浅论霍桑小说的象征手法
摘要：纳撒尼尔·霍桑是19世纪后期美国浪漫主义作家的杰出代表，也是美国文学的奠基人之一，其代表作《年轻人古德曼·布朗》属于“心之寓言”部分的短篇小说之一。本文试从人物的象征意义、森林和蛇杖的象征意义、梦境的象征意义等三个方面来解读霍桑小说的象征手法。
Abstract: Nathaniel Hawthorne is an excellent representative writer of the American romantic literature in the late 19th century, he is also one of the founders of American literature, his representative work “Young Goodman Brown” belongs to one of the short story of the part of "the fable of heart". This paper analyse three aspects to interpreting the symbolism of Hawt horne’s novel: the significance of the figure’s symbolism, the symbolism of the forest and the caduceus ,and the symbolism of the dream.
关键词：霍桑象征手法《年轻人古德曼·布朗》
纳撒尼尔·霍桑（Nathaniel Hawthorne，1804-1864）是19世纪后期美国浪漫主义作家的杰出代表，也是美国文学的奠基人之一。如果从时间的角度划分霍桑的创作，其小说创作可大致分为前期的“新英格兰传奇”部分，中期的“心之寓言”部分，和后期的长篇创作部分。《年轻人古德曼·布朗》即属于中期的“心之寓言”部分的短篇小说之一。所谓寓言，就是用假托的故事来说明某种道理，达到劝诫、教育或讽刺目的的一种文学样式，其特点就是假借客观景物以代表某种观点，使客观的景物成为传达意念的工具。因此在寓言这种文学样式里，就会有大量的根据借助某物的具体形象来表现某种抽象的概念、思想和情感的象征手法的运用。而霍桑的被人称之为“心之寓言”的小说，正是运用了大量的象征手法来表现霍桑对人性之恶、宗教之虚伪的抨击的典型。
小说《年轻人古德曼·布朗》讲述了一个生活在17世纪末、巫术盛行时期的塞勒姆小镇中的青年古德曼·布朗的故事。小说中的布朗不顾新婚妻子的反对，执意要参加魔鬼的约会，并亲眼见证了人性丑恶。小说采用了超现实主义的手法，虚构了魔鬼、出现幻觉的森林、突然醒来的梦境等具有深刻寓意的人或景物，运用了多种多样的象征手法，使小说充满了浓郁的寓言感。
一、森林和蛇杖的象征意义
《年轻人古德曼·布朗》的整个故事场景设置于森林之中，而且是深夜里的森林，这又是寓言故事的一大特征。在许多古老的寓言故事中，发生故事的场所都是森林，如《伊索寓言》、《克雷洛夫寓言》中的许多故事，都是以森林为背景
的，因此，“森林”成了寓言类作品的一个常用的场景和常用的象征体，在寓言里，森林早已不再是一个植被密集的可爱所在，而是一个充满黑暗、凶险、迷幻、鬼怪的地方，而《年轻人古德曼·布朗》这种充满寓言色彩的小说放置于森林这个场景中去，正是想让好小伙子布朗的这次与魔鬼的约会充满玄秘与凶险。果然，好小伙子布朗自从进入到森林里之后，森林便开始展露它的凶险，森林一直制约着布朗的行动，布朗一开始“踏上了一条凄清的小路，阴森森的树木遮天蔽日，挤挤挨挨，勉强让狭窄的小径蜿蜒穿过。人刚过，枝叶又将小路封闭了起来，荒凉满目。”这象征着布朗走向的是一个阴暗的所在，同时也说明布朗踏上的是一条灵魂的不归之路，黑夜笼罩下的森林给人更加深刻的罪恶感，单纯的布朗将在这种罪恶的挤压之下走上道德的反面。而当布朗看到自己纯洁的妻子也受到魔鬼的诱惑，感到纯洁的世界已被颠覆时，他身边的森林也发生了奇特的变化：“树木吱吱嘎嘎，野兽嗷嗷嗥叫，印第安人哇哇呐喊。”当布朗明白邪恶和力量是多么强大的时候，森林这个隐藏魔鬼的地方也显露出了它的本来面目，将一切邪恶都展现了出来，使身陷其中的布朗更加疯狂，更加丧失理性。在森林风声的伴奏之下，布朗听到的唱赞美诗的歌声也变了样：“这不像人声，更像幽黑荒野中的一切一齐发出的轰轰呼声，阴森可怖。”在这里，森林完全成了一个罪恶的世界，正如小说中的黑色的人影（魔鬼的化身）所说的那样：“整个大地就是一块罪恶的污迹，一块巨大的血迹，远远不止这些。”另外，在小说中还出现了一个重要的道具：一根弯弯曲曲的蛇杖。这根蛇杖拿在布朗的同行人的手里，这个同行人其实就是魔鬼的领路人，也是一切罪恶的怂恿者。每在关键的时候，蛇杖就可以引诱、扶持奔赴魔鬼约会的人向前行走，让他们进入罪恶的深渊中。作者在小说里多次写到这根蛇杖，并一再强调它是“最引人注目的东西”：“一条酷似黑蛇的手杖，精雕细刻，活脱一条扭来扭去的大蛇。”；“他把手杖往她脚下一扔，到了她那儿，那东西大概就突然变成了活物，因为主人曾把它借给过埃及的魔术师。”这根蛇形的手杖的原型显然来自于伊甸园里的那条引诱亚当夏娃犯下原罪的蛇，蛇形手杖的寓意就是指引人们奔向罪恶，诱惑人们犯罪，正如霍桑在《自我中心；或心底之蛇》中所写：
“于是他就使自己那条实际的蛇——如果他心底当真有一条蛇存在的话——成了每个人致命的错误或密藏的罪孽或不安的良心的预示，并且毫不懊悔地将其蜇牙扎进最痛苦的地方。”
二、人物的象征意义
在《年轻人古德曼·布朗》中，霍桑把小说里的人物分成了两大类，即生活里的好人和生活里的坏人。很显然，年轻的布朗夫妇就是典型的好人，因为“古德曼”在英文中是“好人”的意思，而布朗的妻子费丝的名字在英文中就是“忠实”、“信仰”的意思，对于妻子的忠实，布朗显然是深信不疑的，所以小说里
才写道：“这名字对她恰如其分。”正是因为有费丝这位忠实而美丽的妻子的存在，才使好小伙子布朗赶赴魔鬼约会的决心一直在动摇，他的脚步迟疑着，内心中善与恶的斗争十分激烈：“天国在上，费丝在下，俺还是在对抗魔鬼，坚定不移！”然而，最终的结局却是让人失望的，行走在森林里的布朗虽然脚步并不快，但他却一直向前，特别是听到森林里费丝的哭声，确认自己最忠实的妻子费丝也来赶赴魔鬼的约会时，他心底那最后一点对光明的坚守破灭了，他开始感到绝望，狂叫着：“人世上根本没有善！罪孽不过是一个空名！来吧，魔鬼，因为这个世界都归你了！”“他纵声大笑，笑了许久。然后抓起拐杖又往前走，顺林中小路大步流星，不像在走，倒像在飞。……凭着凡人向恶的本能，他仍旧往前冲。”
布朗这种道德感的突然坍塌正表现出17世纪的美国移民的心理特征，布朗属于清教徒第三代移民，他原本是最虔敬、生活最圣洁的新教徒。100多年前，布朗的祖先们怀着纯洁的理想来到北美陆地开疆拓土，决心通过自己的勤劳和创造，把北美荒园建成他们理想的纯洁的人间乐土，并给后代们留下了道德上的楷模。作为这批拓荒者的子孙，小伙子布朗向往纯洁善良，追求道德上的完美。他对人性的纯洁善良有足够的信心，对生活怀着美好的希望，对妻子也有着深沉的爱。但与此同时，基督教的原罪说、人的内在堕落论又使笃信加尔文教的人们对人类的道德操守持怀疑态度，他们更容易看到存在于社会群体中阴暗的、残缺的、愚蠢的、罪恶的一面，从而更加坚信了原罪说的可信性。
霍桑笔下的这两个好人形象（布朗和费丝）正是代表着纯洁人类的典范，当他们的信念倒塌，纯洁的个性遭到毁灭时，其象征寓意是十分深刻的。19世纪30年代，美国发生了一场深刻的思想解放运动，这场运动的代表人物有爱默生、梭罗和富勒等，其代表思想就是超验主义。爱默生的《论自然》和《美国哲人》等作品中的超验主义理论，直接对抗加尔文教的正统思想，他主张人类应当回归自然，强调个性独立，应当从“美”角度放眼自然，从自然中获得最高的精神体验，从而使灵魂与自然合而成为宇宙。超验主义者所说的“自然”包括物质的自然与精神的自然，人类应当通过体验“自然”、置身于自然之中而净化灵魂，而不能依靠抽象的、压抑人性的教义来扭曲抹杀人性。这种超验主义思想深深影响了霍桑，霍桑把对超验主义的理解表现在他的小说人物身上，他试图通过裸露人的内心精神来展现人性的自然性和多面性，并以此来暴露宗教的虚伪。对此，美国著名小说家赫尔曼·麦尔维尔评价道：“他（霍桑）的最伟大的成就就在于他擅长对黑暗的描写，在于他对于人类心灵深处的黑暗的描写。”
