研究的本质特性实证性。法国比较文学影响研究的本质特性实证性的文学关系研究。6．基亚在《比较文学》一书中专设形象学研究——“人们眼中的异国”一章，这是对形象学研究进行确认的最早的一部概论性专著。 7．1960年美国比较文学学会成立，标志着美国学派的正式登场。代表人物有雷马克、艾德礼、勃洛克。 8．美国学派将影响研究与平行研究相结合，典型代表——韦斯坦因的专著《比较文学与文学理论》。 9．比较文学的可比性：同源性、变异性、类同性、异质性与互补性。 10．比较文学的基本特征：跨越性（跨国、跨学科、跨文明）；四大研究领域：实证性的文学影响研究、文学变异研究、平行研究、总体文学研究。 11．文学变异研究的四个层面：语言层面变异研究、民族国家形象变异研究、文学文本变异研究、文化变异研究。 12．平行研究包括直接比较和间接比较。平行研究主要有类比与对比两种方法构成。。 13. 渊源学的研究对象和方式：印象的渊源、口传的渊源、笔述的渊源、孤立的渊源和集体的渊源。 14．媒介学的理论与方法包括：个体媒介、团体媒介、文字资料媒介。 15．翻译领域的常见现象有直译、转译；常见形式有直译、意译。 16．引起文学变异的第一大要素是文化过滤。 17．译介学的研究范畴：翻译理论研究、翻译文本研究、翻译文学史研究 18．平行研究的种类：类型学、主题学、文体学、跨学科研究 19．类型学的基本研究范畴：内容题材的类型学相似、人物形象的类型学相似、思潮流派的类型学相似 20．用西方文论阐发中国文学的做法被台湾学者总结为中国比较文学研究的“阐发研究”。