语言学概论
Chapter: Invitation to linguistics
一、language
1、Definition
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于交际的一套有声符号系统。It evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contents. (human specific)
2、The history（origin）
(1)The bow-wow theory 模仿说（imitation）
People imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment. Onomatopoeic words(拟声词)
(2)The pooh-pooh theory本能说（instinct）
In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they Utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy .Interjections like oh ,ah ai yo.
(3)The yo-he-ho theory号子说（rhythmic grunts）
As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts(咕哝) which gradually developed into chants and then into languages.
(4)The divine-origin theory神授说（creation）
(5)The invention theory 人造说（invention）
(6)The evolutionary theory进化说（evolution）
3、design features of language语言的普遍特征
●language distinguishes human beings form animals in that it is far more sophisticated
than any animals communication system.
Eg.(philosopher Bertrand Russell ) no matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot
tell you that his parents were poor but honest.再会叫的狗，他也不会说出他的父母很
穷但是很务实的话来
●design features
(1)Arbitrariness任意性
There is no logical connection between sounds and meaning.(Saussure first refers
to the fact that the forms of a linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their
meaning.) We do not know why the book is called the book.
(2)Duality二元性
It means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the
primary level are composed of elements the secondary level and each of the two
level has its own principles of organization.
(3)Creativity创造性
it means language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness(递归性)。
Language is creative in another sense, that is, its potential to create endless
sentence.
(4)Displacement移位性:
Displacement is that language can refer to the contexts removed from the
immediate situations of the speaker.
(5)Culture transmission文化传递性:
Animals call systems are genetically transmitted. Human languages are culturally
transmitted.
4、the function of language语言的功能
（1）Informative信息功能：
The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people
often use it to communicate new information.
（2）interpersonal function人际功能：
It is the most important sociological use of language. The interpersonal function
means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.
（3）performative 施为功能
The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of
persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of
children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.
（4）Emotive function感情功能
The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so
crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or
something.
（5）phatic communion寒暄功能
The phatic communion means the social interaction of language. such ritual
exchanges as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable
relationship between people without any factual content.
（6）recreational function娱乐功能
The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it,
such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.
（7）metalingual function元语言功能
The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I
can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the
word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.
二、linguistic
1、definition
It is the systematic investigation of the common features of all natural human languages.
2、main branches of linguistic
(1)Phonetics语音学
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory
phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.从自然属性研究人类语音
(2) Phonology音系学
Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of
speech sounds and the shape of syllables.研究语音结构、分布和排序的规则以及音节
的形状。
(3) Morphology形态学
Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.研究单词内部组成
(4) Syntax句法学
Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. 研究组词造句的规则
(5)Semantics语义学
Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.语言的意义
(6)Pragmatics语用学
Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context.研究语言在环境中的意义
3、Macrolinguistics宏观语言学
Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.
（1）Psycholinguistics心理语言学
Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and
producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.
（2）Sociolinguistics社会语言学
Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and
society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.
（3）Anthropological linguistics人类语言学
Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a
community.
（4）Computational linguistics计算机语言学
Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of
computers to process or produce human language
.
4、the principles of linguistic study语言学研究的规则
exhaustiveness objectivity consistency economy
5、Important distinctions in linguistics几对重要的区别性概念
（1）Descriptive vs. prescriptive规定性研究与描述性研究
（2）Synchronic vs. diachronic共时与历时
（3）Langue & parole语言与言语
（4）Competence and performance语言能力与语言应用
Chapter two: speech sounds
(two major areas of study: phonetics and phonology)
Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.
Phonetics语音学
1、definition:
Phonetics is the study of production, transmission, perception .description and classification transcription(标记) of speech sounds.
2、three branches of phonetics
(1)Articulatory phonetics (physiological phonetics生理语言学) 发音语言学
the study of the production of speech sounds
(2)Acoustic phonetics（physical phonetics物理语言学）声学语言学
the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech
(3)Auditory phonetics （psychological phonetics心理语言学）听觉语言学
the study of perception of speech sounds
Most phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.
3、speech sounds: are sounds that convey meaning
Are sounds that are systematically used in human linguistic
communication.
4、speech organs发音器官
Speech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech.
【the lungs 肺the trachea or windpipe 气管the throat喉（larynx 喉pharynx咽vocal folds\cords声带）the nose鼻the mouth口】-----vocal tract声道
The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts:
the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities （pharynx the nasal cavities the oral cavities）.
5、the IPA chart国际音标图=International Phonetic Alphabet
First version: August 1888 last version : 2005
Main principles:
● a separate letter for each distinctive sound一音一符
●The same symbol should be used for that sound in any
language in which it appears.同音同符
●The alphabet was to consist of as many roman alphabet letters
as possible.