在《年轻人古德曼·布朗》中，热心于赶赴魔鬼约会的并非只有布朗夫妻，而是一个很大的人群，他们大多都是在真实的生活里非常受人尊敬的人，有的是“非常虔诚的太太”，有的是“翌日将在州议会上露面的人物”，这些平日公众心目中的谦谦君子或淑女，却在这种含意暧昧的场所出现，和一些“自甘堕落的男人”、“声名狼藉的女人”杂合在一起，形成了“好人并不回避坏人，罪人面
对圣人也毫无愧怍”的奇怪场景，难怪会让布朗震惊。因为这些人都是思想受到严格控制的清教徒，是在安息日里向大众布道的虔诚人物，他们在公众（包括布朗）的眼中是追求无欲无念、全身心皈依宗教的纯洁人物，现在却和魔鬼搅和在了一起，可见人的内心里隐藏着多么深刻的罪恶。这个人群的出现暴露了宗教的虚伪性，凸显了霍桑小说中“人性之恶”的最基本主题。正如英国作家劳伦斯评价的那样：“霍桑是一个可爱的蓝眼睛小伙子，他对人类心灵深处的罪过一清二楚，并用巧妙的伪装加以揭露出来。”
三、梦境的象征意义
在小说的结尾处，霍桑设下了一个悬念：他让好小伙子布朗在魔鬼的受洗仪式就要实施的关口突然惊醒过来，好像从一场噩梦中猛醒过来：“邪恶的化身就在这里头（指一个天然的盛满鲜血的凹坑）浸湿他的手，准备在他们额头上留下受洗的印迹，好让他们分享罪恶的秘密……‘费丝，费丝，’丈夫叫道，‘仰望天堂，抵挡邪恶！’话刚出口，就发现自己已孤单单地身处宁静的夜，正侧耳倾听风声沉甸甸地穿过森林，消失无声。”就是在这一声对上帝的呼唤声中，原本嚣张的魔鬼突然消失，森林归于平静，所有的人们都退去不见。那么布朗方才经历的一切真的就是一个梦吗？霍桑在小说里并没有明白地告诉读者，这就成了他留下的又一个象征性的寓意，读者可以从霍桑的身世里去寻找答案。
霍桑出身于一个真正的清教徒世家之中，霍桑家的第一代祖先曾是一位殖民地法官，因对17世纪新英格兰贵格会成员进行残酷的迫害而臭名昭著，而第二代祖先与1692年塞勒姆的“驱巫案”有关，因而受到了严厉的诅咒，这一切都在霍桑敏感的心灵上留下了抹不去的阴影。祖先所犯的罪行在他心中引起的罪恶感如此深重，以致他时常怀疑其家族的败落、父亲的早亡与此相关。为此，他曾经改姓，以示自己与家族祖先之区别。这一切造成了霍桑创作上的独特心理：他既相信“原罪说”，又不肯全面接受“原罪说”；既相信“一代人的罪孽要延续到后代”的说法，又不甘于顺从这种宿命的安排。所以，霍桑一方面认为人类有向恶的本性，一方面又力求通过道德的力量得到精神上的救赎，从而获得新生。于是在《年轻人古德曼·布朗》中，霍桑不甘心于让好小伙子布朗真正落入魔鬼之手，所以在小说的结尾安排了一个悬而未决的结尾，让道德的力量在关键时刻起了作用，唤醒了沉迷在邪恶中的人，这也说明了霍桑的宗教观点：“内在世界一旦净化，外在世界游荡着的许多罪恶都会自行消失。”同时也说明，人类的内心虽然存在着恶念，也同时存在着向善的力量，如果一个人能坚守内心的高尚情感的话，再可怕的魔鬼也会自动退却。
在《年轻人古德曼·布朗》中，还有许多象征手法的运用，如费丝的粉红色缎带、黑夜里怪异的圣歌、点燃的松树、森林里一块巨石形成的祭坛，都有着善与恶、美与丑的深刻寓意。正是在这一连串的象征手法中，霍桑小说的主题更加
深刻，人物性格更加丰满，寓言特征更加鲜明，宗教的理念与小说的手法巧妙地
融合在了一起，霍桑的道德观得到了很好的诠释。正如李燕乔在《西方现代文学
中的原罪说》所评价的那样：
“文学和宗教虽然有着天壤的区别，但至少有一点是共同的，它们都试图对
生活中的现象和人的本质做出评判，只不过两者的方法和结论完全不同。西方现
代文学所表现的人和社会在某种程度上更接近基督教对人和社会的描述，现代作
家更多地把社会的弊端归于人的天性，希望通过某种途径使人性得以净化，从而
使现代人摆脱他们的困境。”
参考文献：
[1] 李燕乔《西方现代文学中的原罪说》[M].新华出版社，1989年版
[2] 程爱民《美国文学阅读教程》[M].南京师范大学出版社，2005年版
[3] 张冲《新编美国文学史》（第一卷）[M].上海外语教育出版社，2000 年
[4] Arline.Tuner. Nathaniel Hawthorne [M].NewYork Press.1961
[5]Martin Terence,Nathaniel Hawthorne [M].Twayne publishers,1983
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1.Puritanism: Puritanism is the practices and beliefs of the Puritans. 1.simply speaking , American Puritanism just refers to the spirit and ideal of puritans,who settled in the North American continent in the early part of the seventeenth century because of religious persecutions. 2.In content it means scrupulous ,moral rigor ,especially hostility to social pleasure and religion . 3.with time passing it became a dominant factor in American life , one of the most enduring shaping influences in American thought and literature.to some extent it is a state of mind,a part of the national cultural atmosphere that the American breathes ,rather than a set of tenets. 4.Actually it is a code of values,a philosophy of life and a point of view in American minds,also a two-faceted tradition of religious idealism and level -headed in common sense . 2.The American Romanticism(浪漫主义):a literary movement flourished as a cultural force the early period and the late period. associated with imagination and boundlessness, as an historical movement it arose in the 18th and 19th centuries.