Unit One What is Lexicology?
Lexicology It is a branch of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of a language and the properties of words as the main units of language.
Word It is the basic unit of speech and minimal free form which has a given sound and meaning and grammatical function.
The relationship between sound and meaning is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to this cluster of sounds for such an animal.
分类Words may fall into basic word stock and non-basic by use frequency; content words and functional words by notion, native words or borrowed words by origin.
Basic words stable and indispensable
characteristics
1 All national character:.
2 Stability:
3 Productivity.
4 Polysemy:
5 collocability .
Non-basic words：Terminology术语Slang俚语Jargon行话Argot 隐语Dialectal words方言Archaisms古词Neologisms新词
functional words , like :prep. conj. Auxilaries and articles… They don‘t have notion of their own. Content (notional) words constitute the main body of English vocabulary. They are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.
Native words: Anglo-Saxon words, small in number, the core of the language, neutral in style, frequent in use.
Borrowed words: are words taken over from other languages
e.g. chaos, dogma, drama, pneumonia ---Greek. hymn, pope, martyr, monk, anthem, shrine, creed –old E Cradle, bald, slogan, flannel, down ---- Celtic Balcony, corridor, attack, cannon, opera---Italy
vocabulary
---all the words in a language together, all items in a dictionary.
5. Exercises:
1) Which of the following is not true? A
a. A word is the smallest form of a language.
b. A word is a sound unity.
c. A word has a given meaning.
d. A word can be used freely in a sentenc
e.
2) The differences between sound and form are due to D
a. the fact of more phonemes than letters in English
b. stabilization of spelling by printing
c. influence of the work of scribes
d. innovations made by linguists
3) Complete the following sentences:
a. There is no intrinsic relationship between sound and meaning, The connection between them is ___arbitrary__ and conventional.
b. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are more ___stable__. Functional words enjoy a higher frequency in use than content words.
Unit Two Word Formation
1.The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation。The most productive ways of word-formation are affixation, compounding and conversion.
2.Morpheme is the smallest component of a word which contributes to its meaning. Take ―read-er‖for example. –er is attached to a word read . Read cannot be separated any more. Thus it is called a free morpheme; –er cannot stand alone, thus is called bound morpheme. bound root is
a bound form that has to combine with other morphemes to make words.
An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs,which represent one morpheme
Affixation（词缀法）：is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.( This process is also known as derivation).
Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding to prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of stem but only modify (change) its meaning.
Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stem. Suffixation have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems( the word class).
exercises:
1) a minimal meaningful unit of a language ( morpheme )
2) one of the variants that realize a morpheme ( allomorph)同位语素
3) a morpheme that occurs with at least one other morpheme( bound morpheme)粘着语素
4) a morpheme that can stand alone ( free morpheme )
5) a morpheme attached to a stem or root （affix）
6）an affix that indicates grammatical relationships ( inflectional affix )
7) an affix that forms new words with a stem or a root. ( derivational affix )派生词缀
8) what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes ( root ) 词根
Unit Three Basic Formation of Words and Others
Compounding (Composition) The formation of new words by joining two or more stems is called compounds There are different ways to compound English words: (three major ways)
1. Noun compounds:N+n: chairperson, prep+n: byproduct A.+ n: deadline, N+v: toothache, N+v+ing: air-conditioning, V+ing +n: walking stick Adv+ v: outbreak, V+adv.:sit-in,
2. Adjective compounds: N+v-ing: record-breaking ,A+v+ing: easy-going, Adv+v+ing: out-going, N+v+ed: poverty-stricken N(a)+n+ed: short-sighted Num+n+ed:four-legged; N+a: duty-free…
3. Verb compounds: lip-reading, mass-production→to lip read, mass-produce. As is shown by the examples, back-formed verbs are formed by dropping the suffixes.
III. Conversion:
Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words from one class to another class. These words are new only in a grammatical sense, with no morphological structure or meaning change but functional change
IV．Other ways.
The most productive way of forming English words are affixation, compounding and conversion, however, there are still some other ways like shortening, clipping, acronymy and blending, etc at work in the expansion of vocabulary in modern English. P35
1. Clipping（缩略法）is a common way of making a word by cutting a part off a longer word and using what remains instead. 1) Front clipping: areoplane---plane;2) Back clipping: photograph---photo,; 3) Front and back clipping: refrigerator—fridge;
2. Acronyms（首字母拼音词）are words formed in the process of joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms, which are widely used in science and modern computerized world. They can be pronounced as a normal word. Radar: radio detecting and ranging; NATO: the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
3. Blending(拼缀法): is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus
a part of another word,etc. There are many ways of blending: For example: smog—smoke +fog; motel---motor+hotel, comsat--- communications+ satellite; telecast---television+ broadcast.
