Problems and Applications
1. a. Cold weather damages the orange crop, reducing the supply of oranges. This
can be seen in Figure 4-6 as a shift to the left in the supply curve for oranges.
The new equilibrium price is higher than the old equilibrium price.
Figure 4-6
b. People often travel to the Caribbean from New England to escape cold weather, so
demand for Caribbean hotel rooms is high in the winter. In the summer, fewer
people travel to the Caribbean, since northern climes are more pleasant. The
result, as shown in Figure 4-7, is a shift to the left in the demand curve. The
equilibrium price of Caribbean hotel rooms is thus lower in the summer than in the
winter, as the figure shows.
Figure 4-7
c. When a war breaks out in the Middle East, many markets are affecte
d. Since
much oil production takes place there, the war disrupts oil supplies, shifting the
supply curve for gasoline to the left, as shown in Figure 4-8. The result is a rise in the equilibrium price of gasoline. With a higher price for gasoline, the cost of
operating a gas-guzzling automobile, like a Cadillac, will increase. As a result, the demand for used Cadillacs will decline, as people in the market for cars won't find Cadillacs as attractive. In addition, some people who already own Cadillacs will
try to sell them. The result is that the demand curve for used Cadillacs shifts to the left, while the supply curve shifts to the right, as shown in Figure 4-9. The
result is a decline in the equilibrium price of used Cadillacs.
Figure 4-8
Figure 4-9
2. The statement that "an increase in the demand for notebooks raises the quantity of
notebooks demanded, but not the quantity supplied" is false, in general. As Figure 4-10 shows, the increase in demand for notebooks results in an increased quantity supplied.
The only way the statement would be true is if the supply curve were perfectly inelastic, as
shown in Figure 4-11.
Figure 4-10
Figure 4-11
3. a. If people decide to have more children (a change in tastes), they'll want larger
vehicles for hauling their kids around, so the demand for minivans will increase.
Supply won't be affected. The result is a rise in both price and quantity, as Figure
4-12 shows.
Figure 4-12
Figure 4-13
b. If a strike by steelworkers raises steel prices, the costs of producing a minivan rise
(a rise in input prices), so the supply of minivans decreases. Demand won't be
affected. The result is a rise in the price of minivans and a decline in the quantity, as Figure 4-13 shows.
c. The development of new automated machinery for the production of minivans is
an improvement in technology. The reduction in firms' costs results in an
increase in supply. Demand isn't affected. The result is a decline in the price of
minivans and an increase in the quantity, as Figure 4-14 shows.
Figure 4-14
Figure 4-15
d. The rise in the price of station wagons affects minivan demand because station
wagons are substitutes for minivans (that is, there's a rise in the price of a related
good). The result is an increase in demand for minivans. Supply isn't affected.
In equilibrium, the price and quantity of minivans both rise, as Figure 4-12 shows.
e. The reduction in peoples' wealth caused by a stock-market crash reduces their
income, leading to a reduction in the demand for minivans, since minivans are a
normal good. Supply isn’t affected. As a result, both price and quantity decline,
as Figure 4-15 shows.
4. Technological advances that reduce the cost of producing computer chips represent a
decline in an input price for producing a computer. The result is a shift to the right in the supply of computers, as shown in Figure 4-16. The equilibrium price falls and the
equilibrium quantity rises, as the figure shows.
Figure 4-16
Figure 4-17
Since computer software is a complement to computers, the increased equilibrium quantity of computers increases the demand for software. As Figure 4-17 shows, the result is a
rise in both the equilibrium price and quantity of software.
Since typewriters are substitutes for computers, the increased equilibrium quantity of
computers reduces the demand for typewriters. As Figure 4-18 shows, the result is a
decline in both the equilibrium price and quantity of typewriters.
Figure 4-18
5. a. When a hurricane in South Carolina damages the cotton crop, it raises input prices
for producing sweatshirts. As a result, the supply of sweatshirts shifts to the left,
as shown in Figure 4-19. The new equilibrium has a higher price and lower
quantity of sweatshirts.
Figure 4-19
b. A decline in the price of leather jackets leads more people to buy leather jackets,
reducing the demand for sweatshirts. The result, shown in Figure 4-20, is a
decline in both the equilibrium price and quantity of sweatshirts.
Figure 4-20
c. The effects of colleges requiring students to engage in morning calisthenics in
appropriate attire raises the demand for sweatshirts, as shown in Figure 4-21.
The result is an increase in both the equilibrium price and quantity of sweatshirts.
Figure 4-21
d. The invention of new knitting machines increases the supply of sweatshirts. As
Figure 4-22 shows, the result is a reduction in the equilibrium price and an
increase in the equilibrium quantity of sweatshirts.