(Walt Whitman, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Edgar Allan Poe.) II.Features of American romanticism (1) It was the expression of “a real new experience(全新体验)”. (2) American Puritanism was a cultural heritage. Many American romantic writings intended to edify(启发) more than they entertained. (3) American Romanticism is full of “newness(新奇)” . Ideals：Individualism; political equality Dream：America: a new Garden of Eden (4)American romanticism was both imitative and independent. 3.Transcendentalism 超验主义 The major features of Transcendentalism: ① The Transcendentalists placed emphasis on spirit, or the Oversoul, as the most important thing in the universe. 思想超灵宇宙 ② The Transcendentalists stressed the importance of the individual. To them, the individual is the most important element of Society. ③ The Transcendentalists offered a fresh perception of nature as symbolic of the Spirit or God. Nature was not purely matter. It was alive, filled with God’s ove rwhelming presence. 自然+上帝 Ralph Waldo Emerson. American Transcendentalism:As a philosophical and literary
美国文学期末考试复习必备（精） 1. What’s Puritanism? A religious and political movement which appeals to the right of the individual to political & religious independence. It includes three parts: a code of values, a point of view & a philosophy of life 2. What are the basic Puritan beliefs? 1). Total Depravity 2). Unconditional Election 3). Limited Atonement 4). Irresistible Grace 5). Perseverance of the "saints" 3. What are American Puritan values? Sobriety thrift, Self-reliance Diligence, Struggle, simple tastes 4. What are the features of American literature in the Colonial Period? A. Humble origins: diaries, journals, histories, letters. Its various forms, occupy a major position in the literature of the early colonial period. B. in content: serving either god or colonial expansion or both C. in form: imitating English literary traditions. D. in style: tight and logic structure, precise and compact expression, avoidance of rhetorical decoration, adoption of homely imagery and simplicity of diction. E. Symbolism formed in this period ------To the pious Puritan, the physical, phenomenal world was nothing but a symbol of God. F. Simple, fresh and direct style
1.Why did Franklin write his Autobiography? Franklin says that because his son may wish to know about his life, he is taking his one week vacation in the English countryside to record his past. He also says that he has enjoyed his life and would like to repeat it 2.What made Franklin decide to leave the brother to whom he had been apprenticed? His brother was passionate, and had often beaten him. The aversion to arbitrary power that has stuck to him through his whole life .After a brush with the law, Franklin left his brother. 3.How did he arrive in Philadephia? First he set out in a boat for Amboy, the boat dropped him off about 50 miles from Burlington, the next day he reached Burlington on foot, in Burlington he found a boat which was going towards Philadelphia, he arrived there about eight or nine o’clock, on the Sunday morning and landed at the Market Street wharf. 4.What features do you find in the style of the above selection? It is the pattern of Puritan simplicity, directness, and concision(言简意赅). The narrative is lucid(易懂的), the structure is simple, the imagery is homely(朴素的). 