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语言学

Chapter one linguistics

?1.1D e f i n i t i o n o f l i n g u i s t i c s:

?t h e s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y o f l a n g u a g e

?(l i n g u i-:l a n g u a g e;-i c s:s c i e n c e)

?1.2.H i s t o r y o f l i n g u i s t i c s

?b e f o r e t h e m i d o f19t h c e n t u r y:p h i l o l o g y

?(语文学)

?f r o m t h e m i d o f19t h c e n t u r y:l i n g u i s t i c s

?(语言学)

?1.2.1F e r d i n a n d d e S a u s s u r e(索绪尔)–1857-1913

–S w i s s l i n g u i s t

–F a m o u s f o r h i s b o o k C o u r s e i n G e n e r a l L i n g u i s t i c s

–P u b l i s h e d i n1916,a f t e r h i s d e a t h

–B a s e d o n l e c t u r e n o t e s t a k e n b y s t u d e n t s

–F a t h e r o f m o d e r n l i n g u i s t i c s

–D r e w s e v e r a l v e r y i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n s i n t h e s t u d y o f l a n g u a g e(s e e b l o w)?D i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n s y n c h r o n i c a n d d i a c h r o n i c s t u d i e s o f l a n g u a g e

–l a n g u a g e c a n b e s t u d i e d s y n c h r o n i c a l l y

–d o e s n o t n e e d t o c o n s i d e r h i s t o r y

?D i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n l a n g u e a n d p a r o l e–t r e a t l a n g u a g e a s a s y s t e m

–d e f i n e t h e u n i t s o f l a n g u a g e

–s t u d y t h e r e l a t i o n s a m o n g u n i t s a n d t h e r u l e s o f c o m b i n a t i o n

??S y n c h r o n i c s t u d y

–s t u d y t h e l a n g u a g e s y s t e m a t a g i v e n p e r i o d

–t r e a t t h e s y s t e m a s b e i n g s t a t i c

–c o n c e n t r a t e o n o n e l a n g u a g e a n d o n t h e s p e a k e r’s k n o w l e d g e o f t h e l a n g u a g e ??D i a c h r o n i c s t u d y

–s t u d y t h e l a n g u a g e s y s t e m s i n d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s

–c o n c e n t r a t e o n h o w l a n g u a g e s c h a n g e

–o f t e n n e e d s t o s t u d y s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s

L a n g u e v s.p a r o l e

(l a n g u a g e v s.s p e e c h)

?t h e s y s t e m o f l a n g u a g e

?a s e t o f s o c i a l c o n v e n t i o n s

?e x i s t s i n t h e m i n d o f e a c h s p e a k e r

?l e a r n e d b y e a c h s p e a k e r

?a l l s p e a k e r s h a v e t h e s a m e s y s t e m

?m o r e o r l e s s f i x e d

?a s p e a k e r i s p o w e r l e s s t o c r e a t e i t o r m o d i f y i t

?a c t u a l s p e e c h

?a n i n d i v i d u a l a c t o f t h e w i l l a n d t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e

?a s p e a k e r h a s f r e e d o m i n u t t e r i n g s e n t e n c e s,i s f r e e t o c h o o s e w h a t t o s a y ?a n c i l l a r y/a c c i d e n t a l

?T h e s p e e c h e s o f t w o s p e a k e r s m a y b e r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t

??C o m p e t e n c e:

-t h e i d e a l k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s p e a k e r

-a p r o p e r t y o f t h e m i n d o f e a c h s p e a k e r

c o m p e t e n c e=k n o w l e

d g

e o

f

g r a m m a r?P e r f o r m a n c e

-a c t u a l r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h i s k n o w l e d g e i n u t t e r a n c e

-i n f l u e n c e d b y p s y c h o l o g i c a l&s o c i a l f a c t o r s

?T h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t i c s(理论语言学)

–t i c s

–l o g y

–l o g y

–S y n

–i c s

–*P r a g m a t i c s

–*D i s c o u r s e A n a l y s i s(会话分析)

–*T e x t a n a l y s i s(语篇学)

Chapter 2 Language

?2.1. Definition of language:

language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication

?2.2. Design features of language:

(1) duality (双重性):

language is composed of 2 systems.

system of sounds: meaningless, limited number

system of meanings:meaningful, relatively unlimited

?(2). Arbitrariness

(任意性)

-The combination of the sound and meaning of linguistic symbols is a social convention.