4. Back-formation(逆生法)：As we know, suffixes is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to base, while back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. 5．Exercises:
1) Compounds are words formed by combing suffixes and stems. ( F )
2) As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element. ( T )
3) The meaning of a compound is usually the combination of the stems. ( F )
4) A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed. ( T )
5) Conversion refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class. ( T)
6) Words mainly involved in conversion are nouns, verbs and adverbs. ( F)
7) An alternative for conversion is functional shift. ( T)
Unit Four Word Meaning
We know that a word is the combination of form and meaning. Meaning is what the form stands for. ‘triangle of word sense’(word—concept—thing triangle)(词义三角) denies a direct relationship between a word and the concrete object in the world. Words have no meaning, people have meaning for them.
sense: Every word that has meaning has sense, but not every word has reference.
Meaning is concrete, sense is abstract.Sense denotes the relationships inside the language. It refers to its place in a system of semantic relationships.
Reference is the relationship between language and the world. So the reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. But ?meaning‖ is not as simple as it seems to be.
Concept In many cases, meaning is used in the sense of concept，which is beyond the symbol , is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. So a concept can have many referring expressions in different languages and cultures and stylistics. Only through a spe aker’s mind can concrete relationship be established.
4. What is motivation ? (理据)
Motivation refers to the internal connection between the linguistic symbol (or sign) and its meaning.Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）suggests the meanings of certain words by there sounds; Morphological motivation(形态理据) refers to the compound or the derived words when the meaning of the word can be figured out since many of them are the sum total of the multi-morphemic words. Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and the figurative sense of the word. . Etymological Motivation may relate us directly to the history of the word. ?Pen‘ may suggests ?feather‘ , whi ch we used as a tool to write.
5．Exercises:
1) ―He is fond of the bottle.‖ is based on _semantic motivation and the word ―airmail‖ is based on _morphological_ motivation.
2）_Meaning_ is what the form of the word stands for. A word is the combination of form_ and meaning. Words are but __symbols_, many of which have meaning only when they have acquired __reference__ , that is the relationship between language and the world.
3) Word-meaning is not monogeneous but a composite, consisting of different parts. A word may one type of meaning or a combination of types. Some meanings are _constant__ and others may be transient, existing only in actual context.
5) Words have both grammatical meaning and __lexical_ meaning. Grammatical meaning s refer to their functions as part of speech, singular and plural form, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms, such as forget-forgot-forgotten-forgetting, which are very important in actual context. __Lexical_ meaning is constant in all the content words within or without context as it is related to the notion the word conveys. Lexical meaning it self has two components: ___conceptual__ meaning and associative meaning.
Unit 5 Word Meaning
Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning. Conceptual meaning(概念意义) (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning.
Associate meaning(关联意义)is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. Associative meaning comprises four types: connotative meaning, stylistic meaning, affective meaning, and collocative meaning.
connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations which a word suggests or implies. Affective meaning indicates the speaker‘s attitude towards the person or thing in question. Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation. Componential Analysis(语义成份分析), according to Leech, is the process of breaking down the word sense of a word into its minimal https://www.doczj.com/doc/2d1528617.html,ponent analysis is a useful and revealing technique for demonstrating relations of meaning between words. Knowing the semantic features of a word helps one grasp exactly the coverage of its conceptual meaning.
A semantic field is a term of semantics. It refers to a meaning area where words of the same concept or the same classification congregated in one field.
Pragmatic meaning of words refers to the meaning in context. Pragmatic meaning aims at the meaning in use, so it is dynamic. The basic features of pragmatic meaning 1) Primary meaning adhesive 2）Personal experienced 3）Unstable4）Temporary
Context refers to the condition or the back ground how a word is used. It can be divided into linguistic context and non-linguistic context.context is the necessary condition of pragmatic meaning. Its appropriateness depends on culture and social situation.
In order to suit different context. it is necessary to extend or shorten the overtone of the word conceptual meaning.
Exercises:
1) Motivation explains why a particular form has a particular meaning.( T )
2) Grammatical meaning refers to the part of speech, tenses of verbs and stylistic features of words. ( F )
3) Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate. ( T )
4) Affective meaning refers to the part of the word-meaning which indicates the attitude of the user. ( T )
5) Collocation can affect the meaning of words. ( T )
6) In the phrase ?the tongues of fire, , the word fire is semantically motivated. ( F )
7) By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word is related to its origin. ( T )
8) The connotative meaning is also known as connotations , which are generally found in the dictionary ( F )
Unit Six Sense Relations of Words
1. Synonymy（同义关系）:
Types of Synonyms: Absolute synonyms ,Relative synonyms
Discrimination of Synonyms (辨析) As relative synonyms always differ in one way or another, the differences exist in denotation( 概念); emotion and style and their different collocation. .
a. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meanin g or different degrees of a given quality.
b. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic reference.
c. Many synonyms have clear affective values. T ake result/ consequence ；
d. Some words are collocationally restricted. For example: a flock of sheep/
Synonymy deals with words that are the _same_ or _nearly __ the same in meaning. The words which are fully __identical _in meaning are called _absolute__ synonyms and all others are _relative_ synonyms. _Absolute__ synonyms are interchangeable whereas __relative__ synonyms differ in such areas as _denotation__, __connotation_,(stylistic and affective), and __application_.
