Chapter 2 Phonology
Language is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.
Phonetics
----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.
Three branches of phonetics
Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”
the production of speech sounds. It is of our major concern
Auditory phonetics----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”
the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds
Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.
the physical properties of speech sounds
The speech organs
Where does the air stream come from?
From the lung
What is the function of vocal cords?
Controlling the air stream
What are the three cavities?
Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat;
The oral cavity ---- the mouth;
Nasal cavity ---- the nose.
Transcription of speech sounds
A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.
The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.
In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.
Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear [ ], [ pit ]
Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ] Some major articulatory variables ---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary:
Voicing---- voiced & voiceless (Two consonants sharing the same place and manner of articulation become a pair, which is distinguished by voiceless or voiced. )
Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasal
Aspiration ----- aspirated & unaspirated
Classification of English speech sounds
---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: V owels and Consonants Note: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.
Classification of consonants
---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions: The manner of articulation
The place of articulation
The manner of articulation
?stops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g];
?fricatives: [ ], [v], [s], [z], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [h];
?affricates: [ ], [ ];
?liquids: [l](lateral), [ ];
?nasals: [ ], [ ], [ ];
?glides/semivowels: [w], [ ].
The place of articulation
?bilabial: [p], [b], [ ], [w];
?labiodental: [ ], [v];
?dental: [ ], [ ];
?alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r];
?palatal: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ];
?velar: [k], [g], [ ];
?glottal: [h].
The place of articulation
1.Bilabial;
https://www.doczj.com/doc/2910634191.html,biodental;
3.Dental or interdental;
4.Alveolar;
5.Palatoalveolar;
6.Palatal;
7.Velar;
8.Uvular;
9.Glottal.
The description of English consonants Page 20 (textbook)
Classification of vowels
Different vowels are determined by the position of the tongue and the relative opening of the lips.
The criteria of vowel description
1.the part of the tongue that is raised---front, center or back
2.the opening of the mouth----close, semi-close, semi-open, open
3.the shape of the lips---rounded, unrounded
4.the length of the sound---tense, lax (紧，松)
?Monophthongs or pure/single vowels
?Diphthongs or gliding vowels
Monophthongs or pure/single vowels
----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as:
?front vowels: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ]
?central vowels: [ ], [ ], [ ];
?back vowels: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].
According to the openness of the mouth
?Close: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].
?Semi-close: [ ], [ ];
?Semi-open: [ ], [ ];
?Open: [ ],[ ], [ ], [ ], [ ];
According to the shape of the lips or the degree of lip rounding
?rounded: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ];
?unrounded: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].
According to the length of the vowels
[ ]
?long: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ],
?short: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].
?Diphthongs/gliding vowels
?[ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].
Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.
?A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad had lad
?A velar consonant: nod god cod pod rod
?Labiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat pat
?An alveolar consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quick
?A palato-alveolar consonant: sip ship tip chip lip zip
?A dental consonant: lie buy thigh thy tie rye
?A glide: one war yolk rush
Underline the words that end with a sound as required:
?A fricative
pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave message
?A nasal
train bang leaf limb
?A stop
drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through tip
?An affricate: rack such ridge booze
Underline the words that contain the sound as required:
?A central vowel:
mad lot but boot word
?A front vowel:
reed pad load fate bit bed cook
?A rounded vowel:
who he bus her hit true boss bar walk
?A back vowel:
paid reap fool top good father
Describe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions:
vd/vl place manner
Letter
Brother
Sunny
Hopper
Itching
Lodger
Calling
Singing
Robber
Either
Phonology
Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.
Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.
Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.
What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language?
What sounds vary in what ways in what context?
What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?
Phonetics & phonology
Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.
Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.
Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
Phone, phoneme, allophone
Phone
?A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ b t ] & [ b t ], [sp t] & [sp t].
Phoneme
?A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [p t], [t p] and [sp t].
Allophone
?Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.
Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.
?Phonemic contrast----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g.