-there is no necessary or intrinsic connection between the symbols,and the meaning of the symbols

?(3). Productivity (生成性)

-Productivity refers to the property that language enables language users to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentences including novel sentences.

-No one will have difficulty in understanding the sentence: “the terrorists will bo mb the railway of Tokoy tomorrow.”

-But the communication systems of other animals are not productive. ?(4). Displacement

(移位性)

?-Displacement is the property of language that enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place.people can talk about things present,absent,in the past, in the future.

?(Queen Elizabeth Ⅰ)

?(5).cultural transmission(文化传递性)

-Language and culture are closely related to each other.

-Language is passed on from generation to generation by learning rather by instinct.

-Language is culturally transmitted.

2.3. Functions of language

(what language is used for)

?(1).phatic:

-Phatic function refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.

-Greeting,farewells, and comments on the weather server the function. Such as, “How are you?”, “A nice day, isn?t it?”

?(2). Directive

-When language is used to get the hearer do something,it serves a directive function.

-Most imperative sentences are associated with this function. Such as in “come in, please.”, “Drop in any time you like.”

?(3). Informative

- Language serves an informative function when it is used to to give information about facts, tell what the speaker believes.

- Most declarative sentences, as well as rhetorical questions are used to serve this function.

?(4). Interrogative

-When language is used to get information from others, it serves an interrogative function.

-All the questions that expe ct answers serve this function. Such as , “what is your name?” or “Are you able to speak Japanese?”

?(5). Expressive

-Expressive function is the use of language to reveal something abut the feelings and attitudes of the speaker.

-In expressive funct ion, language is used to evaluate and assert the speaker’s attitudes.

-Some ejaculations are the examples ,such as, “oh, my God!” or “The man is

leaving ,I wish to God he would go!”

?(6). Evocative

-Evocative function is the use of language to create certain feeling in the hearer.

-Evocative function aims to amuse, startle, anger, soothe, worry, or please the hearer.

-Jokes, advertising, propaganda are used to serve the evocative function of language. Such as,

Coke refreshes you like no other can.

If it is got to be clean, it?s got to be tide.

?(7). Performative

-When language is used to “do things”, , to perform actions, it serves the performative function.

-With the sentences being uttered, the act can be performed, such as, “I declare the exam is cancelled.” or… I declare the class is over.”

Chapter 3 Phonetics (语音学)

?3.1. Definition of Phonetics (语音学):

Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds

–D e a l s w i t h s p e e c h s o u n d s

–C o n c e r n s a l l p o s s i b l e s o u n d s h u m a n s c a n m a k e

3.2. The three main branches of Phonetics:

?Articulatory (发音) Phonetics:

–t h e s t u d y o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p e e c h s o u n d.

?Acoustic (声学) Phonetics:

–t h e s t u d y o f t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s o u n d s p r o d u c e d i n s p e e c h.?Auditory (听觉) Phonetics:

–t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f s p e e c h s o u n d s.

Chapter 3 Phonetics (语音学)

?3.1. Definition of Phonetics (语音学):

Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds –D e a l s w i t h s p e e c h s o u n d s

–C o n c e r n s a l l p o s s i b l e s o u n d s h u m a n s c a n m a k e

3.2. The three main branches of Phonetics:

?Articulatory (发音) Phonetics:

–t h e s t u d y o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s p e e c h s o u n d.

?Acoustic (声学) Phonetics:

–t h e s t u d y o f t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s o u n d s p r o d u c e d i n s p e e c h.?Auditory (听觉) Phonetics:

–t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f s p e e c h s o u n d s

–3.3S p e e c h O r g a n s

?Lips (labia唇)

?Teeth (dentes齿)

?Tooth-ridge (alveoli齿龈)

?Hard palate ( 硬腭)

?Soft palate (velum软腭)

?Uvula (小舌)

?Tip of tongue (舌尖)

?Blade of tongue (舌面)

?Front of tongue (舌前部)

?Back of tongue (舌后部)

?Tongue root (舌根)

?Pharynx (声门)

?V ocal cords (声带)

?Nasal cavity (鼻腔)

?Oral cavity (口腔)

?Epiglottis (会厌)

?Tongue (lingua) (舌)

3.4. Phonetic transcription (注音)

?A sound may have many variations

E x a m p l e1:

?[p]i n p e a k i s a s p i r a t e d [p h]

?[p]i n s p e a k i s u n a s p i r a t e d?[p=]o r s i m p l y[p]

E x a m p l e2:

?[l]i n l e a d i s c l e a r?[l]

?[l]i n d e a l i s d a r k?[?]