Figure 4-22
6. A temporarily high birth rate in the year 2005 leads to opposite effects on the price of
babysitting services in the years 2010 and 2020. In the year 2010, there are more 5-year olds who need sitters, so the demand for babysitting services rises, as shown in Figure
4-23. The result is a higher price for babysitting services in 2010. However, in the year
2020, the increased number of 15-year olds shifts the supply of babysitting services to the right, as shown in Figure 4-24. The result is a decline in the price of babysitting services.
Figure 4-23
Figure 4-24
7. Since ketchup is a complement for hot dogs, when the price of hot dogs rises, the quantity
demanded of hot dogs falls, thus reducing the demand for ketchup, causing both price and quantity of ketchup to fall. Since the quantity of ketchup falls, the demand for tomatoes by ketchup producers falls, so both price and quantity of tomatoes fall. When the price of tomatoes falls, producers of tomato juice face lower input prices, so the supply curve for tomato juice shifts down, causing the price of tomato juice to fall and the quantity of
tomato juice to rise. The fall in the price of tomato juice causes people to substitute
tomato juice for orange juice, so the demand for orange juice declines, causing the price and quantity of orange juice to fall. Now you can see clearly why a rise in the price of hot dogs leads to a fall in price of orange juice!
Figure 4-25
8. a. Cigars and chewing tobacco are substitutes for cigarettes, since a higher price for
cigarettes would increase demand for cigars and chewing tobacco.
b. An increase in the tax on cigarettes leads to increased demand for cigars and
chewing tobacco. The result, as shown in Figure 4-25 for cigars, is a rise in both
the equilibrium price and quantity of cigars and chewing tobacco.
c. The results in part (b) showed that a tax on cigarettes leads people to substitute
cigars and chewing tobacco for cigarettes when the tax on cigarettes rises. To
reduce total tobacco usage, policymakers might also want to increase the tax on
cigars and chewing tobacco, or pursue some type of public education program.
9. Quantity supplied equals quantity demanded at a price of $6 and quantity of 81 pizzas (Figure
4-26). If price were greater than $6, quantity supplied would exceed quantity demanded, so suppliers would reduce their price to gain sales. If price were less than $6, quantity
demanded would exceed quantity supplied, so suppliers could raise their price without
losing sales. In both cases, the price would continue to adjust until it reached $6, the only price at which there's neither surplus nor shortage.
Figure 4-26
10. a. If the price of flour falls, since flour is an ingredient in bagels, the supply curve for
bagels would shift to the right. The result, shown in Figure 4-27, would be a fall
in the price of bagels and a rise in the equilibrium quantity of bagels.
Since cream cheese is a complement to bagels, the rise in quantity demanded of
bagels increases the demand for cream cheese, as shown in Figure 4-28. The
result is a rise in both the equilibrium price and quantity of cream cheese. So, a
fall in the price of flour indeed raises both the equilibrium price of cream cheese
and the equilibrium quantity of bagels.
Figure 4-27
Figure 4-28
What happens if the price of milk falls? Since milk is an ingredient in cream cheese, the fall in the price of milk leads to an increase in the supply of cream cheese. This leads to a decrease in the price of cream cheese (Figure 4-29), rather than a rise in the price of cream cheese. So a fall in the price of milk
couldn't have been responsible for the pattern observed.
Figure 4-29
Figure 4-30
b. In part (a), we found that a fall in the price of flour led to a rise in the price of
cream cheese and a rise in the equilibrium quantity of bagels. If the price of flour rose, the opposite would be true; it would lead to a fall in the price of cream
cheese and a fall in the equilibrium quantity of bagels. Since the question says
the equilibrium price of cream cheese has risen, it couldn't have been caused by a rise in the price of flour.
What happens if the price of milk rises? From part (a), we found that a fall in the price of milk caused a decline in the price of cream cheese, so a rise in the price of
milk would cause a rise in the price of cream cheese. Since bagels and cream
cheese are complements, the rise in the price of cream cheese would reduce the
demand for bagels, as Figure 4-30 shows. The result is a decline in the
equilibrium quantity of bagels. So a rise in the price of milk does cause both a
rise in the price of cream cheese and a decline in the equilibrium quantity of
bagels.
11. a. As Figure 4-31 shows, the supply curve is vertical. The constant supply makes
sense because the basketball arena has a fixed number of seats no matter what
the price.
Figure 4-31
b. Quantity supplied equals quantity demanded at a price of $8. The equilibrium
quantity is 8,000 tickets.
c.
The new equilibrium price will be $12, which equates quantity demanded to
quantity supplied. The equilibrium quantity is 8,000 tickets.