/b/ and /p/ in [ b t ] and [p t].
?Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g.
dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].
Minimal pair
?Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g.
beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.
Some rules of phonology
?Sequential rules
?Assimilation rule
?Deletion rule
Sequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a p articular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.
If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.
If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.
a) the first phoneme must be /s/,
b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/,
c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.
* [ ] never occurs in initial position in English and standard Chinese,but it does occur in some dialects, e.g. in Cantonese: “牛肉，我，俄语……”
Assimilation rule----assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in is pronounced differently when in different phonetic contexts:
?indiscreet alveolar [ n]
?inconceivable velar [ ]
?input bilabial [ ]
Assimilation in Mandarin
?好啊hao wa
?海啊hai ya
?看啊kan na
?唱啊chang
?跳啊tiao wa
……
Deletion rule---- it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, e.g. design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.
Syllable (what is syllable?)
?Ancient Greek: a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant.
?Dictionary: word or part of a word which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel.
?The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK, the CODA, e.g. [m n].
?The peak is the essential part. It is usually formed by a vowel. But [l], [n] and [m] might also function as peaks as in “ apple, hidden, communism”.
Suprasegmental features----the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme):
Stress: word stress and sentence stress
Word stress
?The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word:
verb: im port; in crease; re bel; re cord …
noun: import; increase; rebel; record …
?Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements:
compound: blackbird; greenhouse; hotdog…
noun phrase: black bird; green house; hot dog…
?The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns:
modifier: dining-room; readingroom; sleepingbag…
doer: sleeping baby; swimming fish; flying plane…
?Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.
?Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.
He is driving my car.
My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.
Tone
?Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
?English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.
ma 妈(level)
ma 麻(the second rise)
ma 马(the third rise)
ma 骂(the fourth fall)
Intonation
?When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.
?English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:
?falling tone (matter of fact statement)
?rising tone (doubts or question)
?the fall-rise tone (implied message)
For instance,“That’s not the book he wants.”
Grammatical functions of intonations
----Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English.
a) It may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction.
b) It may impose different structures on the sentence by dividing it into differen t intonation units, e.g. “John didn’t come because of Marry”
Within one intonation unit, it means: John came, but it had nothing to do with Marry.
With two intonation units, it means: Marry was the reason why John didn’t come.
Exercises: Think of the utterance in different intonations:
“Those who bought quickly made a profit.”
c) It can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing nucleus on it, e.g.
Jack came yesterday by train.
d) Its attitudinal functions.
?Falling tone ---- matter-of-fact statement,
downright assertion, commands.
?Rising tone ----politeness, encouragement,
pleading.
Note: these can only be very general indications. The specific attitudinal meaning of an intonation pattern must be interpreted within a context.
Summary:
Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.
These features are distinctive features.
Stress
◆Stress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over others in a word.
◆Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress.
◆If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a secondary stress.
◆In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In English, word stress is
unpredictable.
Intonation
◆When we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.
◆Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.
◆The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.
◆In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.
Tone
◆Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.
◆The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones.
◆Chinese is a typical tone language.
●Discovering phonemes
?Contrastive distribution – phonemes
◆If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.
◆Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs and minimal sets.
● A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound in the same position.
●Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one segment in the same position.
◆The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented by the English phonetic
alphabet are in contrastive distribution.
◆Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English. However, these sounds are
distinctive in terms of phonetic features. Therefore, they are separate phonemes.
?Complementary distribution – allophones
◆Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be in complementary distribution.
◆If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of features, they are allophones of
the same phoneme.
?Free variation
◆If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of
meaning, they are said to be in free variation.
●Distinctive and non-distinctive features
?Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features do not, non-distinctive
features.
?Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.
本章重点：Phonology is a major branch of linguistics. It is the study of the sound systems of languages and of the general properties of sound systems.