二、Questions 1.How many characters does Poe include in The Cask of Amontillado? What are these names? Montresor, Fortunato and Luchesi 2. What drink are the French most famous for? Wine 3.Does Montresor have something of great value to him which we might consider to be his treasure? His pride and the pride of his French family heritage. Perhaps his devious plot of revenge. 4.Does Montresor seem to have much respect for Italians? Montresor does not have much respect for Italians. He feels the French are superior, especially with respect to wine. 5.What was Fortunato's insult? Poe does not tell us directly, but only implies it in the third paragraph 6.Which wine does Montresor use to lure Fortunato into the catacombs? "Amontillado" (the Spanish wine; Montresor's ruse to lead Fortunato down into the catacombs. 7.Why does Montresor entertain Fortunato with wines from his collection? Montresor wants to get Fortunato drunk enough to be able to trap him in his plan of vengeance. 8.In what two ways does Montresor imprison Fortunato? He fetters (chains and locks) Fortunato to the wall of the catacombs. He builds a wall to close Fortunato off in a small corner of the catacombs, where Montresor will leave him to die. 9.In what ways is The Cask of Amontillado grotesque? First, which of Montresor's actions are abnormal? The whole obsessive plot of vengeance. The fettering and entombment of Fortunato. Montresor's sick sense of humor. 10.Is there anything grotesque about Fortunato? His obsession with alcohol. His drunkenness. His tendency to berate Luchesi (he may have been drunk and may have insulted Montresor in a similar
《英语文学文化及影视赏析》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明 1、课程名称（中英文）：英语文学文化及影视赏析/English Literature and Culture & Appreciation of English movies 2、学时学分：75学时理论教学，2学分 3、适用专业：非英语专业研究生 4、开课学院：外国语学院 5、课程负责人：姜萌萌 二、课程描述： 本课程拟对英语经典文学与相关文化概况进行简要介绍，并遴选英美国家的经典作家和作品，对其文学特色、文化背景进行分析。课程重视文学作品与时代背景、西方历史文化的联系，在教学中将理论与实践相结合，做到寓教于乐。在课内，不仅有作家作品、相关文化背景和信息的介绍、经典作品片段的解读，并通过课堂讨论以及影视作品的欣赏帮助学生最直观地理解西方文化与文学作品的文本意义。在课外，学生需要查阅相关资料，完成相关问题的回答与读书报告，以一种轻松愉悦并且多方面切入的方式学习、了解和体验英语文学文化。该课程目的在于通过英语文学文化的学习，提高学生对英语语言的掌握能力、增强对英语文学经典的理解力和对西方文化的审美能力，进一步养成对英语的敏感性，培养人文素质和文学涵养。 三、教材： 王守仁主编，《英国文学选读》，北京：高等教育出版社。 陶洁主编，《美国文学选读》，北京：高等教育出版社。 秦秀白，《英美国家概况》，北京：高等教育出版社。 王佐良，《欧洲文化入门》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社。 自编讲义 四、教学方式： 理论与实践相结合。 五、考核方式： 提交一篇与所学课程相关的课程论文，用英语完成。 总成绩=期末考试成绩70%+平时成绩30%（考勤占10%）
美国文学选读第三版课后习题答案洁(部分) Unit 1 Benjamin Franklin Questions 1.Why did Franklin write his Autobiography? Franklin says that because his son may wish to know about his life, he is taking his one week vacation in the English countryside to record his past. He also says that he has enjoyed his life and would like to repeat it 2.What made Franklin decide to leave the brother to whom he had been apprenticed? His brother was passionate, and had often beaten him. The aversion to arbitrary power that has stuck to him through his whole life .After a brush with the law, Franklin left his brother. 3.How did he arrive in Philadephia? First he set out in a boat for Amboy, the boat dropped him off about 50 miles from Burlington, the next day he reached Burlington on foot, in Burlington he found a boat which was going towards Philadelphia, he arrived there about eight