2. Antonymy: is concerned with semantic opposition.
Contraries(相对反义词/两极反义词)Complementaries (绝对反义词/互补反义词)Conversives (换位反义词/关系反义词)Semantic incompatibles(多项不相容词)
Exercises: Decide whether the following statements are true or false:
1) Word which have opposite meanings are called antonyms( T).
2) Contradictory term s don‘t show degree. ( T).
3) Relatives terms are relational opposites, which include verbs reversing action of each other. T
4) Contrary terms are non-gradable and allow intermediated members in between.( F )
5) If a word has synonyms, naturally it has antonyms. ( F )
6) The unmarked terms of an antonymous pair often covers the meaning of the marked. ( T)
7) Antonyms should be opposites of similar intensity. ( T)
8) Antonymy deals with the relationship of semantic opposition. (T )
3.Polysemy多义关系: When the same symbol is used to express different phenomenon, the result is polysemy. Words have a number of different aspects according to the contexts in which they are used. Some of these aspects are purely e ph emeral(短暂的) ; The various meanings of the same word developed from two different angles: diachronic（历时）and synchronic(共时).
Exercises: Fill in the blanks: .
Polysemy is the _result _ of long semantic development of a word. Diachronicallly, a polysemant was _monosemic_when it was first created and it became __polysemic__gradually when it acquired more and more meanings later on. The first meaning was the __primary_ meaning and the rest were __derived_ from it. Synchronically, a __polysemant__has a number of meanings that _coexist__ at the same time. Among them there is a __central__meaning which is the __primary_meaning, and the rest are all _related_ to it in one way or another and can be ___traced_back to the central meaning.
4. Homonymy 同形异义关系
Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical in sound and spelling.
Homonyms fall into three classes: perfect homonyms; homographs and homophones.
4.4 Exercise:
Decide whether the statements below are true or false:
1) Perfect homonyms share the same spelling and pronunciation. T
2) Homonyms come mainly from borrowing, changes in the sound and spelling and dialects. \F
3) Homonyms are words whose meanings are closely related.F
4) The origins of words whose meanings are key factor in distinguishing homonyms from
polysemants. T
5) Mosthomonyms are words that are the same in spelling, but differ in sound and meaning. F 5. Hyponymy (上下义关系)deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. It refers to the relationship which obtains between the genus (general lexical item)and the species(specific lexical items).The general lexical item is called the superordinate(上义词).The specific words are known as hyponyms(下义词) or subordinates .
Changes in Word Meaning
Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language, changing in word has never ceased since the language came into being There are probably two major factors
that cause changes in meaning.
1 Internal linguistic factors: The changes of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the langua ge system. With the advancement of science and the improvement of people‘s acknowledgment and understanding of the world , some words embrace broader meaning. Changes take place through the process of extension, degradation, elevation , narrowing, and transfer.
2. The extra-linguistic factors。The changes of meaning may be caused by internal factors。Usually there are historical,social and psychological in the extra-linguistic.
Collocation Firth uses a less technical expression for this term—―the mutual exp ectancy of words,‖ He said that You shall know a word by the company it keeps. For example ―ass‖ in ―You silly ass‖. You may use a limited set of adjectives such as silly, obstinate, stupid, awful…Thus keeping company is called collocation. Collocation must satisfy a certain syntactic ,idiomatic and pragmatic purpose.
Chomsky handles collocation within the framework of grammar(or syntax) . That is based on the grammatical rules and the semantic features of lexical items.
English Idioms They are characterized by semantic unity and structural stability. It is a set expression made up of two or more words. They consist of set phrases and short sentences, loaded with native cultures and ideas. Therefore, idioms are colourful, forcible and thought- provoking. idioms may include colloquialisms, catchphrases（名言）, slang expressions and proverbs, etc.