●Using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely
necessary.变音符号
6、classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类
（1）vocal & consonant (according to the articulatory characteristics)
(the obstruction of airstream气流受阻与否)
Vocal (元音)：sounds produced without the obstruction of airstream.
Consonant（辅音）:sounds produced with the obstruction of airstream.
（2）voiceless sound & voiced sound
(the vibration of vocal cord声带的振动与否)
Voiceless sound（清音）：when the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass through
easily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless.
Consonant[p s t f k]
Voiced sound(浊音)：when the vocal cords are close together, the airstream causes
them to vibrate against each other and the reluctant sound
is said to be voiced. Consonants[b z d v g]
7、classification of consonants 辅音的分类
[t]: voiceless stop alveolar [l ]:voiced alveolar approximant
?Vocal glides滑音--- monophthongs [i] and diphthongs[ei]单元音和双元音
?The height of the tongue raising----high mid low
?The position of the highest part of the tongue-----front central back
?The length of tenseness of the vocal----long(tense) short(lax)
?Lip rounding---rounded unrounded 圆唇非圆唇
E.g.[i:] high front tense unrounded vocal
[u] high back lax rounded vocal
[e]倒着写mid central lax unrounded vocal
9、cardinal vocals are a set of arbitrary reference points established in the
description of vocals
10、the vocals of RP :the standard pronunciation of southern British English ,known as
RP----received English
11、coarticulation协同发音
The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.
Anticipatory coarticulation逆协同发音: If the sound becomes more like the following
sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as
anticipatory coarticulation.
Perseverative coarticulation顺协同发音: If the sound displays the influence of the
preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is
perseverative coarticulation.
Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.
Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.
12、phonetic transcription语音标记（标音法）
It is method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way以系统
一致的方式记录语音
二、phonology音系学
1、definition
It is the study of sound patterns in a given language.(language-specific)
phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.it deals with the sound system of a language
by treating phoneme as the point of departure.
2、phone音素[] phoneme 音位/ / allophone音位变体
Speech sound------phone
Phoneme (Distinctive sound) : A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can
signal a difference in meaning.
Allophone (Non-distinctive):Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its
allophones.
3、Phonological processes音位过程
（1）phonological rules音系学规则
Assimilation同化refers to the process or result of one sound taking on some
characteristics of a neighboring sound.
（2）Distinctive features区别性特征
4、suprasegmentals超音段特征
Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.
Four principles:
?Syllables音节：onset节前+ rhyme 韵基（peak or nucleus节峰+code节尾）
?Stress重音:refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.
?Tone音调: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the different rates of
vibration of the vocal cords.
?Intonation语调:
Chapter there: form Morpheme to phrase
(morpheme and morphology)
The grammatical hierarchy of a language:
clause complex
Clause
Word group/phrase
Word
morpheme
一、morpheme词素，语素------------
1、definition
Morpheme is the smallest unit of language In regard to the relationship between
expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller
units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.
Morphology形态学studies the internal structure of words and word information rules.
Morphemes and word formation process语素和形成过程
Two fields------inflectional morphology曲折形态学（研究语法的曲折变化及表达）
Derivational morphology派生形态学（研究构词法及词义表达）2、Types of Morphemes
(1). Free morpheme and bound morpheme 自由词素和粘合词素
（In terms of their capacity of occurring alone)
Free morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute
words by themselves, are free morphemes.
Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called
bound morphemes.
(2). Root词根, affix 词缀and stem词干
● A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without
destroying the meaning. (can be free or bound)
●An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only
when added to another morpheme. ( it is a bound morpheme) ----prefix
suffix infix
● A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional
affix can be added.
(3).Inflectional affix屈折变化（反映语法关系）：
Inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes
derivational affix派生变化（反映词性关系）：
Derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes.it often changes the lexical meaning
e.g. Friendships --------stem(friend+ship)
friend---root ship---inflectional suffix s----derivational suffix
3. morpheme and allomorph语素变体
An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. (map---maps)
4. morphological change形态学的变化
Morphological change takes the form of inflectional changes in affixes.
The plural forms of nouns have also changed.
二、word词
1、definition定义
Word is a unit of linguistic expression that has universal intuitive recognition by narrative speakers.
2、lexical items词条refer to the cases when a word appears in different forms.
( Boy and boys are one word, but are two lexical items. )
3、Identification of words词的识别
?Stability: chairman-----manchair unacceptable
?Relative uninterruptibility
By uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even
when there are several parts in a word. * dis appoint ment.