12. The executives are confusing changes in demand with changes in quantity demanded.
Figure 4-32 shows the demand curve prior to the marketing campaign (D1), and after the campaign (D2). The marketing campaign increased the demand for champagne, as
shown, leading to a higher equilibrium price and quantity. The influence of the higher
price on demand is already reflected in the outcome. It's impossible for the scenario
outlined by the executives to occur.
Figure 4-32
Chapter 8 Application: The Costs of Taxation Test A 1. A tax levied on the buyers of a product shifts the a. demand curve upward or to the right. b. demand curve downward or to the left. c. supply curve upward or to the left. d. supply curve downward or to the right. ANSWER: b. demand curve downward or to the left. TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 1 OBJECTIVE: 1 RANDOM: Y 2. When a tax is levied on a good a. buyers are worse off but sellers are not. b. sellers are worse off but buyers are not. c. neither buyers nor sellers are worse off. d. both buyers and sellers are worse off. ANSWER: d. both buyers and sellers are worse off. TYPE: M KEY1: D SECTION: 1 OBJECTIVE: 1 RANDOM: Y 3. When a tax on a good is enacted, a. sellers always bear the full burden of the tax. b. buyers always bear the full burden of the tax. c. buyers and sellers share the burden of the tax regardless of which party it is levied on. d. sellers bear the full burden if the tax is levied on them, but buyers bear the full burden if the tax is levied on them. ANSWER: c. buyers and sellers share the burden of the tax regardless of which party it is levied on. TYPE: M KEY1: C SECTION: 1 OBJECTIVE: 1 RANDOM: Y 4. A tax placed on a good a. causes the price of the good to fall. b. causes the size of the market for the good to shrink. c. affects buyers of the good, but not sellers. d. is usually borne entirely by the seller of the good. ANSWER: b. causes the size of the market for the good to shrink. TYPE: M KEY1: C SECTION: 1 OBJECTIVE: 1 RANDOM: Y 5. When a tax is levied on a good a. the market price falls because demand declines. b. the market price falls because supply falls. c. the market price rises because demand falls. d. a wedge is placed between the price buyers pay and the price sellers receiv e. ANSWER: d. a wedge is placed between the price buyers pay and the price sellers receive. TYPE: M KEY1: C SECTION: 1 OBJECTIVE: 1 RANDOM: Y
产大量物品与劳务，才能使本国居民享有在国际贸易环境下的高生活水平。2．假定社会决定减少消费并增加投资。 A．这种变化会如何影响经济增长? 答：当社会决定减少消费并增加投资时，会使社会的储蓄增加，更多的资源用于生产资本品，结果，资本存量增加，引起生产率提高和 GDP 增长得更为迅速。B．哪些社会群体会从这种变化中获益?哪些集团会受到损害? 答：拥有资本品的人会从这种变化中获益，如拥有较多的物质资本和人力资本的人。而那些依靠政府援助的人将从这种变化中受损，因为社会减少了现期物品与劳务的消费。 3．社会选择把多少资源用于消费和把多少资源用于投资。这些决策中的一部分涉及私人支出；另一些涉及政府支出。 A．说明代表消费的一些私人支出形式，以及代表投资的一些私人支出形式。国民收入账户把学费作为消费支出的一部分。按你的看法，把资源用于教育是一种消费的形式，还是一种投资的形式。 答：如家庭购买食物和服装是消费的私人支出形式，而个人购买新住房、企业对厂房和设备的投资是代表投资的私人支出形式。资源用于教育即可以看作是一种消费的形式，也可以看作是一种投资的形式。 B．