2007年第2期俄语语言文学研究2007, №2 总第16期Russian Language and Literature Studies Serial №16 俄罗斯的认知语言学研究 赵国栋 （黑龙江大学，哈尔滨150080；解放军外国语学院，洛阳471003） 提要：俄罗斯学者在继承本国心理学、语言学研究传统的基础上，积极引介西方认知研究成果，形成了具有俄罗斯特色的认知语言学研究版本。俄罗斯认知语言学在语言与知识、语言与感知、语言的世界图景、概念与概念化等问题的解决上做出了很大贡献。除此之外，它对认知语言学的性质以及诸多传统语言学问题也提出了独特的阐释。 关键词：认知；知识；感知；世界图景；概念 中图分类号：H0-06 文献标识码：A 诞生于20世纪80年代的美国和欧洲的认知语言学，成为当今语言学的重要研究内容。各国语言学家在积极学习研究这些新理论、新成果的同时，还结合本国的语言学研究传统，形成了各具特色的认知语言学研究版本。本文主要对俄罗斯的认知语言学研究进行概述。 1 认知语言学在俄罗斯的形成与发展 1.1 认知思想在俄罗斯传统研究中的体现 В.З.Демьянков, Е.С.Кубряков指出：认知语言学将语言看作在信息编码和转化中起重要作用的认知机制来研究。（Е.С.Кубрякова 1996：53—55）尽管认知语言学形成的历史并不长，但认知语言学的研究对象——语言辅助下信息的获得和处理——早在19世纪初俄罗斯学者就有所描述。 А.А.Потебня在研究洪堡特的民族精神理论时就承认，语言的起源问题实际上就是关于发生在语言之前的精神生活的现象问题，就是关于语言的形成、发展问题，关于语言对之后的精神活动的影响问题，也就是纯粹的心理学问题。（А.А.Потебня1993：38）他已经认识到语言在认知新内容、形成和发展关于世界的人类知识中的作用。 И.А.Бодуэн де Куртенэ似乎将认知语言学的研究对象表达得更为清楚。他指出：透过语言思维，可以阐明存在和非存在的领域中所有有关世界表现的完整独特的语言知识，这其中不仅包括物质世界的知识，而且还包括个体世界、社会世界的知识。（И.А.Бодуэн де Куртенэ 1963：312） 如果以上两位学者的观点仅仅是认知思想的早期萌芽，那么维果斯基关于思维的基本理论则促进了认知语言学的形成和发展。他创立了“文化历史发展理论”，用以解释人类心理在本质上与动物不同的高级心理活动。他最早提出了外部动作“内化”为智力活动的理论，认为符号的运用使心理活动得到根本改进。没有语言的心理活动是“直接的，不随意的，低级的，自然的”，只有掌握语言后才能转变为“间接的、任意的、高级的、社会历史的”。他
Conversion 1.Definition of Conversion Conversion / Functional shift/ Transmutation （转化法/功能转换法/转移法）is the word-formation by converting words of one class into another class (part of speech) without adding any affix. It is also called derivation by zero suffix (零位后缀派生法) zero derivation(零位派生法). 2.Features of Conversion (P29) 3.Types of Conversion 1)Conversion to Verbs De-nominal (nouns →verbs) (7 types) De-adjective (adjectives →verbs) : To make…/to become… 2)Conversion to Nouns De-verbal (verbs → nouns ) (5 types) De-adjective (adjectives →nouns) Full conversion: both as nouns and adjectives Partial conversion: the+adj. Miscellaneous 3)Conversion to Adjectives: Nouns as attributives and predicatives Miscellaneous
现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料c h a p t e r 文件管理序列号：[K8UY-K9IO69-O6M243-OL889-F88688]
Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning 9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change 9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of Words Definition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words. 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning A.Historical cause 历史原因 It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed . *Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science. Eg. pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a “pencil”. atom ==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos,invisible. Thus atom meant originally “an particle too small to be divided”. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split.
英语词汇学怎么考英语词汇学必背知识 点 英语词汇学考试难吗？那么该课程怎么考？要知道英语考试并不是一蹴而就的，所以考前应该日记月累的学习，在最后考试的时候才能更好的通过考试，我们来看看英语词汇学必背知识点吧。 英语词汇学怎么考 英语词汇学是一门理论知识课，每个知识点应该说都重要，所以重点和一般本来就难以界定。从掌握知识来说，不要去分重点和一般，对每章每节都要以搞懂弄通为原则。 1、考前重点词汇复习方法 要知道语法填空重点考查的词：动词、形容词、副词和派生词。其中重点是动词，要把考点的设置与拼写的可能形式结合起来(如从谓语动词的角度来看，就要 考虑动词的时态、语态和主谓一致所带来的动词变化。其中过去式是考查重点，所以对动词的过去式，尤其是不规则动词的过去式和过去分词的拼写，自然就成为后期复习的重点。至于另外三大词类也完全可以如此类推。
2、词汇积累学习
加强短文背诵，增强“词不离句”意识。背诵是非常原始的英语学习方法，但也是非常积极、有效的学习方法。优选一些名家名篇，做为背诵的素材;或从课文中精选一些精悍之作，作为研习的精典，不但能够迅速提高语感，而且容易激发兴趣，形成活生生的词库，为单词的准确使用打下良好的基础。 3、英语主观题拿分技巧 首先是单词拼写，这是所有题目中考生得分最低的一个部分，通常平均分不超过3分，所以大家不要太在意，20个单词，对4个，能有2分就很不错了，如果想要提高这部分，大家还要有准备的背单词，因为这里面的单词，并不全是课本课后单词表的单词，其中很多都是以前在中学学过的，所以要准备这一部分，需要的是买一本自考英语的词汇大纲，按里面的词汇背记才有意义。 如果大家对英语词汇学课程学习有难度，那么可以通过在线视频学习的，以上三点就是学赛小编对英语词汇学必背知识点学习方法，希望大家能更好的学习。 点击进入>>>