The differences between phonetics and phonology
Phonetics is regarded as the linguistic study to identify and describe the characteristics of all the speech sounds that occur in all human languages, whereas phonology is the description of the sound systems and patterns of individual languages. Phonetics provides the means for phonological description. And in a sense, phonology is really the application of phonetics to the process of communication in a particular language or languages. Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds; phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.
listener’s mind
Phonetics Phonology
Sounds of language functioning of sounds as part of a language
Parole, speech act language, language system
Universal language-specific
Concrete abstract
Phone [ ] phoneme / /
Although both are related to the study of sounds, phonetics studies the production, transmission, and reception of sounds while phonology focuses on the linguistic patterns of speech sounds and how they are used to convey
A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. The different phones representing a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called its allophones (音位变体)
The definitions of phone, phoneme, allophone, minimal pair and free variation, theories on phoneme, phonemic contrast and complementary distribution, feature on phonetic similarity and distinction; assimilation rule, deletion rule, suprasegmetnal features (syllables, stress, tone, intonation, pitch, etc.)
If you have two words which are with respect to sounds except for one sound, and the different sounds are at the same position, and the two words have different meanings, then you have a minimal pair.
Phonetics-----the study of speech sounds
Phonology-----the study of sounds systems
Phoneme vs. phone/ allophone
/ phoneme/ ----------------------abstract
Actual sound
/t/ ---------------------phoneme
Phone
Two phones never occur in the same environment -------complementary distribution
Two phones can occur in the same environment-------free variation
Although we generalize some rules for word stress, it should be born in mind that sometimes the exceptions may well make one give up the ideal of rules.
Exercises:
https://www.doczj.com/doc/2910634191.html,plementary distribution
2.what is articulatory phonetics, explain the primacy of speech over writing,
3.divide the following words into morphemes. For each morpheme, identify the type (lexical or grammatical,
free or bound, prefix or suffix, inflectional or derivational), where applicable.
1)restate
2)strongest
4.what is illustrated with the following pronunciations?
1)cap [kap] can
2)tent, tenth
answer: 1) restate={re}+{state}
{re}=grammatical, bound, prefix,derivational
{state}=lexical, free
3)strongest={strong}+{SUP}
{strong}=lexical, free
{SUP}=grammatical, bound, suffix, inflectional
1)nasalization 2) dentalization
they are examples of regressive assimilation (逆同化)Page 60 by Hu
5.the phrase French literature teacher constitutes a case of lexical ambiguity
6.syntax is made up of one morpheme.
7.artificial satellite is a case of loanblending. (P102 by Hu)
8. a single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, so they are identical
9.derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning
FFFFT
10.for each of the following words transcribe phonetically and account for the allomorphs of the past tense
morpheme: waited, waved, waded, wiped
11.illustrate assimilation with two examples.
12.describe the initial sounds of the following words: toe, chin, thank, goat, moon
13.what are the terms used to describe the word-formation processes of the following words?
Vaseline, carelessness, football, car-phone, AIDS
Answers: 10. /id/ (/d/ would merge with another alveolar plosive if not separated by a vowel)
/d/ (voiced /v/ is followed by voiced /d/)
/t/ ( voiceless /p/ is followed by voiceless /t/)
11. assimilation is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighbouring sounds
12. voiceless alveolar stop, voiceless palato-alveolar stop, voiceless dental fricative, voiced velar stop, voiced bilabial nasal.
13. invention, derivation, compounding, clipping and compounding, acronym
14. the phonology or pronunciation of a specific regional dialect is called_____
15. ___________is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds
16. phones which never occur in the same phonetic environment are said to be in_____
17. A bound grammatical morpheme is called_____
18. the word formation process, _______is exemplified by the word “brunch”
19. the IPA chart contains a set of _____ for the purpose of transcribing the minute difference between variations of the same sound
Accent, acoustic phonetics, complementary distribution, inflectional morpheme, blending, diacritics
20. compare the two terms: morpheme and allomorph, distinctive features and semantic features
A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. It is just because of its distinctive features that a phoneme is capable of distinguishing meaning. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. On the analogy of distinctive features in phonology, some linguists suggest that there are semantic features. The meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
21. give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds: [l], [v], [e], [u:]
[l] voiced alveolar lateral; [v] voiced labiodental fricative; [e] central front lax ungrounded vowel; [u:] high back tense rounded vowel
22. Is stress a phonological property? Why?
Stress is one of suprasegmental features which are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Word stress plays the meaning-distinctive role.