? A minimum free form
4、classification of words词的分类
?Variable and invariable words变化词和非变化词
Variable words----they have inflective changes. Verb, noun and adjective
Invariable words----they do not have inflective endings. Conjunction and preposition
?Grammatical words and lexical words 虚词和实词
Grammatical word----they serve to link together different content parts. Determiner ,
pronoun and preposition
Lexical words-----they carry the main content of a language. Nouns ,verbs and
adjectives
?Closed-class words and open-class words封闭词类和开放词类
Open-class words------it is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.
noun, verb , adjective and adverb
Closed-class words------it is one whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronoun,
preposition, conjunction and article
?Word class（=parts of speech）
Main class---noun pronoun adjective verb adverb preposition conjunction interjection and article numeral
Particles小品词----infinitive maker to not do up
Auxiliaries助动词
Pre-form代形词-----so did there
Determiners限定词
三、word formation构词法-------
1、the inflectional way of formation
Inflection indicates grammatical relation by adding inflectional affixes, which do not change the grammatical class of stems to which they are attached to.
Table—tables talk---talks talked talking boy---boy’s
2、the derivational way of formation
Derivation(word formation), in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how new words are formed.
?Derivation派生词
It shows a relationship between roots and affixes.
?compound合成词
definition-----it refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, two kinds------the endocentric compound向心复合词（偏正结构）seif-control
the exocentric compound离心复合词（动宾结构）cutthroat
?conversion转换法=zero derivation
3、lexical change词汇变化
5、Phonological change音素变化
?Loss laboratory
?Addition
?Metathesis调整
?Assimilation同化
?Dissimilation异化
6、Morpho-syntactical change语法变化
?.Morphological change形态变化
The form of inflectional affixes may also change.
?Syntactical change句法变化
There are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words
7、Semantic change语义变化
?Broadening
?Narrowing
?Meaning shift
?Class shift
?Folk etymology
8、Orthographic change拼写变化
Chapter 4 from word to text
一、syntax句法学
1、definition定义
It is the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures and the study of the rules governing sentence formation.
2、syntactic relations句法关系
●Positional relation(word order)位置关系==horizontal relations chain relations
Syntagmatic relation横组合关系
It refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. F.de saussure
Eg. The boy kicked the ball.(the ball kicked the boy?)
---------a sentence must meet syntactic condition and semantic condition
●Relation of substitutability替换关系
（Saussure）associative relations (Hjemslev)paradigmatic relations纵聚合关系
Vertical relations垂直关系choice relations选择关系
It refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in
sentences with the same structure.同一类型的词所具备的的句法关系
E.g. The -------------(man/boy/girl) smiles
●Relation of co-occurrence共现关系
It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the
occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a determiner or a
particular part of a sentence.
Eg (preceded by) NP (followed by)
A pretty girl smiles
------ a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective and followed
by a verbal phrase.
3、grammatical construction and its constituents语法结构与成分
（1）、Grammatical construction
On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external
外部的句子短语）and internal properties（内部的主谓成份）.
（2）Immediate constituents(IC analysis)直接成份分析
Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience. The IC analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets（圆括号）or shown with a tree diagram树形图法）. E.g.
Poor John ran away. →
(1) ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)).
(2)
Its advantages: the clear demonstration of the internal structure of a construction and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.
Eg.
The sentence leave the book on the shelve may mean put it there or do not touch it.
The son of pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of pharaoh’s son法老儿子的女儿是法老的孙女
（3）、endocentric and exocentric construction
The two main type of analyzing the syntactic constructions
Depends on their distribution and the relation between their constituents
?Endocentric construction 向心结构
An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally
equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents,
which serves as the center, or head, of the whole.
Noun phrases verb phrases adjective phrases
Very late(very---this constituent is subordinate to the Head—late)
These two oldest stone bridges
Will be leaving
two main types--------(depends on the relation between constituents)
----coordination并列：and or (recursiveness)
----subordination从属: modifier two boys swimming in the lake
?Exocentric construction离心结构
The exocentric construction is defined negatively as a construction
whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its
constituents.
Basic construction the boy smiled
prepositional phrase he hid behind the door
predicate(verb+object)construction he kicked the ball.
connective(be+complement)construction John seemed angry
4、syntactic function语法功能
it shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.
?Subject主：it refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case
To be the doer of the action
Grammatical subject and logical subject
?Predicate谓
It refers to a major constituent of sentence in a binary analysis in
which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were
considered together. It usually expresses actions, processes, and states
that relate to the subject.
?Object宾
It refers to the receiver or goal of an anction.