认知语言学 认知科学囊括：认知心理学、认知社会学、认知语言学、认知人类学、认知行为学、认知考古学，等等。认知语言学包括：认知音位学、认知词汇学、认知词典学、认知语法、认知语义学、认知语用学、认知语篇学、认知诗学，等等。认知语言学中虽然有不同的理论方法，但具有共同的理论原则。认知语言学的核心假说是，语言能力是人的认知能力的一部分，是一个结构有序的由有意义的语言构式组成的清单库，与社会、文化、心理、交际、功能相互作用。 标签：认知科学认知语言学认知语言学研究 认知语言学是一门研究语言的普遍原则和认知规律之间关系的语言学流派。认知语言学的研究已经渗透到语言的各个层面，渗透到语言学的各个分支领域。认知语言学是认知取向、解释取向、语义取向、共性取向，这是语言研究史上的重大发展，有利于揭示语言的本质和奥秘，向实现语言理论最终追求的目标又迈进了一步。 认知语言学分为认知语义和认知语语法两大领域。这两个领域互相支持，相辅相成。认知语义学注重研究语义的理据性，强调语言意义的体验性，以体验哲学为它的哲学基础。认知语法注重研究句法的理据性。 一、认知科学 20世纪50年代，在欧美国家爆发了一场认知革命，诞生了一门新兴学科——认知科学。认知科学是综合哲学、心理学、人类学、语言学、脑科学、神经生理学和计算机科学的新兴学科，其主要学术任务和目标是探究人脑的信息加工及处理机制，了解人脑的工作原理和运行规律。认知科学的主要指导原则是将人脑看成类似于计算机处理符号和加工信息的系统。（卢植，2006：2） 认知（cognition）一词源自拉丁语，是指人们获得知识或学习的过程。《辞海》（1999年版）释义为：“认知就是认识，指认识客观事物，获得知识的活动。”认知科学是关于心智或智能跨学科的研究与探讨。 1.认知科学是要全方位地揭示人的认知能力的形成和发展，要对认知活动的原理、机制作出理论概括，以期揭示人的心智活动的本质。 2.认知科学要研究认知系统的构成。一般认为，认知系统主要包括感觉知觉范畴系统、抽象概念范畴系统、意象形象范畴系统和语言符号范畴系统。认知能力是在这四个认知分系统的发育和协调中发展起来的。这一假说意味着语言能力是人的整体认知能力的一部分。 3.认知科学认为，认知活动是人的大脑同外部世界以互动形式进行信息加工的活动，人的认知不是对外部事物纯粹的、客观的、直接的反映；大脑有认知图
词汇学的基本知识 词汇学是研究词语的学问，它是传统语言学（语法、语音、词汇）的一个分支。词汇学的 主要研究的内容是：词的性质、词的构成、词义的本质及发展、词的各种关系（同音、同 义、反义等）。 一、什么是词 词是有意义的能够独立运用的造句的最小单位，它具有固定的语音形式。汉语词的划分有一 定的困难，因为在书写时词和词之间是不分开的。就“独立运用”而言，许多虚词和量词是 不能独立运用的。于是增加了一条补充，一句话中把能独立运用的词划分出去，剩写的也是词。如：“我把这本书包了个书皮。”这个句子中的“本”“个”和“把”也是词。汉语中词 和短语的界限也不很清楚。一般可以用扩展插入法来区分。能插入的是短语，不能插入的是 词（意义不能变）。比如：钢笔——钢的笔、白菜——白的菜、白布——白的布、吃饭——吃 了饭、鸡蛋——鸡的蛋、睡觉——睡不睡觉。“钢笔”不能插入词，“白菜”插入后意思变了，它们肯定是词。“白布”可以插入且意思不变，可以做为短语。“吃饭”可以插入，“鸡蛋”可 以插入，但“鸡蛋”的频度很高，可以把它做为词。睡觉可以插入，但两个语素的组合是固 定的，把这类词做为离合词（理发、洗澡、打仗等）。 一个语素（有意义的汉字）能独立运用就是词。（米、吃、红、个、从） 两个语素组合后，意义不是它们的简单相加，就是词。（钢笔、金鱼、） 两个语素组合后，不能扩展插入词，就是词。（钢笔，白菜） 两个语素组合后，虽能扩展插入词，但它们是不能用别的语素替换的，则是一种特殊的词 ——离合词。 两个语素组合后，虽能扩展插入词，但它们的使用频度很高，且大家约定俗成认为它是词。（“鸡蛋”是词、“鹰蛋”就有人认为是短语）。 综上所述，汉语的词与短语之间的界限是有模糊地带的。 人们对客观世界的认识形成了概念，词是反映概念的，但它们之间的关系不是一一对应的。 比如，“月亮”、“月球”对应的是一个概念，“人民”这个词可以对应不同的概念。 二、现代汉语词汇的构成 词汇由词和固定的短语——熟语、谚语等构成。 词可以从不同的角度分类： 1.语法分类——实词、虚词（词类） 2.结构分类——单纯词、合成词 3.音节分类——单音节词、多音节词 4.常用——常用词汇（基本词汇）、一般词汇 5.口语词汇——书面词汇 6.普通话词汇——方言词汇 7.汉语词汇——外来语词汇 8.古词语——新词语 熟语可以包括成语、谚语、歇后语等。成语表意凝炼、形象，在书面语中广泛运用。它来源 于古代的典故，有的选取原句中最能概括原句意思的成分（乘风破浪——愿乘长风，破万里浪），有的用四个字概括寓言、故事等（刻舟求剑、狐假虎威），有的增加个别字（短兵相接——车错毂兮短兵接）。成语的意思有的是语素义的简单相加（汗流浃背、无稽之谈、自圆其说）；多数成语的意思不是语素义的相加，有的意思是约定俗成的（高山流水——表示知己知音），有的是取字面的比喻义（水落石出——比喻真相毕露了）。
张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》——解析 第一部分Chapter Ⅰ 英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary) Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。随着词汇学的发展跟完善。人们给词下了较为完整的定义。“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社） 一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。 英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。 第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ 英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation ) (一) 词素（Morphemes） 单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。词素跟音素（phoneme）不同，词素必须同时具备声音和意义两方面，而音素只需要发出声音即可。如k 和u 只是音素，因为它们没有什么具体含义。而a 和i 分别存在于单词tame 和time 中是音素，但当a是定冠词和i表示第一人称时它们则是词素。词素并不等同于音节（syllable ），因为音节并没有什么具体含义。如单词dis·a·gree·a·ble有五个音节却只有三个语素（dis + agree + able ）。词素有不同的形式，同一语素的不同形式即语素变体。 词素可以分为自由词素（free morphemes）和黏着词素（bound morphemes）。自由词素可以单独成为单词，而黏着词素则必须要依附于其他的词素，如-ly , -ness。 词素又可以分为词根和词缀。词根是单词中表示含义的成分，可以是自由或者黏着词素。词缀只能是黏着词素，它又可以分为屈折词缀（inflectional affixes）和派生词缀（derivational affixes ）。屈折词缀跟语法有关，派生词缀又可以分为前缀跟后缀，这都是构成新单词的重要元素。从词素的层面来说，词可以分类为简单词，复杂词以及合成词。词素在词的构成中取到非常重要的作用，因为构词的二大过程----合成和附加都涉及到了词素，前者是词素的联合，后者是黏着词素附加到自由词素上。 (二) 词的构成（word-formation） 1/5页 有很多种途径可以构成词汇，大的方面主要有合成法（compounding），派生法(derivation)和转换法(conversion)三种，小的方面主要有八个过程，分别是首字母法(acronym)，混合法(blending)，截短法(clipping)，专有名词(word from proper names)，逆构法(back-formation)，复制法(reduplication)，新古典法(neo-classical famation)以及混杂法(miscellaneous)。