说明代表消费的一些政府支出形式，以及代表投资的一些政府支出形式。按你的看法，我们应该把政府用于医疗计划的支出作为一种消费的形式，还是投资的形式？你能区分青年人的医疗计划和老年人的医疗计划吗？ 答：社会保险、国防和退伍军人津贴等是代表消费的一些政府支出形式，政府修筑铁路、核电站是代表投资的一些政府支出形式。政府用于医疗计划的支出是一种对人力资本的投资。与老年人的医疗计划相比，青年人的医疗计划更接近对人力资本的投资。 4．投资于资本的机会成本是什么？你认为一国有可能对资本“过度投资”吗？人力资本投资的机会成本是什么？你认为一国可能对人力资本“过度投资”吗？解释之。 答：投资于资本的机会成本是牺牲现期的物品和劳务的消费。一国有可能对资本“过度投资”。人力资本投资也有机会成本。当学生上学时．他们放弃了他们本可以赚到的收入。即使在人力资本特别稀缺的发展中国家，一国也不会对人力资本“过度投资”，因为一国政府进行人力资本投资的方式是提供更多更好的学校，并鼓励人们利用这些学校。尽管受过教育的工人与未受过教育的工人之间的工资差距很大，但是很多儿童在小小年纪就退学了，因为他们需要用劳动来养家糊口。 5．假设一家完全由德国公民拥有的汽车公司在南卡罗来纳开办了一家新工厂。
ChaPter 4 ReViSiOn EXerCiSeS 1.What is syntax? SyntaX is a branch Of IinglnStiCS that StIldieS how WOrdS are Conlbined to fbnn SelltenCeS and the nιles that govern the fbnnation Of SelltenCeS ? 2.What is PhraSe StrUCtUre rule? The grammatical mechanism that regulates the aιτangement Of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and COmPlenIentS) that make UP a PhIaSe is Called a PIUaSe StlllCnUe rule. The PIIraSe StrUCtUraI nιle for NR VR AR and PP Can be Written as follows: NPf(Det)N(PP)… VPf(Qual)V(NP)… AP-*(Deg) A (PP) ... PP-*(Deg)P(NP) ... We Can fbπnulate a Single general PIlIaSal StnICtlIral IlIIe in WliiCh X StandS for the head N, \； A Or P. Tlle XP nιle: XP-*(specifier) X (COmPlement) 3.What is category? HOW to determine a word,s category? CategOIy refers to a group Of IinglIiStiC items WIliCh fulfill the Sanle or similar ftinctions iιι a PartiCUIar IanglIage SUCh as a SenteIice, a IloUn PIIraSe Or a Verb. TO deteπιιine a WOrd,s category, tlιree Criteria are USUalIy employed, IlameIy meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable Of detemiining a word's CategOry is its distribution? 4? What is COOrdinate StrUCtUre and What PrOPertieS does it have? TlIe StnICtlire fbnned by joining two Or more elements Of the Same type Witll the IIelP Of a COlIJunCtiOn is CaIled COOrdillate structure. It has four important properties: 1)there is no Iimit On the InUnber Of COOrdinated CategorieS that Can appear prior to the COlymICtiOn? 2) a CategOIy at any IeVel (a head Or an entire XP) Can be COOrdinated ? 3)COOrdinated CategOrieS must be Of the Same type. 4)the CategOIy type Of the COOrdinate PIIlaSe is identical to the
第三次作业 宋子瑶经济1503 41507663 2. 3.Describe in detail the six-step strategic management process. The strategy management process is a six-step process that encompasses strategy planning, implementation and evaluation. The first step is identifying the organization’ s current mission, goals and strategies. Every organization needs a mission-a statement of its purpose. Defining the mission forces managers to identify what it’ s in business to do. It’s also important for managers to identify the current goals and strategies for managers have a basis for assessing whether they need to be changed. The second step is doing an external analysis. Analyzing that environment is a critical step in the strategic management process. Once the managers’ve analyzed the environment, managers need to pinpoint opportunities that the organization can exploit and threats that it must counteract or buffer against. And opportunities are positive trends in the external environment and threats are negative trends. The third step is doing an internal analysis. The internal analysis provides important information about an organization’s specific resources and