Direct object and indirect object
Case labels: the accusative case for direct object主格
The dative case for indirect object与格
?Predicators谓语结构
?Modifiers修饰语
?Complements补语
5、category语法范畴
it refers to the classes and functions in its narrow sense. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units.
?number数
it is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying
such contrasts as singular and plural.--------nouns
?gender性
it displays contrasts as masculine（男性）feminine （女性）and neuter（中
性）,animate
?case格
the case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the
syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.
Nominative(主格), accusative宾格genitive所有格dative与格（介词）
How to realize a combination of preposition and noun?
---------inflection : teacher—teacher’s
---------following a preposition: with/to a man
--------word order: John kicked Peter; Peter kicked John
?agreement一致关系
subject and predicate主谓一致
determiner and noun修饰词与被修饰词之间
?government
6、phrase, clause and sentence结构类型
7、Recursiveness 递归性--------to extend sentences
?Conjoining连接（并列）
?Embedding嵌入（附和）
8、beyond the sentence(=text linguistic and discourse analysis)篇章结构
?sentential connection
?cohesion
Chapter one Introduction 1.1什么是语言学 1.1.1定义 语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 1.1.2The scope of linguistics语言学分支必考P2 普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学） The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学） The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学） 1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考P3 （1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写 If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language
语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章) Chapter I Introduction I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. 3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. 4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. 5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. 6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 7. 7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. 8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. 9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. 10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. 11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. 12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. 13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. 14. Social changes can often bring about language changes. 15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. 16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar. 18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. 19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language. 20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F.de Saussure. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21. Chomsky defines “ competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language. https://www.doczj.com/doc/1314392889.html,ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the pheno广告网址n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless
查看文章 【收藏】北京大学中文系推荐免试研究生必读书目读后有感 2009-09-29 11:07 北京大学要求不严，北京大学中文系要求不严，它崇尚的是一种学习的自由。但学习在那种大师和名校的气氛中，学习在那种图书众多和无数讲座的亲切交谈中，你自己就已经沐浴在她的朝霞中，你自己就已经在鞭策自己不要辜负了这个学校的名字和那些已逝的大师。 北京大学中文系接受全国优秀免试生为直升研究生，但要经过严格的面试和笔试进行选拔，在北京大学中文系的校园网上它挂出了这些书目。看着这些书目我觉得自己读书是如此的浅薄和单一。我想，与我有同一感想的朋友颇多，遂把它陈列出来，作为我们的参考。 古语有云：修身齐家治国平天。又云，达则兼济天下，穷则独善其身。诸葛亮说：非淡泊无以名志，非宁静无以致远。然后在浮躁的今天，这已经是我们可望不可及的梦想，或者是想像古代文人读书的一种渴望方式。也许，多读几本书还是可以享受一下自己的乐趣，陶冶自己的情操。所以我们不妨读读北京大学中文系的推荐书目，尤其是致力于考研究生的朋友。 很多书我们无法在短时间里面读完，这不要紧，把书名、作者、出版社能够顺利背出来，这也是一件很好的事情。古代很多士大夫的学习和钻研就是从背篇目开始。 附录： 文艺学专业必读书目（推荐免试学生使用） 1．《文心雕龙注》上下范文澜注人民文学出版社 2．《文心雕龙研究史》张少康汪春泓等著北京大学出版社 3．《文学理论的未来》（美）拉尔夫﹒科恩主编中国社会科学出版社4．《苏联文学学学派》彭克巽主编北京大学出版社 5．《路德维希﹒费尔巴哈和德国古典哲学的终结》恩格斯著 人民出版社 6．《批评理论和叙事阐释》詹姆逊文集2 中国人民大学出版社 2004年 7．《文学理论学导论》董学文著北京大学出版社 8．《中国文艺理论百年教程》毛庆耆等著广东高等教育出版社 9．《叙事学与小说文体学研究》申丹著北京大学出版社 10．中外经典文学名著三部 语言学及应用语言学专业必读书目（推荐免试学生使用） 1．《语法答问》朱德熙 2．《现代汉语语法研究》朱德熙 3．《中国文法要略》吕叔湘 4．《汉语语法分析问题》吕叔湘 5．《汉语语法论》高名凯 6．《上古音研究》李方桂 7．《汉语语音史》王力 8．《现代语言学教程》霍凯特
第九章语言与文学 复习笔记 I.文体学 1．定义 文体学作为语言学的分支，主要研究特殊语境中语言的特征 (即语言的多样性)，并试图建立一些规则，以解释个体和社团在语言使用过程中的特殊选择。2．文学文体学 文学文体学是研究语言与文学关系的学科，其研究焦点是与文学文体相关联的语言特征。 (1)前景化 前景化的概念来源于视觉艺术，与“背景”一词相对应，已经成为文体学的常用术语。俄国形式主义语言学家、布拉格学派学者和现代文体学家都曾在文体研究中使用这一术语。它被定义为“以艺术手法为动机的偏离”。这种偏离，或非常规用法，覆盖了语言的所有层面；词汇、语音、句法、语义，笔迹等。(2)字面语言和比喻语言 词典定义中所提供的一个词的第一个意义通常是它的字面意义。比喻语言是为了达到对比、强调、明确或标新的目的而使用的不同于日常常规语言的词句。 语言中表示比喻用法的另一个词是Trope (修辞、比喻)。它是指为了修辞目的而通过比喻途径来使用的语言。比喻在语言运用中频繁出现，并且采用许多不同形式。 明喻：明喻是把一种事物和另一种事物作比较，并通过展现一种事物如何与另一事物相似来解释这种事物是什么样子的方法。它用as或like等词在文本中作为明确标志。
暗喻：像明喻一样，暗喻也是对两个并不相像的要素作出对比，这种对比是隐含的而不是直接表达的。 转喻：一种一个词或词组被另一个与之有紧密联系的词或词组替换的修辞方法。 提喻：提喻是用事物的一部分名称来指代整个事物，反之亦然。 II．诗歌语言 1．语音模式 押韵 尾韵：每行结尾的押韵。 2．不同形式的语音模式 头韵：在头韵里，句首的辅音是一致的。 准押韵：准押韵通过一个共同的元音来描述音节。 辅音韵：以相同辅音结尾的音节 反韵：指音节拥有共同的元音和首辅音，而不是元音和末辅音押韵。 押副韵：当两个音节具有相同的首辅音和尾辅音。 反复：音节的重复。 3．韵律模式 当重读被组织成有规律的节奏时，就形成了韵律。抑扬格是韵律单位的一种。韵律单位叫做音步。pentameter (五音步诗行)是指诗句里有五个音步。 4．传统的韵律模式与语音模式 (1)对句：对句为两行诗句，一般由押韵联系在一起。 (2)四行诗：即四行为一节的诗，是英语诗歌中很常见的形式。
《普通语言学教程》读书笔记 10级汉语3班徐星星100322 本书著者是本世纪最著名、影响最深远的语言学家之一费尔迪南·德·索绪尔，在本书中，他对欧美语言学界所接触到的各种有关原理和方法的问题都作了总结，并且提出了自己独到的见解。这本书的影响也遍及世界。 首先在绪论的第三章中，索绪尔向我们阐释了语言的定义： 语言是一种约定俗成的东西，人们同意使用什么符号，这符号的性质是无关轻重的。即一套和不同的观念相当的不同的符号。人们说话的机能只有借住集体创造和提供的工具才能运用，不管是天赋的或非天赋的。所以说，说语言使言语活动成为统一体，那绝不是什么空想。在索绪尔看来。语言是语言共同成员中的语法体系，言语则是人们平时说的那些话，是依赖于语法系统的说话行为。言语是语言的体现。语言学研究实际语言行为中所潜藏的形式系统，因此，在索绪尔看来，语言学的对象是语言而不是言语。 索绪尔认为，把语言和言语分开，我们就把什么是社会的，什么是个人的，什么是主要的，什么是从属的和偶然的区分开来了。照此看来，语言学家主要的研究对象应该是“语言”、确定构成“语言”的单位及其组合规则，而不是去描写言语活动。“语言”是一个符号的系统，在这个系统中，只有意义和音响的形象的结合是主要的。 索绪尔为了确立语言学的研究对象，区分出“语言”和“言语”，他的“语言”和“言语”理论不仅对本世纪的语言研究的方法产生了深刻的影响，而且还影响着文学和符号学研究。 在第一编中，索绪尔指出语言是一个符号系统。语言是符号学的一部分，他强调语言具有一般符号系统的主要特征。语言与其他一切同类的的符号系统有以下几点共同点。一是目的相同，各种符号系统虽然采用的手段不同，复杂程度不同，但目的都是一样的，都是为了传递信息。二是它们的内涵相同，一切符号系统之所以能传递信息是因为它们与意义相联系。意义是符号的内涵，是符号在使用该系统的人在头脑中激发的概念。三是构成元素相同，无论使用