Explain the following terms 一1) free morpheme/ A free morpheme is one that can be uttered发出，表达alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. In the traditional sense, a free morpheme is a word. 例如hand ,eat, get 2) bound form/never used as sentences. – ess in countess, lioness and duchess –ish in boyish, childish and greenish –s in hats, books and cups 3) function words/ function words are often short words, they do not have much lexical meaning and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own; They are often short words such as determiners限定词, conjunctions连词, prepositions介词, auxiliaries辅助物, and so forth. 如to, the , of , by 4) content words实词/ They are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. They are the nouns, main verbs, adjectives形容词and adverbs副词of a language. 二1) syntheti c综合的language / inflectional grammatical markers, French, German and Russian. 2) analytic language/word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs , English and Chinese 3) Indo-European family of languages/ Europe and parts of Southern Asia Eight groups 三1) morphemes /The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible可分的or analyzable into smaller forms. 2) allomorphs/variants变体of the same morphem如im-, ir-, il- : allomorphs of the morpheme in- 3) root / is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. work able, work er, work ed, and work ing 4) stem /A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. Inflectional (but not derivational) affixes are added to it. It is the part of word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. 如undesirables, undesirable; desired, desire 5) base / A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. Desirable, desire - base and root, not stem; undesirable, desirable-base, not root and stem 6) inflectional affixes/A inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality复数, tense, and the comparative比较的or superlative 最高的degree. 如-s, -ed, -er, -est 7) derivational affixes / When they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word. re+write, mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, work+er 8) compounding 复合法/Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of combining two or more bases to form a compound word 9) derivation 派生法/Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix or a suffix or both to the base 10) conversion 转化法/Conversion is a word-formation process in which a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. 11) initialism/It is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase. 12) acronym首字母缩略词/Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. 13) blending拼缀/Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by
收稿日期:2009-03-09;修订日期:2009-11-23 基金项目:重庆社会科学规划基金项目/构造语法研究0(2008-YY10);四川外语学院社会科学规划基金项目/基于多重压制观的现代汉语新词语研究0的阶段性成果 作者简介:刘玉梅(1972-),女,陕西汉中人,四川外语学院副教授,四川大学博士研究生,研究方向为认知语言学、构式语法和认知词汇学。 /吧0族词形成的认知机制研究 * 刘玉梅 (四川大学外国语学院,四川成都610064/四川外语学院英语学院,重庆400031) 摘 要:本文以认知构式语法为视角,以溯因推理的方式探讨/吧0族词形成的认知机制。研究表明:酒吧及/吧0族词的形成受到多重构式的压制;/吧X 0与/X 吧0构式能产性差异与该构式的频率、统计先用权及包容度有关;不同构式中的/X 0受到的制约因素不同,并在音节、语义、句法属性上表现出较大差异;/吧0族词的高频使用使/吧0具有获得基本范畴词地位的倾向。 关键词:认知构式语法;构式压制;酒吧;/吧0族词;认知机制 中图分类号:H 13611 文献标识码:A 文章编号:10022722X (2010)0120010206 0.引言 /吧0是现代汉语中一个特殊的具有范畴化功能的语素,并具有独立成词的倾向,其来源可追溯到由英语bar 翻译来的/酒吧0。近几年,/吧0显出较强的能产性,形成了不少新词语,构成了一个使用频率较高、以/吧X 10/X 2吧0为主的/吧0族词构式,其语义及语法性质受到语言学界的关注。