Chapter 4 Revision Exercises 1. What is syntax? Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 2. What is phrase structure rule? The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP→(Det) N (PP) ... VP→(Qual) V (NP) ... AP→(Deg) A (PP) ... PP→(Deg) P (NP) ... We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P. The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement) 3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category? Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word’s category is its distribution. 4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have? The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structure. It has four important properties: 1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction. 2) a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated. 3)coordinated categories must be of the same type. 4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. 5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play? A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier. The role each element can play:
Chapter 4 From Word to Text I. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false: 1. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules. 2. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. 3. An endocentric construction is also known as headed construction because it has just one head 4. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category. 5. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. 6. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun. 7. Word order plays an important role in the organization of English sentences. 8. Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language. 9. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb. 10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional. ( 1-5 TTFTF 6-10 TTTTT ) ＩI. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 1 The head of the phrase “the city Rome”is_______D___ A the city B Rome C city D the city and Rome 2. The phrase “on the half” belongs to __B______construction A endocentric B exocentric C subordinate D coordinate
曼昆经济学原理答案30—34
第十二篇短期经济波动 第三十一章总需求与总供给 复习题 1．写出当经济进入衰退时下降的两个宏观经济变量的名字。写出当经济进入衰退时上升的一个宏观经济变量的名字。 答：当经济进入衰退时，实际GDP和投资支出下降，失业率上升。 2．画出一个有总需求、短期总供给和长期 总供给的曲线的图。仔细地标出正确的轴。 答： 图31—1 经济的长期均衡 3．列出并解释总需求曲线向右下方倾斜的 三个原因。 答：为了理解总需求曲线向右下 方倾斜的原因，我们必须考察物价水平如何影响消费、投资和净出口的物品与劳务需求量。 (1)庇古的财富效应