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.1 Why study language? 1. Language is very essential to human beings. 2. In language there are many things we should know. 3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically. 1.2 What is language? 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness 1.3.2 Duality 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement 1.4 Origin of language
绪论 第一章 A Brief Survey of History of Linguistics institute 建立，实行prescriptive 规范性的Alexandria 亚历山大Philology 语文学inaugurate 倡导scientific 学术上的literary 文学的institution 制度criticism 考订 insofar 只有/在…范围内/达到…程度decipher 解密archaic 古代的problematic 难懂的couch v. 表达、措辞slavishly 如奴隶般的subservient 有帮助的/奉承的antiquity 古代文物affinity 亲属关系furnish 提供elucidation 说明，解释Sanskrit 梵语broader 广阔的sounder 牢固的Paradigm 范例/词性变化（表）Latin 拉丁语hypothesis 假定Vowel 元音Proto-Indo-European 印欧语faithful 如实的 havoc 杂乱，浩劫by chance 偶然，意外Germanic 日耳曼语etymological 词源学comparative mythology 比较神话学school 学派 principle 原理mutual 互相的，共有的codification 法典编纂systematization 系统阐述volume 著作instead of 然而warrant n.授权/搜查证/理由/委任书/证明vt. 批准/成为…的根据/向…论证/[口]断言elude 困惑/躲避exclusive 高级的/排外的/独有的validate 使生效/承认/验证Bizarre 异乎寻常的permissible 可容许的methodological 方法论的Initial stage 初期magnify 放大attest 证明 Restrict 限制，约束Junggrammatiker 新语法学派inadequacy 不足第二章语言的材料和任务；它和毗邻科学的关系
第10章认知语言学 10.1 复习笔记 本章要点: 1. Cognitive linguistics 认知语言学 2. Categorization and categories 范畴化与范畴 3. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy 概念隐喻与转喻 4. Iconicity and grammaticalization 象似性与语法化 常考考点： 认知语言学定义；范畴化与范畴定义分类等；概念隐喻与转喻的定义，层次分类；象似性的分类以及语法化等。 本章内容索引： I. Definition of cognitive linguistics II. Categorization and categories
1. Definition of categorization 2. The classical theory 3. The prototype theory 4. Levels of categorization III. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy 1. Conceptual metaphor 2. Conceptual metonymy IV. Iconicity 1. Iconicity of order 2. Iconicity of distance 3. Iconicity of complexity V. Grammaticalization I. Definition of cognitive linguistics (认知语言学定义) 【考点：名词解释】 Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information. 认知语言学是一种研究自然语言的方法，集中研究语言组织，处理与传达信息的作用。 II. Categorization and categories (范畴化与范畴) 1. Definition of categorization and categories (定义)
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题 第一章：语言学导论 I. Choose the best answer. (20%) 1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human A. contact C. relation B. communication D. community 2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary? A. tree C. crash B. typewriter D. bang 3. The function of the sentence “ Waterboils at 100 degrees Centigrade. i”s A. interrogative C. informative B. directive D. performative 4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say “碎碎(岁岁)平安”asa means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform? A. Interpersonal C. Performative B. Emotive D. Recreational 5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation? A. Transferability C. Displacement B. Duality D. Arbitrariness 6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language? —A nice day, isn 't it? Right! I really enjoy the sunlight. A. Emotive C. Performative B. Phatic D. Interpersonal 7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language usesr knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances. A. Performance C. Langue B. Competence D. Parole 8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now.