23. Affricates consist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation
24. the assimilation rule doesn’t account for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations
25. prefixes not only modify the meaning of a stem but also change the part of speech of the original word
T F F
26. in what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?
A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes
27. what kind of evidence could be used to argue that action and package each contain two morphemes: {act}+ {ion} and {pack}+ {age}?
(hint: a morpheme can appear independently in other words.)
Answers: {act} occurs in act, actor, active, react
{ion} occurs in construction, projection,, inflection, rejection
{pack} occurs in pack, packs, packed, packing, packer
{age} occurs in wreckage, baggage, breakage
28. a(n)_____ is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity
29. in the production of _____sounds, such as [p], the upper and the lower lips are brought together to create obstruction.
30. ______is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighbouring sound.
31. all syllables must have a ____ but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda. ( 核心，节首辅音，结尾音节)（page 69 by Hu）
Root, bilabial, assimilation, nucleus
32. compare phonology and phonetics.
33. account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:
coast ghost, boast most
the words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter. Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the initial segment, /b/ being bilabial, /m/ being nasal.
34. what are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why
What are three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study of speech sounds.
Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ
What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?
Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions
Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds
What is a minimal pair and what is a minimal set? Why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language? Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.
What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?
Supplementary Exercises
Chapter 2：Phonology
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.
2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.
3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.
4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.
5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.
6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.
7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker
issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.
8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.
9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.
10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.
11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.
12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.
13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.
14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.
15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.
16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.
17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in
a change of meaning.
18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.
19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.
20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:
21． A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.
22．A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.
23．The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.
24．Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.
25．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.
26．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.
27．S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.
28．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules. 29．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.
30．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.
31．P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.
32．The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.
33．T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.
34．Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.
III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
35．Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.
A. mouth
B. lips
C. tongue
D. vocal cords
36．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.
A. voiceless
B. voiced
C. vowel
D. consonantal
37．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.
A. /z/
B. /d/
C. /k/
D./b/
38．The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.
A. identical
B. same
C. exactly alike
D. similar
39．Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.
A. in phonemic contrast
B. in complementary distribution
C. the allophones
D. minimal pair
40．The sound /f/ is _________________.
A. voiced palatal affricate
B. voiced alveolar stop
C. voiceless velar fricative
D. voiceless labiodental fricative
41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.
A. back
B. central
C. front
D. middle
42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.
A. phonetic components
B. immediate constituents
C. suprasegmental features
D. semantic features
43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
A. phone
B. sound
C. allophone
D. phoneme
44．The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.
A. phones
B. sounds
C. phonemes
D. allophones
IV. Define the terms below:
45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone
48. international phonetic alphabet
49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics
52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pair
V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:
57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?
58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?
59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?
60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.
61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?
Suggested answers to supplementary exercises
IV. Define the terms below:
45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.
49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages
51. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.
52. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.
53. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.
54. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.
55. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
56. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary: 57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?
1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.
2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.
3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.
58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?
1) V owels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.
2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.
3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.
4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the
sound.
59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?
They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.
1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.
2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.”for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.
3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.
61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?
A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.