物价水平下降使消费者感到更富裕，这又鼓励他们更多地支出，消费支出增加意味着物品与劳务的需求量更大。 (2)凯恩斯的利率效应 较低的物价水平降低了利率，鼓励了家庭和企业更多地支出于投资物品，从而增加了物品与劳务的需求量。 (3)蒙代尔——弗莱明汇率效应 当美国物价水平下降引起美国利率下降时，实际汇率贬值，而且这种贬值刺激了美国的净出口，从而增加了国外对美国物品与劳务的需求量。 由于这三个原因，总需求曲线向右下方倾斜。 4．解释为什么长期总供给曲线是垂线。 答：在长期中，一个经济的物品与劳务的供给取决于它资本与劳动的供给，以及用来把资本与劳动变为物品与劳务的生产技术。由于物价水平并不影响这些实际GDP的长期决定因素，所以长期总供给曲线是一条垂线，即经济的资本、劳动和技术决定了物品与劳务供给量，而且，无论物价水平如何变动，供给量都是相同的。
5．列出并解释为什么短期总供给曲线向右上方倾斜的三种理论。 答：在短期中，总供给曲线向右上方倾斜，也就是说，在一个一两年的时期中，经济中物价总水平的上升增加了物品与劳务的供给量，而物价水平下降倾向于减少物品与劳务供给量。什么因素引起物价水平与产量之间的正相关关系呢?宏观经济学家提出了三种理论说明短期总供给曲线的向右上方倾斜。在每一种理论中，一种特殊的市场不完全性引起经济中供给一方的短期状况与长期不同。虽然每一种理论在细节上不同，但它们具有共同的内容：当物价水平背离了人们预期的物价水平时，供给量就背离了其长期水平或“自然水平”。当物价水平高于预期水平时，产量就高于其自然率。当物价水平低于预期水平时，产量就低于其自然率。 (1)新古典的错觉理论 根据这种理论，物价总水平的变动会暂时误导供给者对他们出售其产品的市场发生的变动的看法。由于这些短期的错觉，供给者对物价水平的变动作出了反应，而这种反应引起了向右上方倾斜的总供给曲线。假设物价总水平降到低于
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版） 第1篇导言 第1章经济学十大原理 课后习题详解 跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。 以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。 一、概念题 1．稀缺性（scarcity） 答：经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。稀缺性指在给定的时间内，相对于人的需求而言，经济资源的供给总是不足的，也就是资源的有用性与有限性。人类消费各种物品的欲望是无限的，满足这种欲望的物品，有的可以不付出任何代价而随意取得，称之为自由物品，如阳光和空气；但绝大多数物品是不能自由取用的，因为世界上的资源（包括物质资源和人力资源）是有限的，这种有限的、为获取它必须付出某种代价的物品，称为“经济物品”。正因为稀缺性的客观存在，地球上就存在着资源的有限性和人类的欲望与需求的无限性之间的矛盾。经济学的一个重要研究任务就是：“研究人们如何进行抉择，以便使用稀缺的或有限的生产性资源（土地、劳动、资本品如机器、技术知识）来生产各种商品，并把它们分配给不同的社会成员进行消费。”也就是从经济学角度来研究使用有限的资源来生产什么、如何生产和为谁生产的问题。 2．经济学（economics） 答：经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。时下经常见诸国内报刊文献的“现代西方经济学”一词，大多也都在这个意义上使用。 自从凯恩斯的名著《就业、利息和货币通论》于1936年发表之后，西方经济学界对经济学的研究便分为两个部分：微观经济学与宏观经济学。微观经济学是以单个经济主体（作为消费者的单个家庭或个人，作为生产者的单个厂商或企业，以及单个产品或生产要素市场）为研究对象，研究单个经济主体面对既定的资源约束时如何进行选择的科学。宏观经济学则以整个国民经济为研究对象，主要着眼于对经济总量的研究。 3．效率（efficiency） 答：效率指人们在实践活动中的产出与投入之比值，或者是效益与成本之比值，如果比值大，效率就高；反之，比值小，效率就低。效率与产出或者收益的大小成正比，而与成本或投入成反比，也就是说，如果想提高效率，必须降低成本或投入，提高收益或产出。 4．平等（equity） 答：平等指人与人的利益关系及利益关系的原则、制度、做法、行为等都合乎社会发展
语言学C h a p t e r4课后练习答案
Chapter 4 Revision Exercises 1. What is syntax? Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 2. What is phrase structure rule? The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP→(Det) N (PP) ... VP→(Qual) V (NP) ... AP→(Deg) A (PP) ... PP→(Deg) P (NP) ... We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P. The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement) 3. What is category? How to determin e a word’s category? Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word’s category is its distribution. 4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have? The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structure. It has four important properties: 1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction. 2) a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated. 3)coordinated categories must be of the same type. 4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES Ex 4–1 a. Book value b. Materiality c. Matching principle d. Unrecorded revenue e. Adjusting entries f. Unearned revenue g. Prepaid expenses h. None (This is an example of ―depreciation expense.