?Symbols for such more specific sounds are called diacritics (变音符) –S e e胡壮麟,语言学教程,p.38

Narrow transcription& Broad transcription

?Narrow transcription:

–u s e m o r e,s p e c i f i c s y m b o l s,i.e.d i a c r a t i c s

?Broad transcription:

–U s e o r d i n a r y s y m b o l s

E x a m p l e:h e l p

B r o a d t r a n s c r i p t i o n:[h e l p]

N a r r o w t r a n s c r i p t i o n:[h e?p h]

C o m m o n l y u s e d d i a c r a t i c s:。.~

3.5. The English sounds

?Consonants (辅音)

–O b s t r u c t i o n o f a i r f l o w

–E.g.[b],[k],[d],…

–[+v o i c e d][-v o i c e d]

?V owels(元音)

–N o a i r o b s t r u c t i o n

–E.g.[i][e][a u],…

3.5.1 Consonants (辅音)

1. Place of articulation

–B i l a b i a l s(双唇音)

–L a b i o d e n t a l s(唇齿音)

–D e n t a l s(齿音)

–A l v e o l a r s(齿龈音)

–P o s t a l v e o l a r s(上齿龈)

–P a l a t a l s(上腭音)

–R e t r o f l e x(卷舌音)

–V e l a r s(软腭音)

–G l o t t a l s(喉音)

2. Manner of articulation

–S t o p s/P l o s i v e s(闭塞/爆破)

–F r i c a t i v e s(摩擦音)

–A f f r i c a t e s(塞擦音)

–L a t e r a l s(侧音)

–A p p r o x i m a n t s(近音)

–N a s a l s(鼻音)

3.5.2 V owels

–c r i t e r i a(p a r a m e t e r s)o f v o w e l d e s c r i p t i o n:①t h e p o s i t i o n o f h i g h e s t p a r t o f t h e t o n g u e:

?front, central, back

?②the height of tongue raising:

?high, middle, low

(the openness of the mouth: close,semi-close,semi-open,open)

?③the shape of the lips (the degree of lip-rounding ) : rounded, unrounded

?④the length or tenseness of the vowel : tense vs. lax or long vs. short

Consonants (辅音)

V owels(元音)

More vowels

?Lax vowels (松元音) -i ,e,?,u,?,∧

?Tense vowels (紧元音)-ei,i:,u:,?:,a:

?Round vowels (圆唇音)-u:,u,?: ,?,

?Unround vowels(非圆唇音)-ei,i:,i ,e,? ,∧,a: ?Diphthongs (双元音)

Chapter 4 PHONOLOGY(音系学)

4.1 The phonic medium of language (语言的语音媒介)

phonic medium of language(语言的语音媒介);

speech sounds(言语语音).

4.2 Phonetics(语音学)

4.2.1 What is phonetics?

● Definition: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of

language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.

● Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related points

of view.

● articulatory phonetics(发音语音学):how a speaker uses his speech

organs to articulate the sounds.

● auditory phonetics(听觉语音学): how the sounds are perceived by the

hearer.

● acoustic phonetics(声学语音学): the way sounds travel by looking at

the sound waves(声波), the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.

spectrographs(频谱仪)

4.2.2 Organs of speech(发音器官)

The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas:

● the pharyngeal cavity(咽腔)-- the throat,

● the oral cavity(口腔)-- the mouth

● the nasal cavity(鼻腔)-- the nose

1. lips唇

2. teeth牙齿

3. teeth ridge (alveolus)齿龈

4. hard palate硬腭

5. soft palate (velum) 软腭

6. uvula小舌

7. tip of tongue舌尖

8. blade of tongue舌面

9. back of tongue 舌后部

10. vocal cords声带

11. pharyngeal cavity 咽腔

12. nasal cavity鼻腔

13. larynx(喉)

14. glottis(声门)

voicing(浊化音)

voiceless(轻声化)

4.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds --broad and narrow transcriptions(语音的书写形式:宽式音标和窄式音标)

the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) (国际音标)

● broad transcription 宽式音标

● narrow transcription 窄式音标

● the diacritics (附加符号,变音符号)

stop[stop]

Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated(送气的)and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated(不送气的). This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised "h" is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [p h it] and spit is transcribed as [spit].