第十二章现代语言学理论与流派 复习笔记 I.索绪尔和现代语言学 现代语言学始于瑞士语言学家索绪尔，他被称为“现代语言学之父”和一位“使语言学走向现代的大师”。 索绪尔认为，语言是用声音表达交流思想的符号系统。符号是形式和意义的联合，是表示者和被表示者的结合。符号是语言事实的核心，研究语言必须从符号本身的特性人手。 索绪尔区分了几组重要的概念：能指和所指，语言和言语，共时研究和历时研究等。 II．布拉格学派 布拉格学派的形成可以追溯到马泰休斯领导召开的该学派的第一次会议。1．主要观点及贡献 布拉格学派的研究有三大重点： (1)强调共时研究的合理性，因为它可以提供完整且易掌控的研究材料。 (2)强调语言的系统性，指出任何语言单位都不能在孤立的的情况下得到令人满意的分析及评估。换句话说，语言单位处于功能对比、对立之中。 (3)它将语言看作是在所属语言群体中发挥一系列功能的工具。 2．功能句子观 功能句子观是一套语言学分析理论，它是指用信息论的原理来分析话语或文本。其基本原则就是一句话中各部分起的作用取决于它对全句意义的贡献。 一些捷克语言学家尝试从功能的角度来分析句子。他们相信一个句子包含话
语的出发点和话语的目的。话语的出发点叫做主位，它是说话人和听话人都知道的信息；话语的目的是说话人要向听话人传递的信息，叫做述位。从主位到述位的运动揭示了大脑本身的运动。 功能句子观旨在研究话语中新(未知)、旧 (已知)信息的分布问题。已知信息指那些对于听话人不再是新信息的部分；新信息是即将向听话人传达的信息。句子中主语一谓语的分布不总是与主位一述位的分布一致。 3．交际能力 另一种版本的分析法叫做交际能力，由费尔巴斯提出。他用交际动力表示句子成分对交际发展所起的作用。 费尔巴斯把功能句子观解释为不同程度的交际力的分布。他认为，句子前面部分承载的交际力最低，然后逐步增加，直到交际力最大的成分。 Ⅲ．伦敦学派 1．介绍 伦敦学派专门用来称呼独具英国特色的语言学研究。弗斯使语言学在英国完全成为一门公认的科学。弗斯主要受人类学家马林诺夫斯基影响，而后他又影响了他的学生韩礼德。三人都强调“语言环境”和语言“系统”的重要性。因此，伦敦学派也被称为系统语言学和功能语言学。 2．马林诺夫斯基的理论 (1)语言是一种行为模式，而不是什么与思想相对应的东西。 (2)话语意义并不来源于构成话语的词的意义，而是来源于话语发生的上下义之间的关系。其断言是根据两大观察结果得出的： ①在原始社会团体中，书写并不存在，语言只有一种使用方法。 在所有人类社会中，孩子以此种方法习得语言。
南开大学中文系阅读书目 一、语言学类 普通语言学教程（瑞士〕索绪尔著高名凯译 语言（法）房德里耶斯著岑麟祥、叶蜚声译 语言论（美〕布龙菲尔德著袁家骅等译 语法哲学（丹麦）叶斯柏森著何勇等译 马克思主义与语言学问题（苏联）斯大林著李立三等译语言分析纲要（美）布洛赫、特雷杰著赵世开译） 句法结构（美）诺姆乔姆斯基著邢公畹等译 现代语言学教程（美）霍凯特著索振羽、叶蜚声译 西方语言学名著选读胡明扬主编 国外语言学概述一流派和代表人物赵世开主编 语言论高名凯著 语言学纲要叶蜚声、徐通锵著语言学概论马学良主编 语言学概论石安石、詹人凤著普通语音学纲要罗常培、王均著 世界字母简史周有光著 历史语言学徐通锵著 语义论石安石著 汉藏语概论马学良主编邢公畹等著 文化语言学邢福义主编 语言学史概要岑麟祥著 中国语言学史王力著 中国理论语言学史邵敬敏、方经民著 二、现代汉语类 现代汉语教程邢公畹主编现代汉语（增订本）胡裕树主 编 现代汉语参考资料胡裕树主编 现代汉语语音概要吴宗济主编 语音常识董少文著 汉语词汇讲话周祖谟著 现代汉语同汇符淮青著 汉语描写词汇学刘叔新著 词语的意义和结构周荐著 同义词语和反义词语刘叔新、 周荐著 同义词语的研究周荐著 胡同及其他张清常著 异文化的使者——外来词史有 为著 中国现代语法王力著 中国语法理论王力著 汉语语法纲要王了一（王力） 著 中国文法要略吕叔湘著 双语语法分析问题吕叔湘著 现代汉语语法讲话丁声树著 汉语口语语法赵元任著吕叔 湘译 语法答问朱德熙著 语法讲义朱德熙著 八十年代中国语法研究陆俭明 著 汉语语法专题研究高更生著 汉语词法论陈光磊著 汉语动同和动词性结构马庆株 著 现代汉语句型李临定著 现代汉语特殊句式宋玉柱著 现代汉语复句新解王维贤等著 现代汉语祈使句研究袁毓林著 现代汉语空语类研究沈阳著 语法修辞讲话吕叔湘、朱德熙 著 实用语法修辞于根元、苏培实、 徐枢、饶长溶著 修辞学发凡陈望道著 现代汉语修辞学张弓著 语篇的衔接与连贯胡壮麟著 汉语方言概要袁家骅著 汉语方言调查基础知识邢公畹 著 现代汉语方言詹伯慧著 汉语方言调查手册李荣编著 方言调查字表（修订本）中国 社会科学院语言研究所编 中国文字学唐兰著 文字学概要裘锡圭著 汉字改革概论周有光著 三、古代汉语类 汉语史稿王力著 古代汉语（修订本）王力主编 古代汉语教程解惠全主编 说文解字（东汉）许慎著 说文解字注（清）段玉裁撰 说文通训定声（清）朱骏声著 文字蒙求（清）王筠著 说文解字通论陆宗达著 广韵（北宋）陈彭年等著 中原音韵（元）周德清著 汉语音韵学导论罗常培著 汉语音韵王力著 汉字古音手册郭锡良著 诗词格律王力著 释名（东汉）刘熙著 尔雅义疏（清）郝懿行著 尔雅今注徐朝华著 广雅疏证（清）王念孙著 经义述闻（清）王引之著 古书疑义举例（清）俞樾著 训诂简论陆宗达著 古汉语词汇纲要蒋绍愚著 经传释词（清）王引之著 助字辨略（清）刘淇著 马氏文通（清）马建忠著 古汉语语法及其发展杨伯峻 何乐士著 社科中文工具书使用邓宗荣著