‖) Ex. 4–2 Income Statement Balance Sheet Adjusting Entry a b NE I D NE I D c I NE I I NE I d NE I D NE I D e NE I D D NE D f I NE I NE D I Ex. 4–3 a. Rent Expense....................................................................................... 240,000 Prepaid Rent ........................................................................... 240,000 To record rent expense for May ($1,200,000 ÷ 5 months = $240,000 per month). b. Unearned Ticket Revenue .................................................................. 148,800 Ticket Revenue ....................................................................... 148,800 To record earning portion of season ticket revenue relating to May home games. Ex. 4–4 a. (1) Interest Expense (375) Interest Payable (375) $50,000 x 9% annual rate x 1/12 = $375. (2) Accounts Receivable .................................................................... 10,000 Consulting Fees Earned ................................................... 10,000 To record ten days of unbilled consulting fees at $1,000 per day. b. $2,250 ($50,000 x 9% x 6/12 = $2,250) c. $15,000 ($25,000 - $10,000 earned in December, 2002)
一、名词解释（每小题5分，共50分） 1.机会成本 2.科斯定理 3.搭便车 4.囚徒困境 5.菲利普斯曲线 6.供应学派 7.凯恩斯革命 8.看不见的手 9.比较优势 10.外部性 二、简述题（第11、12、13题各12分，14题14分，共50分） 1.简述银行存款的创造过程。 2.简述失业的根源及其类型。 3.简述节俭的是非。 4.根据有关经济学原理，简析我国森林减少、珍稀动物来绝的原因及解决的措施。 三、论述题(每小题25分，共计50分) 1.论述人民币升值对中国经济的影响。 2.论述政府公共投资对国民经济的作用。 一、名词解释（每小题5分，共50分） 1.机会成本:指人们利用一定资源获得某种收入时所放弃的在其他可能的用途中所能够获取的最大收入。生产一单位的某种商品的机会成本是指生产者所放弃的使用相同的生产要素在其他生产用途中所能得到的最高收入。机会成本的存在需要三个前提条件。第一，资源是稀缺的；第二，资源具有多种生产用途；第三，资源的投
向不受限制。从机会成本的角度来考察生产过程时，厂商需要将生产要素投向收益最大的项目，而避免带来生产的浪费，达到资源配置的最优。机会成本的概念是以资源的稀缺性为前提提出的。从经济资源的稀缺性这一前提出发，当一个社会或一个企业用一定的经济资源生产一定数量的一种或者几种产品时，这些经济资源就不能同时被使用在其他的生产用途方面。这就是说，这个社会或这个企业所能获得的一定数量的产品收入，是以放弃用同样的经济资源来生产其他产品时所能获得的收入作为代价的。这也是机会成本产生的缘由。因此，社会生产某种产品的真正成本就是它不能生产另一些产品的代价。所以，机会成本的含义是：任何生产资源或生产要素一般都有多种不同的使用途径或机会，也就是说可以用于多种产品的生产。但是当一定量的某种资源用于生产甲种产品时，就不能同时用于生产乙种产品。因此生产甲种产品的真正成本就是不生产乙种产品的代价，或者是等于该种资源投放于乙种产品生产上可能获得的最大报酬。一种资源决定用于甲种产品，就牺牲了生产其他产品的机会；从事生产甲种产品的收入，是由于不从事或放弃其他产品生产的机会而产生的。 2.科斯定理:指一种产权理论。科斯本人并未将科斯定理写成文字，科斯定理的提出是由其好友斯蒂格勒首先根据科斯于20世纪60年代发表的《社会成本问题》这篇论文的内容概括出来的。其内容是：只要财产权是明确的，并且其交易成本为0或者很小，则无论在开始时财产权的配置是怎么样的，市场均衡的最终结果都是有效率的。科斯定理进一步扩大了“看不见的手”的作用。按照这个定理，只要那些假设条件成立，则外部影响就不可能导致资源配置不当。或者以另一角度来说，在所给条件下，市场力量足够强大，总能够使外部影响以最经济的办法来解决，从而仍然可以实现帕累托最优状态。西方学者认为，明确的财产权及其转让可以使得私人成本（或利益）与社会成本（或利益）趋于一致。以污染问题为例，科斯定理意味着，一旦所需条件均被满足，则污染者的私人边际成本曲线就会趋于上升，直到与边际社会成本曲线完全重合，从而污染者的利润最大化产量将下降至社会最优产量水平。 科斯定理解决外部影响问题在实际中并不—定真的有效。资产的财产权不一定总是能够明确地加以规定；已经明确的财产权不一定总是能够转让；分派产权会影响收入分配，而收入分配的变动可以造成社会不公平，引起社会动乱。在社会动乱的情况下，就谈不上解决外部效果的问题了。 3.搭便车：指不付成本或支付很低的成本而消费公共产品的行为。公共产品的特点决定了私人厂商不愿自动提供这种产品。这是因为在公用产品消费中存在“搭便车”问题，即每个人都想不付任何成本，或只支付很低的代价，来享受公共产品的服务。由于公共物品具有消费的非竞争性和受益的非排他性，人们可以在不付费的情况下享受公共物品所带来的效益。因此公共产品覆盖的消费者人数越多，搭便车问题就越严重，公共产品由私人厂商提供出来的可能性就越小。例如：1970年美国通用汽车公司研制出了一种汽车污染物排放控制装置，每个售价20美金，如果每个车尾都装上这一装置，可使汽车排放的污染下降30％至50％。