名词解释： Imagism: It’s a poetic movement of England and the U.S. flourished from 1909 to 1917.The movement insists on the creation of images in poetry by “the direct treatment of the thing” and the economy of wording. The leaders of this movement were Ezra Pound and Amy Lowell. Beat generation: The term was coined by Jack Kerouac in 1948 to refer to a group of disillusioned writers following World War Two. Later, this literary and cultural movement continued into the 1960s. The Beat Generation must not be confused with the Lost Generation of writers. Spokesmen and representatives of the Beat Generation were Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg and others. They revolted against an America that was materialistic, belligerent and frustrating. Social, intellectual and sexual freedom was advocated. Traditional culture and normal social behavior were attacked and violated. Many of them were drug addicts wearing long hair and dirty clothes. They were fond of slangs and jazz. Masterpieces created by writers of this g roup include Kerouac’s On the Road and Ginsberg’s Howl and Other Poems, which were regarded as pocket Bibles of that generation. Other prominent Beats include William S. Burroughs, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Gregory Corso, Michael McClure, and Neal Cassady. The Beat Generation, had greatly influenced the countercultural movements of the 1960s and the adolescents and adults in other countries. In England, the “angry young men” made an echo and imitated the American “beatnik.” 二、1. Ralph Waldo Emerson: Nature: it is generally regarded as the Bible of New England Transcendentalism. The American Scholar:it has been regarded as “America’s Declaration of Intellectual Independence”. 2. Henry David Thoreau: Walden 3. Nathaniel Hawthorne: The Scarlet Letter: 主题：Hawthorne focuses his attention on the moral, emotional, and psychological effects or consequences of the sin on the people in general and those main characters in particular, so as to show us the tension between society and individuals. To Hawthorne, everybody is potentially a sinner, and great moral courage is therefore indispensable for the improvement of human nature. 4. Herman Melville: Moby Dick A. 作品分析： （1）Moby Dick represents the sum total of Melville’s bleak view of the world in which he lived. It is at once godless and purposeless. The loss of faith and the sense of futility and meaningless which characterize modern life of the West were expresse d in Melville’s work so well that the twentieth century has found it both fascinating and great. (2) One of the major themes of this novel is alienation, which exists in the life of Melville on different levels, between man and man, man and society, and man and nature. Melville also criticizes New England Transcendentalism of its emphasis on individualism and Oversoul. Another theme of this novel is “rejection and quest.” (3) The novel is highly symbolic. The voyage itself is a metaphor for “search and discovery, the search for the ultimate truth of experience.” Moby Dick is the most conspicuous symbol in the book and it is capable of many interpretations. It is a symbol of evil to some, one of goodness to others, and both to still others. Its whiteness is a paradoxical color, signifying as it does death and corruption as well as purity, innocence, and youth. It represents the final mystery of the universe which man will do well to