第8章英语语言的应用（I） I. Fill in the blanks. 1. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the _____ of, or the _____the utterance. （人大2004研） 【答案】consequence, change brought about by 【解析】言外行为指说话的效果。 2. When a teacher says “The exam this year is going to be really difficult”, the sentence would have an _____force. （清华2001研，清华2000研） 【答案】illocutionary 【解析】言外行为，表达说话人的意图。 3. _____ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. 【答案】Performatives 【解析】施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。 II. Multiple Choices. 1. The speech act theory was developed by _____.（对外经贸2006研) A. John Searle B. John Austin
C. Levinson D. G. Leech 【答案】B 【解析】言语行为理论是哲学家约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出的。它从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释，其目的在于回答”用语言干什么”这个问题。 2. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest. (Focus on the type of illocutionary act) （南京大学2007研） A. threaten B. advise C. beseech D. urge 【答案】A 【解析】A为命令性言语行为，而其他三项为指示性言语行为。 3. _____ is using a sentence to perform a function. （西安外国语学院2006研） A. A perlocutionary act B. An illocutionary act C. A locutionary act D. Speech act 【答案】D 【解析】约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出言语行为理论, 此理论对语言交际的
Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学 1.What is pragmatics? 什么是语用学？ Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used. 语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。 由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。 2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学 Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。 3.Context 语境 Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。 4.Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。 5.Speech act theory 言语行为理论 Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. 言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。 According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.
一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标
语言学教程笔记 第一章语言学导论 语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。 1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核 心特征。例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。 任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。（2）句法层面上的任意性。 （3） 任意性和规约性。 2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成， 每层都有自身的组合规则。话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是 相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产 性。 3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性 和递归性。利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。 4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的 物体、时间或观点。因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而 后者位置距我们非常之远。语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。移位性赋予人 们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化 的语境中。他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。 5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。 6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的 角色是可以随意更换的。 元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？
导论———语法层次 0.1 词素 1）自由词素 2）粘附词素 0.2 词 1）简单词、派生词、符合词 2）封闭词类和开放词类 0.3 词组 1）名词词组 2）动词词组 3）形容词词组 4）副词词组 5）介词词组 0.4分句 1）独立分句和从属分句 2）简单分句和复杂分句 3）主句和从句 4）限定分句、非限定性分句、无动词分句0.5 句子 1）完全句和不完全句 2）简单句、并列句、复杂句、并列复杂句 第1讲句子结构 1.1 主谓结构和句子分析 1）主语和谓语 2）句子分析 1.2 基本句型及其转换与扩大 1）基本句型 2）基本句型的转换与扩大 第2讲主谓一致（一） 2.1指导原则 1）语法一致 2）意义一致和就近原则 2.2 以-s 结尾的名词作主语的主谓一致问题1）以-s结尾的疾病名称和游戏名称 2）以-s结尾的学科名称 3）以-s结尾的地理名称 4）其他以-s结尾的名词 2.3 以集体名词作主语的主谓一致问题 1) 通常作复数的集体名词 2）通常作不可数名词的集体名词 3）既可作单数也可作复数的集体名词 4）a committee of 等+复数名词
第3讲主谓一致（二） 3.1 以并列结构作主语的主谓一致问题 1）由and/both... And 连接的并列主语 2）由or/nor/either...or 等连接的并列主语 3）主语+as much as 等 4）主语+as well as 等 3.2 以表示数量概念的名词词组作主语的主谓一直问题1）以表示确定数量的名词词组作主语 2) 以表示非确定数量的名词词组作主语 3.3 其他方面的主谓一致问题 1）以名词性分句作主语的主谓一致问题 2）以非限定分句作主语的主谓一致问题 3）关系分句中的主谓一致问题 4）分裂句中的主谓一致问题 5）存在句中的主谓一致问题 第4讲 4.1 名词分类和名词词组的句法功能 1）名词分类 2）名词词组的句法功能 4.2 名词的数 1）规则复数和不规则复数 2）集体名词、物质名词、抽象名词、专有名词的数4.3 单位词 1）一般表示个数的单位词 2）表示形状的单位词 3）表示容积的单位词 4）表示动作状态的单位词 5）表示成双、成对、成群的单位词 第5讲 5.1 名词属格的构成、意义和用法 1）名词属格的构成 2）名词属格的意义 3）名词属格的用法 5.2 独立属格和双重属格 1）独立属格 2）双重属格 第6讲限定词（一） 6.1限定词与三类名词的搭配关系 1）能与三类名词搭配的限定词 2）只能与单数名词搭配的限定词 3）只能与复数名词搭配的限定词