目前,/吧0族词的研究主要关注/吧0的意义、/吧0的词缀化或词汇化倾向以及影响/吧0族词形成的社会、文化和心理因素(如范玲,2002;高燕,2000;童盛强、孙晓雯,2005)。但对/吧0族词形成的认知机制的探索尚付阙如,也未见基于语料的系统分析。本文利用/现代汉语新词语库0、5新词语词典6(亢世勇,2003)、因特网等资源建立/吧0族词封闭语料库,拟以认知构式语 法(CCxG)1 为视角,以溯因推理(abducti o n )的方式探讨其形成的认知机制。 1./酒吧0形成的认知机制 根据CCxG ,构式是约定俗成的形式与意义(或功能)的配对体,一切形义配对的语言单位均可视为构式。其中,词素、词、复合词以及具体的短语或句子可归为具体构式,而半固定短语以上的形义配对体则视为抽象构式,二者构成一个连续统,其间的差别仅在于复杂程度和抽象程度的不同 而已。(Goldberg ,1995;2006;Croft ,2001;M ichaelis ,2004)从构式的范畴和属性看,目前,bar 和/酒 吧0均已成为各自语言系统中的具体构式。那么,/酒吧0构式形成的认知机制是什么?为什么bar 在汉语中表达为/酒吧0而非/吧0呢?下面以溯因推理方式进行讨论。 首先,/名以物出,词随事来0。随着新事物、新观念和新思想的出现,为表达和思维的需要,人们需借助原有语言知识对这类现象进行概念化、范畴化和语符化,从而产生出新的表达。这些社会文化语用因素是/酒吧0形成的初始动因。 其次,一个具体表达式或话式(construct)的形成是几个或多个构式整合的结果。构式作为语言的心理表征形式,通过/原型-引申0(prototype 2extension)、/图式-例示0(sche ma 2i n stance)、/传承0(i n heritance)、/范畴化0等关系形成/层级性构式网络0,以一般知识的组织方式存储于大脑中。比如,D i d you dri n k t w o beers ?是由4个具体构式(you 、dr i n k 、t w o 、beers 、d i d )、疑问构式、主语-助词倒装构式、VP 构式、NP 构式和复数构式等多个抽象构式共同作用的结果。除了社会文化语用因素的影响外,/酒吧0表达式的产生也会受到心智中业已存在的构式的压制(coerc i o n)。 1)从跨语言接触的角度来看,/酒吧0的形成 #10# 解放军外国语学院学报 Journa l of PLA Un i ve rs i ty of F oreign Languages 第33卷 第1期2010年1月
张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》一书的读后感 摘要语言学 关键词词汇词义语义词的构成 正文 《现代英语词汇学概论》一书共有12章,可以分为四部分.第一部分即ChapterⅠ是英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary),第二部分即Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ的英语词汇的形态结构和构词法(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation )，第三部分即ChapterⅤ到ChapterⅨ的词义及其语义关系(Word meaning and sense relations)，第四部分是Chapter Ⅹ到Chapter ⅩⅡ的英语习语，美国英语，英语词典的使用和选择（English idioms,American English , choice and use of English dictionaries ）. 第一部分Chapter Ⅰ 英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary) Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。随着词汇学的发展跟完善。人们给词下了较为完整的定义。“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社） 一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。 英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。 第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ 英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation ) (一)词素（Morphemes） 单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。词素跟音素（phoneme）不同，词素必须同时具备声音和意义两方面，而音素只需要发出声音即可。如k 和u 只是音素，因为它们没有什么具体含义。而a 和i 分别存在于单词tame 和time 中是音素，但当a是定冠词和i表示第一人称时它们则是词素。词素并不等同于音节（syllable ），因为音节并没有什么具体含义。如单词dis·a·gree·a·ble有五个音节却只有三个语素（dis + agree + able ）。词素有不同的形式，同一语素的不同形式即语素变体。 词素可以分为自由词素（free morphemes）和黏着词素（bound morphemes）。自由词素可以单独成
《英语词汇学》重要术语 One: 1. Native words 本族词 Words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of Old English are native words. 2. Loan words 借词 Words borrowed from other languages are loan words or borrowed words. 3. Slang words 俚语 Slang words are those words of a vigorous, colourful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary. 4. Function words 功能词 Function words are often short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries that serve grammatically more than anything else. 5. Content words 实义词 Content words are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. 6. Free forms 自由形式 Forms which occur as sentences are free forms. Two: 1. Morphemes 语素 Morphemes are the smallest meaningful linguistic units of English language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. 2. Allomorphs 语素变体 Allomorphs are any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. 3. Free morpheme 自由语素 Free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. 