desist from pursuing. (4) Melville manages to achieve the effect of ambiguity through employing the technique of multiple views of his narratives. He tends to write periodic sentences. His rich rhythmical prose and his poetic power have been profusely commented upon and praised. B. what does the white whale in Moby Dick symbolize? Why do you think so? For Captain Ahab, the white whale represents evil. After the loss of his leg in his encounter with the white whale, Ahab begins to hate Moby Dick and tries his best to kill the whale. It seems that he embodies all of the evil he once consigned to the white whale. For other members on the whaling ship, the white whale symbolizes the unknown, mysterious natural force of the universe. For the readers, the white whale is capable of many interpretations, for it is “paradoxically benign an d malevolent, nourishing and destructive,” “massive, brutal, monolithic, but at the same time protean, erotically beautiful, infinitely variable.” C. Major themes: obsession, religion, and idealism versus pragmatism, revenge, racism, sanity, hierarchical relationships, and politics. D. the Pequod is the microcosm of human society and the voyage becomes a search for truth. Moby Dick is a mystery, an ultimate mystery of the universe, and the voyage of the mind will forever remain a search, not a discovery, of the truth. The whole story turns out to be a symbolic voyage of the mind quest of the truth and knowledge of the universe, a spiritual exploration into man’s deep reality and psychology. 5. Walt Whitman: Leaves of Grass.It has been praised as “Democ ratic Bible”, and as American Epic. 主题：(1)he shows concern for the whole hard-working people and the burgeoning life of cities. (2) realization of the individual value. (3) pursuit of love and happiness. (4) Before and during the Civil War, Whitman expressed much mourning for the sufferings of the young lives in the battlefield and showed a determination to carry on the fighting dauntlessly until the final victory. 写作风格：(1) Whitman wrote “free verse”, that is, poetry without a fixed beat or regular rhyme scheme. (2) There is a strong sense of the poems being rhythmical. Parallelism and phonetic recurrence at the beginning of the lines contribute to the musicality of his poems. (3) Most of the pictures he painted with words are honest, undistorted images of different aspects of America of the day. (4) Whitman’s language is relatively simple and even rather crude. Another characteristic in Whitman’s language is his strong tendency to use oral English. Whitman’s vocabulary is amazing. He would use powerful, colorful, as well as rarely-used words. Leaves of Grass的分析： (1). Grass, the most common thing with the greatest vitality, is an image of the poet himself, a symbol of the then rising American nation and an embodiment of his ideals about democracy and freedom. (2). In this giant work, openness, freedom, and above all, individualism are all that concerned him. (3). In this book he also praises nature, democracy, labor and creation, and sings of man’s dignity and equality, and of th e brightest future of mankind. Most of the poems in Leaves of Grass sing of the “en-masse” and self as well. 6. Emily Dickinson: 诗歌的主要内容：love, nature, death and immortality. 7. Edgar Allen Poe: 短篇小说家和诗人。 