4.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds(英语语音的分类)

An initial classification will divide the speech sounds in English into two broad categories: vowels and consonants. Two definitions of vowels as a general phonetic category are quoted below:

"V owels are modifications of the voice-sound that involve no closure, friction, or contact of the tongue or lips." (Bloomfield)

"A vowel is defined as a voiced sound in forming which the air issues in a continuous stream through the pharynx and mouth, there being no audible friction." (Jones)

The two definitions point to one important feature of vowels,i.e. in producing a vowel the air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction whatsoever. This marks the essential difference between vowels and consonants. In the production of the latter category it is obstructed in one way or another.

4.2.4.1 Classification of English consonants(辅音的分类)

English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation(发音方法)and the other is in terms of place of articulation.(发音位置)

In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types:

● stops:(塞音)6

● fricatives: (擦音)7

● affricates: (塞擦音)2

● liquids:(流音)2

● nasals: (鼻音)3

● glides(semi-vowels): (滑音,半元音)2

In terms of place of articulation, the English consonants can be classified into the following types:

◆ bilabial: 双唇音 4

◆ liabiodental: 唇齿音2

◆ dental: 齿音 2

◆ alveolar: 齿龈音7

◆ palatal: 腭音5

◆ velar: 软腭音3

◆ glottal: 喉音,声门音1[h]

4.2.4.2 Classification of English vowels

● Front 前元音

● Central 中元音

● Back 后元音

● Close闭合元音

● Semi-close半闭合元音

● Semi-open半开元音

● Open开元音

A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels(不圆唇元音), i.e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded(圆唇元音). It should be noted that some front

vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.

● Monophthongs(单元音)

● Diphthongs(双元音)

● Triththongs(三元音)

4.3 Phonology音系学

4.3.1 Phonology and phonetics(音系学与语音学)

Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language -- the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. As we have seen in the last section, phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

4.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone(音素,音位,音位变体)

A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't.

A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.

Then, how a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard; it is rule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out these rules.

Although phonemes are the minimal segments of language systems, they are not their minimal elements. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. It is just because of its distinctive features that a phoneme is capable of distinguishing meaning. A native speaker of English can tell by intuition that the following sound combinations all carry different meanings: 4.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair(音位对立,互补分布和最小对立体)

● phonemic contrast音位对立

● complementary distribution 互补分布

● minimal pair最小对立体

4.3.4Some rules in phonology

4.3.4.1 Sequential rules(序列规则)

Cluster(辅音丛)

4.3.4.1 Assimilation rule(同化规则)

4.3.4.2 Deletion rule(省略规则)

Stem词干

4.3.5 Suprasegmental features --stress, tone, intonation(超切分特征:重音,音调,语调)

So far we have been dealing with the phonemes -- sound segments that

distinguish meaning. But distinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable(音节), the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.

4.3.

5.1 Stress

example: contract import increase

rising tune falling tune

4.3.

5.2 Tone

阴平:level

阳平:rise

上声:fall-rise

去声:fall

4.3.

5.3 Intonation

◆ The falling tone.

◆ The rising tone.

◆ The fall-rise tone.

◆ The rise-fall tone.

Chapter 5 MORPHOLOGY

5.1 Morphology(形态学)

Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.

5.1.2 Internal structure of words and rules for word formation(词的内部结构和词的构成)

Examples:

A B

like dislike

order disorder

appear disappear

approve disapprove

agree disagree

ad va n tages disadvantages

entangle disentangle

Morphology thus refers to the study of the inter-nal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.

5.2 Morphemes -- the minimal units of meaning (词素—最小的意义单位)

● prefixes(前缀)

● suffixes (后缀)

● bound morphemes(粘着词素)

● free morphemes(自由词素)

self

selfless

selflessly

selflessness

selfish selfishness unselfish unselfishness unselfishly

attendence

5.3 Derivational and inflectional morphemes (派生词素和曲折词素)

infinitive marker(不定式标记)

5.4 Morphological rules of word formation

(词汇构成的词素音位规则)

● Morphological rules 词素音位规则

● Productive Morphological rules 生产性词素音位规则

5.5 Compounds(复合词)

Some noteworthy rules:

a) When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category:

b) In many cases, the two words fall into different categories.

c) It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence., thus in

d) The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. English language.