第一章 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures https://www.doczj.com/doc/2910634191.html,nguage 1.1Why study language?为什么学习语言 A tool for communication交流的工具 An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知. 1.2What is language?什么是语言 1.2.1different senses of language 语言的不同意义 1. what a person says( concrete act of speech) a person’s consistent way of speaking or writing a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language an abstract system 2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”: a. human speech 人类的言语 b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力 c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声 音及这些声音互相结合的系统 d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达 3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交 流的一种方式. Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言 是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文 化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类 区别于动物. 1.2.2definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. What is communication? A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener). A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary? Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
Chapter 5 Semantics ?Semantics----the study of language meaning. ?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. ?Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. ?Meaning is central to the study of communication. ?Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist) ? 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. ? 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent, peripheral ? 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression ? 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer towards what is referred to ? 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ?Taboos ? 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it ?(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less stable, more culture-specific ) 7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order ?What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning ?Naming theory (Plato) ?The conceptualist view ?Contextualism (Bloomfield) ?Behaviorism Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things. The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things ?Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…
《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断
新编英语语法教程（第六版）第02讲练习参考答案 Ex. 2A 1. SVC Within the stricken area, not a single soul remained alive, and the city centre looked as if it had been razed by monster steam-roller. 2. SV The bomb exploded 1,000 ft. above the ground. 3. SVO On August 6, 1945, an American aircraft dropped a bomb on the Japanese town of Hiroshima. 4. SvoO Three days later, yet another bomb of the same kind gave the town of Nagasaki the same fatal blow. 5. SVOC The explosion made one and a half square miles of the city an expense of reddish rubble. 6. SV A Within the fraction of a second, the bomb changed from a metal cylinder into an immense mass of expanding gas, millions of degrees hot. 7. SVOA A tremendous blast of hot air whirled the debris of stone, concrete, metal, and wood over the ground.
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
胡壮麟语言学重难点 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 常考考点：1. 语言: 语言的定义；语言的基本特征；语言的功能；语言的起源 2. 语言学：语言学的定义；现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别；语言学研究的四个原则及简要说明；语言学中的几组重要区别；每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。 1. 语言的定义特征 1.1. 任意性 1.2. 二重性 1.3. 创造性 1.4. 移位性 1.5. 文化传递性 1.6. 互换性 2. 语言的功能 1.1. 信息功能 1.2. 人际功能 1.3. 施为功能 1.4. 感情功能 1.5. 寒暄功能 1.6. 娱乐功能 1.7. 元语言功能
3. 微观语言学 3.1. 语音学 3.2. 音系学 3.3. 形态学 3.4. 句法学 3.5. 语义学 3.6. 语用学 4. 宏观语言学 4.1. 心理语言学 4.2. 社会语言学 4.3. 应用语言学 4.4. 计算语言学 4.5. 神经语言学 5. 重要概念及其区分 5.1. 描写式&规定式 5.2. 共时&历时 5.3. 语言&言语 5.4. 语言能力&语言应用 5.5. 唯素的&唯位的 5.6. 传统语法&现代语法 5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为 Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义；发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类；基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法 2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系与区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布于互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音；音高和语调。 1. 语音学及其三大领域 1.1. 语音学定义 1.2. 语音学三大领域 ①发音语音学 ②声学语音学 ③听觉语音学 2. 辅音 2.1. 辅音定义 发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞，由此产生的音叫做辅音。 2.2. 发音方式 发音方式是指发音器官之间的关系，以及气流经过声道的某些部位的方式 2.3. 发音部位 发音部位是指声道的哪些部位发生气流摩擦、狭窄化或阻碍。 3. 元音