Poe is the father of psychoanalytic criticism and the father of detective story. 主题：death of one’s beloved lover of great intelligence and beauty. He also writes about horror (Gothic) stories, murder, and insanity. 8. Henry James: The turn of the screw The founder of psychological realism. He was the first American writer to conceive his artistic work in international themes. 9. Mark Twain:The adventures of Huckleberry Finn Hemingway described it as the book from which “all modern American literature comes”. The style of this book is quite simple. The book is written in the colloquial style. Though a local book, it touches upon the human situation in a general, indeed universal way: humanitarianism ultimately triumphs. It tells a story about the United States before the Civil War, around 1850, when the great Mississippi Valley was still being settled. Here lies an America, wit its great national faults, full of violence and even cruelty, yet still retaining the virtues of “some simplicity, some innocence, some peace.” 10. Stephen Crane, Frank Norris, Theodore Dreiser: 自然主义的代表人物。 11. F. Scott Fitzgerald:The Great Gatsby 迷惘一代的代表人物 12. Ernest Hemingway: A Farewell to Arms; For Whom the Bell Tolls; The Old Man and the Sea The title of For Whom the Bell Tolls comes from John Donne’s Meditation. 13. William Faulkner: stream of consciousness的写作手法 14. Ezra Pound: 意象派代表人物。 意象派基本主张： (1) Direct treatment of the “thing”, whether subjective or objective. (2) To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation (3) As regarding rhythm, to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in the sequence of a metronome. 15. Robert Frost: natural poet. 16. Eugene Glastone O’Neill: Desire Under the Elms Long Days Journey into Night: Mark Twain H. L. Mencken considered "the true father of our national literatu re” Adventures of Huckleberry Finn(1884) and Life on the Mississippi(1883) Twain shaped the world's view of American and made a more extensive combination of American folk humor and serious literature than previous writers had ever done. Mark Twain’s sty le 1) Twain is also known as a local colorist, who preferred to present social life through portraits of the local characters of his regions 2) Another fact that made Twain unique is his magic power with language, his use of vernacular. His words are colloquial, concrete and direct in effect, and his sentence structures are simple, even ungrammatical, which is typical of the spoken language 3) Mark Twain's humor is remarkable, too. Most of his works tend to be funny, containing some practical jokes, comic details, witty remarks. 4) Paid more attention to the "life" of the Americans, Concerned with the life of a small, well-defined region and the lower-class people 5) Nostalgic in a vanishing way of life and recorders of a present that faded before their eyes Adventures of Huckleberry Fin The character analysis and social meaning of Huck Finn Huck is a typical American boy with “a sound heart and a deformed conscience”. He appears to be vulgar in language and in manner, but he is honest and decent in es sence. His remarkable raft’s journey down on the Mississippi river can be regarded as his process of education and his way to grow up. Huck is the son of nature and a symbol for freedom and earthly pragmatism. Through