4. Bound morpheme 粘着语素 Bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance and must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound. 5. Root 词根 Root is the basic unchangeable part of a word and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. 6. Affix 词缀 Affix is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. 7. Inflectional affix 屈折词缀 Inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. 8. Derivational affix 派生词缀 Derivational affix is the kind of affixes that has specific lexical meaning hand can derive a word when it is added to another morpheme. 9. Prefixes 前缀 Prefixes are affixes added before words.
英语基础学习必备单 词
初中英语必背词汇总结（一） 一、冠词(3个) 1.a 一个(件/只……) 2.an 一个(件/只……) 3.the 这;这个;那;那个 二.连词(24个) 1.after 在……以后 2.and 和;又 3.as 像……一样;如同;因为 4.because 因为 5.before 在……之前 6.but 但是 7.if 如果;假使;是否;是不是 8.neither 也不 9.nor 也不 10.or 或者;还是;否则 11.since 从……以来;……以后 12.that 既然;由于;(引导宾语从句等) 13.though 虽然 14.till 直到;直到……为止 15.until 直到;直到……为止 16.when 当……的时候 17.whether 是否 18.while 在/当……的时候;和……同时 19.than 比 20.so 因此;所以 21.both…and… 两个都;既……又…… 22.not only…but also… 不但……而且…… 23.ei ther…or… 或者……或者……;不是……就是…… 24.neither…nor… 既不……也不……初中英语必背词汇总结（二） 三.介词(37个) 1.about 在各处;四处;关于 2.after 在……之后;在……后面 3.along 沿着;顺着 4.as 作为;当作 5.among 在……中间;在(三者或三者以上)之间 6.at (表示地点/位置)在;(表示时间)在……时(刻);(表示动作的目标和方向) 7.before 在……前面;在……以前 8.behind 在……后面 9.below 在……下面 10.beside 在……旁边;靠近 11.between 在(两者) 之间;在……中间 12.by 在……旁边;靠近;在……时间;(指时间)不迟于; (用于被动语态) 被(表示方法、手段) 用; 由(指交通工具等) 乘; 13.down 沿着(街道、河流)而下 14.during 在……的期间;在……过程中 15.except 除……之外 16.for (表示方向) 往;(表示所属) ……的;(说明目的或用途) 为…
Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning ?9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning ?9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change ?9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of Words Definition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words. 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning A.Historical cause 历史原因 It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed . *Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science. Eg. pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning ―a little tail‖ or ―a fine brush‖, like our Chinese ―pen‖毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a ―pencil‖. atom==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos ,invisible. Thus atom meant originally ―an particle too small to be divided‖. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split. B.Social cause 社会原因 Change in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common words and various technical words is referred to as social cause of semantic change. Some technical words have lost their specialized meaning and have come to be used in more general senses. Eg. feedback (Electr.) =means ―response‖ in common use ,as in ―The teacher likes to have feedback from his students‖; allergic(Med.)=means ―being unusually sensitive to the action of particular foods, pollens, insect-bites ,etc.‖ *A specific environment may add a fresh and highly technical sense to a word of general use . Eg. energy=(Phys.) ability of matter or radiation to do work decline=(Gram.) inflect, state the case-forms of C.Foreign influences 外来文化影响 A particularly important cause . eg. -pig ,sheep ,ox(cow)denote the names of both the animals and their meat in the Old English period ,but since the meat was called pork ,mutton and beef respectively among the Norman conquerors, the original terms are now used only as the names of the animals. -dream meant ―joy‖ in OE, it gets its modern sense from the related Scandinavian word draumr.