然而，污染的降低是一种公共产品，每个人呼吸空气质量是否改善并不取决于自己的车上是否装上这个新发明，而是取决于该地区大多数车主的选择，于是大多数人都不想多花20美元而只是试图搭便车，结果，在私人市场上，这种公共产品的产量总难以达到最佳水平。私人不能提供公共产品，就只能由政府出面担当此项职能。事实上，私人经济中的政府，最初就是为了提供公共产品(法律、国防、公安等等)的目的由众多私人共同建立起来的。政府这一职能具体体现为：①尽可能正确地估价社会对公用产品的实际需求；②按照社会福利最大化的原则确定税收比率，并用税收收入购置公用产品，为公众提供服务。 4.囚徒困境：指两个被捕获的囚犯之间的一种特殊“博弈”，说明为什么甚至在合作对双方有利时，保持合作也是困难的。囚犯两难处境的故事包含着一个一般性的结论，这个结论适用于任何一个力图维持其成员合作的集团。这是博弈论中的一个经典例证，同一市场上的寡头在力图达到垄断结果时的博弈类似于两个处于两难处境的囚犯的博弈。具体情况如下：两囚徒被指控是一桩罪案的同案犯。他们被分关在不同的牢房且无法互通信息。各囚徒都被要求坦白罪行。如果两囚徒都坦白，各将被判入狱5年；如果两人都不坦白，则很难对他们提起刑事诉讼，因而两囚徒可以期望被从轻发落为入狱2年；另一方面，如果一个囚徒坦白而另一个囚徒不坦白，坦白的囚徒就只需入狱1年，而另一个将被判入狱10年。那么囚徒将会怎么选择呢？下表归纳了各种可能的结果。（其中“得益”是负的，表格右下角单元格意思是两个囚徒各2年徒刑）。该表说明，这两个囚徒面临着一种困境。如果他们都不坦白（以一种会遵守的方法），那么两人只需入狱仅仅2年。但他们不能相互讲话，如果囚徒A不坦白，他就冒着被B利用的危险。因为不管囚徒A怎么选择，囚徒B坦白总是最优方案。
第十六章寡头 复习题 1．如果一个卖者集团可以形成一个卡特尔，它们想确定的产量和价格是什么? 答：如果一个卖者集团可以形成一个卡特尔，它们想确定的产量和价格是对整个卡特尔来说利润最大化的产量与价格。 2．比较寡头与垄断的产量与价格。 答：如果寡头们可以联合起来统一行动的话，寡头与垄断的产量和价格相等。当寡头企业个别选择利润最大化的产量时，它们的产量大于垄断的产量水平，小于竞争的产量水平。寡头价格小于垄断价格，大于竞争价格。 3．比较寡头与竞争市场的产量与价格。 答：寡头价格高于竞争价格。寡头产量低于竞争产量。 4．一个寡头市场上的企业数量如何影响市场结果? 答：随着寡头市场上卖者数量增加，寡头市场就越来越像竞争市场，价格接近于边际成本，生产量接近于有效率的水平。 5．什么是囚犯两难处境?它与寡头有什么关系? 答：囚犯两难处境是指两个被捕获的囚犯之间的一种特殊“博弈”，说明为什么甚至在合作对双方有利时，保持合作也是困难的。 囚犯两难处境的故事包含着一个一般性的结论，这个结论适用于任何一个力图维持其成员合作的集团。同一市场上的寡头在力图达到垄断结果时的博弈类似于两个处于两难处境的囚犯的博弈。 6．举出寡头之外的两个例子，说明囚犯的两难处境如何有助于解释行为? 答：例一，共有资源的使用。设想两个渔民——杰瑞和麦克，他们共同拥有一个湖泊，湖泊中价值2万美元的鱼类资源归他们共有。造一条渔船要花1 000美元。两人各有一条渔船，每人将得到一半的鱼类资源，可以赚9 000美元(1万美元收益减1 000美元成本)，两人都可以造第二条渔船。如果某个人在三条渔船中拥有两条，他就得到三分之二的鱼类资源，这将带来11 333美元的利润。但如果两人都造第二条船，又是平分鱼类资源，而且两人的利润都下降，是8 000美元。表16－1表示杰瑞和麦克的博弈。 表16－1 共有资源博弈 例二，广告博弈。考虑两家化妆品公司——甲和乙，面临决策。如果两家都不向用户赠送免费试用的化妆品，它们平分市场。如果两家都向用户赠送免费试用的化妆品，他们仍平分市场，但利润少了，因为要承担送赠品的成本。但如果一家公司送赠品而另一家不送，送赠品的一家就把另一家公司的顾客吸引走了。表16—2是这两家公司的博弈。 表16—2 化妆品公司的博弈利己行为使这两家公司得到不良后果。
第一篇导言 第一章经济学十大原理 复习题 1．列举三个你在生活中面临的重要权衡取舍的例子。 答：①大学毕业后，面临着是否继续深造的选择，选择继续上学攻读研究生学位，就意味着在今后三年中放弃参加工作、赚工资和积累社会经验的机会；②在学习内容上也面临着很重要的权衡取舍，如果学习《经济学》，就要减少学习英语或其他专业课的时间；③对于不多的生活费的分配同样面临权衡取舍，要多买书，就要减少在吃饭、买衣服等其他方面的开支。 2．看一场电影的机会成本是什么? 答：看一场电影的机会成本是在看电影的时间里做其他事情所能获得的最大收益，例如：看书、打零工。 3．水是生活必需的。一杯水的边际利益是大还是小呢? 答：这要看这杯水是在什么样的情况下喝，如果这是一个人五分钟内喝下的第五杯水，那么他的边际利益很小，有可能为负；如果这是一个极度干渴的人喝下的第一杯水，那么他的边际利益将会极大。 4．为什么决策者应该考虑激励? 答：因为人们会对激励做出反应。如果政策改变了激励，它将使人们改变自己的行为，当决策者未能考虑到行为如何由于政策的原因而变化时，他们的政策往往会产生意想不到的效果。 5．为什么各国之间的贸易不像竞赛一样有赢家和输家呢? 答：因为贸易使各国可以专门从事自己最擅长的活动，并从中享有更多的各种各样的物品与劳务。通过贸易使每个国家可供消费的物质财富增加，经济状况变得更好。因此，各个贸易国之间既是竞争对手，又是经济合作伙伴。在公平的贸易中是“双赢”或者“多赢”的结果。 6．市场中的那只“看不见的手”在做什么呢? 答：市场中那只“看不见的手”就是商品价格，价格反映商品自身的价值和社会成本，市场中的企业和家庭在作出买卖决策时都要关注价格。因此，他们也会不自觉地考虑自己行为的(社会)收益和成本。从而，这只“看不见的手”指引着千百万个体决策者在大多数情况下使社会福利趋向最大化。 7．解释市场失灵的两个主要原因，并各举出一个例子。 答：市场失灵的主要原因是外部性和市场势力。 外部性是一个人的行为对旁观者福利的影响。当一个人不完全承担(或享受)他的行为所造成的成本(或收益)时，就会产生外部性。举例：如果一个人不承担他在公共场所吸烟的全部成本，他就会毫无顾忌地吸烟。在这种情况下，政府可以通过制定禁止在公共场所吸烟的规章制度来增加经济福利。 市场势力是指一个人(或一小群人)不适当地影响市场价格的能力。例如：某种商品的垄断生产者由于几乎不受市场竞争的影响，可以向消费者收取过高的垄断价格。在这种情况下，规定垄断者收取的价格有可能提高经济效率。 8．为什么生产率是重要的? 答：因为一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品与劳务的能力，而对这种能力的最重要的衡量度就是生产率。生产率越高，一国生产的物品与劳务量就越多。