Coinages 新造的词

To coin new words 造新词

6 SYNTAX句法学

6.1 What is syntax? (什么是句法?)

Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.

Transformational syntax(转换句法)

Chomsky 乔姆斯基

MIT

TG :Transformational grammar转换生成语法

6.2 Categories(范畴)

6.2.1 Word-level categories(词法范畴)

Definition:Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.

● word-level categories(词法范畴)

● syntactic categories(句法范畴)

● affixes(词缀):prefix,suffix

● parts of speech(词类)

● determiner (Det)限定词

● degree words (Deg) 程度词

● qualifier (Qual)修饰词

● major lexical categories 主要词汇范畴

● minor lexical categories次要词汇范畴

Three criteria to determine words’ category:

1. 1. meaning (词义)

2. 2. inflection (曲折变化)

3. 3. distribution (分布)

Conclusion:

Thus, a word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.

6.2.2. Phrase categories and their structures

(短语范畴及其结构)

● NP (noun phrase)

● VP (verb phrase)

● AP (adjective phrase)

● PP (prepositional phrase)

Two levels: word level phrase level

Elements of a phrase:

◆ head(中心成分)

◆ specifier(标志成分)

◆ complement(补足成分)

Examples:

a cup of tea

all the people of China

6.3 Phrase structure rule(短语结构规则)

NP: a story about a sentimental girl

VP: often have noodles for lunch

AP: very hot in summer

PP: without hesitation

6.3.1 XP rule(X短语规则)

The XP rule: XP(specifier)X(completement)

6.3.2 X- Theory(X标杆理论)

6.3.3 Coordination rule(并列规则)

coordinate structure并列结构

Coordination并列

6.4 Phrase elements短语成分

4.4.1 Specifiers标志成分

semantic roles 语义功能

syntactic roles句法功能

Determiners serve as the specifiers of Ns While qualifiers typically function as the specifiers of Vs and degree words as the specifiers of As and sometimes Ps.

6.4.2 Complements补足成分

The information about a word's complement is included in the head and termed subcategorization(次范畴化).

Tree structure树形结构

The XP Rule (revised)

XP (Specifier) X (Complement*)

a story about a sentimental girl in India in the 1960s

This rule also captures the simple but important fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.

◆ complementizers(补语化成分) (Cs).

◆ complement clause(补语从句)

◆ complement phrase(补语短语) (CP)

◆ matrix clause(主句)

Example:

Miss Herbert believes that she will win.

6.4.3 Modifiers(修饰成分,修饰语)

Definition: Still another kind of element we have not touched upon (talked about, discussed) so far is modifiers, which specify optionally expressible properties of heads. Although all lexical categories can have modifiers, we will focus here on the types of categories that can modify Ns and Vs.

The Expanded XP rule:

XP (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)

This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, a modifier that occurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well.

6.5 Sentences (The S rule)(句子)(S规则)

The S rule:

S NP VP

The boy had an apple.

A boy found the evidence.

abstract category inflection (抽象的范畴曲折)

(dubbed 'Infl') or shortened 'Infl'

6.6 Transformations(转换)

syntactic movement 句法移位

accommodate: suit to; adapt to

6.6. 1 Auxiliary movement 助动词移位

Inversion(倒装):

Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.

Inversion (revised):

Move Infl to C.

Example: Will the train arrive?

Marked by the symbol e ('empty') and called a trace(语迹), it records the fact that the moved element comes from the head position within S as shown below.

head movement.(中心移位)

6.6.2 Do insertion (插入DO)

Do insertion

Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.

Birds fly.

Birds do fly.

Do birds fly?

6.6.3 Deep structure and surface structure(深层结构和表层结构)

● deep structure (or D-structure)深层结构

● surface structure (or S-structure) 表层结构

6.6.4 Wh Movement(WH移位)

What lanuages can you speak?

What can you talk about?

you can speak What lanuages.

you can talk about What.