《普通语言学教程》读书会心得 近一个月来,大家都在为这次读书会进行忙碌的准备。下午听完各位同学不同的观点,有受益匪浅的地方,有值得学习的地方,也有可以讨论、不确定的地方,甚至反驳的地方。 值得一提,也就是值得思考的就是,几乎所有同学对这本书的普遍反映就就是——瞧不懂。有瞧了整本书三遍以上还就是觉得很费解的同学,也有反反复复的瞧很多遍绪言却还就是没懂,卡在绪言部分的同学。大家都非常用心的读了这本著作,却也被其中谈到的哲学、心理学、地理学、甚至物理学的东西的搞得头晕眼花,我也就是如此。借用今天读书会上一位同学的话说,“哲学系的同学跟我说想瞧懂这本书就要先学懂哲学,于就是,我就借了一本哲学书瞧,可就是瞧不懂。心理学的同学跟我说,想要瞧懂这本书就要先学心理学,我又借了一本心理学的书,还就是瞧不懂。无奈,我又去借了一本微心理学的书,瞧就是瞧懂了,可就是发现跟语言学没什么关系”。这足以说明索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》这本书涉猎学科之广泛,蕴藏知识之深奥。再借用另外一名同学在读书会上讲到的一个小笑话为例,她说她曾在朋友圈发表一条状态,她的某位学经济的同学就是这样评论的,“索绪尔说:‘您的结构有问题’。乔姆斯基说:‘亲爱的,别听她的,结构这玩意儿就就是一坨屎。’”。可见,这本书不仅仅就是学语言的人需要读的著作,也吸引着其她很多学科的人了解它,认识它,潜心研究。 先以我个人的观点为例谈谈我对这本书的内容的感触。与其她同学一样,《普通语言学教程》之于我也就是非常难理解的一部著作,其中涉猎的学科之广,有些就是我从未接触与涉及过的领域,以现阶段的学识基础,读起来真的就是非常有难度。那么,就我现阶段知识结构来说说关于书中第三章“地理差异的原因”——基本原因:时间的浅显认识吧。索绪尔提出语言有地理差异的原因的基本原因就是时间。相信很多同学瞧到这里都会有疑问,我也就是如此,一谈到语言的地理差异,第一反应认为基本原因就就是空间差异,因为去了另外一个地方,受到当地人、事、环境、习俗等等的影响,语言才会出现差异。抱着这种疑问并且不服气的心态瞧了这章内容,不得不说,我被索绪尔的理论说服了,也被自己曾经历过的实践说服了。由于大学时读英语专业,自己有着很深切学习另一门语言的感受,加之对英美文化背景的了解,让我更容易理解与赞同索绪尔提出的——言地理差
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax 1. What is syntax? Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 2. What is phrase structure rule? The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP →(Det) N (PP) ... VP →(Qual) V (NP) ... AP →(Deg) A (PP) ... PP →(Deg) P (NP) ... We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P. 3. What is category? How to determine a word's category? Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. 若详细回答，则要加上： Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving. The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.
Chapter 1 Introductions to Linguistics I. Choose the best answer. (20%) 1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________ A. contact B. communication C. relation D. community 2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary？ A. tree B. typewriter C. crash D. bang 3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is __________. A. interrogative（疑问） B. directive C. informative D. performative 4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform？ A. Interpersonal B. Emotive C. Performative√ D. Recreational 5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation？ A. Transferability B. Duality C. Displacement D. Arbitrariness 6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language？ —A nice day, isn’t it？ — Right! I really enjoy the sunlight. A. Emotive B. Phatic C. Performative D. Interpersonal 7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances. A. Performance B. Competence C. Langue D. Parole 8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________. A. cultural transmission B. productivity C. displacement D. duality 9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language. A. Psycholinguistics linguistics C. Sociolinguistics D. Applied linguistics 10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education. A. Linguistic theory B. Practical linguistics C. Applied linguistics D. Comparative linguistics II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not 12. Language change is universal, ongoing and ？ 13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication ？ 14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all