the eye of Huck, the innocent and reluctant rebel, we see the pre-Civil War American society fully exposed. Twain contrasts the life on the river and the life on the banks, the innocence and the experience, the nature and the culture, the wilderness and the civilization. Ernest Hemingway A Nobel Prize winner for literature His style, the particular type of hero in his novels, and his life attitudes have been widely recognized, not only in English-speaking countries but all over the world Hemingway shot himself with a hunting gun In Our Time (1925)is the first book to present a Hemingway hero--Nick Adams The Sun Also Rises(1926) is Hemingway's first true novel. A vivid portrait of "The Lost Generation," -- a group of young Americans who left their native land and fought in the war and later engaged themselves in writing in a new way about their own experiences. Hemingway's second big success is A Farewell to Arms, telling us a story about the tragic love affair of a wounded American soldier with a British nurse -- emphasizes his belief that man is trapped both physically and mentally, but goes to some lengths to refute the idea of nature, man is doomed to be entrapped For Whom the Bell Tolls clearly represents a new beginning in Hemingway's career as a writer, which concerns a volunteer American guerrilla Robert Jordan fighting in the Spanish Civil War, this work Caps his career and leads to his receipt of the Nobel Prize The Old Man and the Sea, Men Without Women(1927), Death in the Afternoon(1932), The Snows of Kilimanjaro, To Have and Have Not (1937) Hemingway develops the style of colloquialism initiated by Mark Twain Hemingway was highly praised by the Nobel Prize Committee for "his powerful style-forming mastery of the art" of creating modern fiction. Indian Camp The title indicates that the material is contemporary and to some extent, representative of the early twentieth-century experience A reference to the well-know phrase from the Book of Common Prayer:" Give us peace in our time, O Lord," the title is very ironic because there is no peace at all in the stories In a chronological order, introduces Nick Adams to readers from his childhood to adolescence and manhood Nick watches his father deliver an Indian woman of a baby by Caesarian section, with a Jack-knife and without anesthesia. This incident brings the boy into contact with something that is perplexing and unpleasant, and is actually Nick's initiation into the pain and violence of birth and death. Most of Hemingway's later works are merely variations of the Nick Adams stories in In Our Time The Hemingway code heroes and grace under pressure They have seen the cold world, and for one cause, they boldly and courageously face the reality. They have an indestructible spirit for his optimistic view of life. Whatever the result is, they are ready to live with grace under pressure. No matter how tragic the ending is, they will never be defeated. Finally, they will be prevailing because of their indestructible spirit and courage. The iceberg technique Hemingway believes that a good writer does not need to reveal every detail of a character or action. The one-eighth is presented will suggest all other meaningful dimensions of the story. Thus, Hemingway’s language is symbolic and suggestive.