6.6.5 Move α and constraints on transformations (α移位及转换制约)

Summary:

In this chapter we have first introduced word categories and phrase categories. Then we have focused on some of the fundamental mechanisms employed in the analysis of sentence formation. These include phrase structure rules that determine the architecture of a sentence's deep structure, subeategorization information that ensures a match between heads and the complements with which they appear in syntactic structure, and transformations that can modify deep structure in various ways to produce a surface structure. Taken together, they make up an important part of our overall linguistic competence(语言能力) which enables us to combine words into sentences in endlessly novel(new) ways.

Communicative competence(交际能力)

linguistic competence(语言能力)

5 SEMANTICS语义学

What is semantics?

Definition:

Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. What is meaning?

意思是什么意思?

5.2 Some views concerning the study of meaning意义研究的一些理论

● The naming theory 命名论

● The conceptualist view概念论

● Contextualism 语境理论

● Behaviorism行为主义理论

Situational context 情景语境

Linguistic context 语言语境

Semantic triangle 语义三角

Stimulus---- Response刺激----反应理论

Spatiotemporal situation时空环境

Examples: black

Black hair 黑头发black coffee 清咖啡

Black tea 红茶

White snow 白雪white coffee 加牛奶的咖啡

White lie white elehpant

Once in a blue moon.

The seal could not be found.

The seal could not be found in the office. stamp

The seal could not be found in the zoo. Marine animal 5.3 Lexical meaning 词汇意义

5.3.1 Sense and reference意义和所指语义

Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.

Sense(意义) is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. For example, the word "dog" is given the definition" a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form". (Collins Dictionary of the English Language, 1979) This does not refer to any particular dog that exists in the real world, but applies to any animal that meets the features described in the definition. So this is the sense of the word "dog".

Reference (所指语义)means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. If we say "The dog is barking", we must be talking about a certain dog existent in the situation; the word "dog" refers to a dog known to both the speaker and the hearer. This is the reference of the word "dog" in this particular situation.

A very good example:

morning star

evening star

5.3.2 Major sense relations 主要的意义关系

5.3.2.1 Synonymy 同义词

i.i. Dialectal synonyms -- synonyms used in different regional dialects

方言同义词

ii.ii. Stylistic synonyms -- synonyms differing in style 文体同义词

iii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning 表情意义和评价意义不同的同义词

iv. Collocational synonyms 搭配同义词

v. Semantically different synonyms 语义不同的同义词

5.3.2.2 Polysemy 多义词,多义现象

We eat what we can and we can what we cannot eat.

I saw a saw hanging on the wall.

5.3.2.3 Homonymy同音异义词

Homophones(同音异义词): rain/reign night/knight piece/peace leak/leek

Homographs(同形异义词): bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n. lead v./lead n

Complete homonyms(完全同形异义词): fast adj./fast v. scale n./scale v.

5.3.2.4 Hyponymy 下义关系

Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate(上坐标词,上义词), and the more specific words are called its hyponyms(下义词). Hyponyms of the same su- perordinate are co-hyponyms to each other, e.g.

Superordinate: flower

Hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily, morning glory ...

Superordinate: animal

Hyponyms: dog, cat, tiger, lion, wolf, elephant, fox, bear ...

Superordinate: furniture

Hyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, settee ...

Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion; in terms of meaning, the superordinate includes all its hyponyms.

5.3.2.5 Antonymy反义词

i. Gradable antonyms可分等级的反义词

ii. Complementary antonyms互补反义词

iii. Relational opposites关系反义词

5.4 Sense relations between sentences句际语义关系

i. X is synonymous with Y. X与Y同义

ii. X is inconsistent with Y. X与Y不一致

iii. X entails Y(Y is an entailment of X)蕴涵关系

iv. X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X )前提预设

v. X is a contradiction 矛盾关系

vi. X is semantically anomalous 语义异常

5.5 Analysis of meaning语义分析

5.5.1 Componential analysis(成分分析)--a way to analyze lexicai meaning Componential analysis(成分分析)is a way proposed by the structural semantieists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features(语义特征). This is parallel to the way a phoneme is analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the word "man" is analyzed as comprising the features of

man:+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, + MALE.

Woman: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, - MALE.

Father: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, + MALE.

Boy: +HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, + MALE.

5.5.2 Predication analysis---a way to analyze sentence meaning述谓结构分析

selectional restrictions 选择限制

the British linguist G. Leech.

Predication述谓结构

statements陈述句

imperative 祈使句

interrogative 疑问句

argument(s)(变元,中项)

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