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修辞学笔记

修辞学笔记
修辞学笔记

Metaphor (Condensed Simile)

The news is as a dagger to his heart. The news is a dagger to his heart.

Joe fought like a lion. Joe was a lion in the battle.

Learning may be likened to climbing up a mountain. Learning is climbing up a mountain.

The gossip was like a net that strangled her. She was strangled in the net of gossip.

The machine-gun shot down the enemy like a mower cutting down the grass. ★The machine-gun mowed down the enemy.

The parks of our city are like human lungs. ★The parks are the lung of our city.

1) ★Money is the lens in a camera.

2) Sometimes I rambled to pine groves, standing like temples, or like fleets at sea, full-rigged, with wavy boughs, and rippling with light…(can’t be changed to simile)

3) Greece was the cradle of Western culture.

Faded/Dead Metaphors

? Table-leg

? Bottleneck

? Running brook

? Square shooter (shooting iron) (magazine: periodical/publication; a store house –power magazine火药库/magazine of a rifle弹仓、弹匣

NOT Metaphor/Simile

1) Paul looks very much like his brother.

2) The boy is more than intelligent.

3) My car runs as fast as the train.

4) I have an old photograph of the drug store, taken in 1894; it shows my grandfather and two clerks standing behind showcases, as if waiting for customers, and my grandmother sitting at the switchboard, surrounded by wires. She looks like a fish struggling in the net, and my grandfather and the clerks, though they smile bravely, are captives, held by invisible strands.

Identify the similes and metaphors in the following; then convert the similes into metaphors or expand the metaphors into similes, if possible.

1) He is a wolf in sheep’s clothing.

?He is like a wolf in sheep’s skin.

2) ★The parks are the lungs of our city.

?The parks of our city are like human lungs.

3) ★His voice sounded like a thunder in the hall.

?His voice thundered in the hall.

4) ★Money is a lens in a camera.

?Money is like a lens in a camera.

5) Lottie staggered on the lowest verandah step like a bird fallen out of the nest.

?Not possible to change.

6) We tore through the black-and-gold town like a pair of scissors tearing through brocade.

?Not possible to change.

7) ★The machine-gun was shooting down the enemy like a mower cutting down grass.

?The machine-gun was mowing down the enemy.

8) Slimy canals crept like green snakes beside the road.

?Slimy green canals snakes beside the road.

9) Applications for jobs flooded the Employment Agency.

?Applications for jobs came into the Employment Agency like a flood.

10) ★Hitler’s attach on Poland in 1939 was like lightning.

?Hitler’s made a lightning attach on Poland in 1939.

Study and improve the following sentences:

1) Life was like a journey studded with pitfalls.

?Life was like a journey full of pitfalls.

2) ★Not all slim girls are paper tigers.

?Not all slim girls are paper flowers.

3) ★A real friend is like a mirror that can help you see your mistakes clearly.

?A real friend is like a mirror that can help you see any dirt on your face.

4) Examinations are the death sentence to students.

?Examinations are harvest seasons of students.

5) ★Jack’s house was destroyed by fire. Jim went to comfort him and asked him to contact the insurance company. “Cheer up, my friend,”he said. “Your insurance claim will be proceeding like a house on fire, I’m sure.”

?... “Your insurance claim will be proceeding quickly/fast/soon.”

Analogy 类比

? It’s with our judgments as with o ur watches; none go just alike, yet each believes his own.

? The inspiration for a story is like “a pull on the line…the outside signal that has startled or moved the creative mind to complicity and brought the story to active being…”

? An individual human existence should be like a river – small at first, narrowly contained within its banks, and rushing passionately past boulders and over waterfalls. Gradually the river grows wider, the banks recede, the waters flow more quietly, and in the end, without any visible break,

they become merged in the sea, and painlessly lose their individual being. (Bertrand Russell)

? Before you reprehend another, take heed you are not culpable in what you go about to reprehend. He who cleanses a blot with blotted fingers makes a greater blur. (Quarles)

? Intellectual assimilation takes time. The mind is not to be enriched as a coal barge is loaded. Whatever is precious in a cargo is carefully on board and carefully placed. Whatever is delicate and fine must be received delicately, and its place in the mind thoughtfully assigned. (Arlo Bates) ? In rivers the water that you touch is the last of that has passed and first of that which comes: so with time present. (Leonardo Da Vinci)

? The cultivation of a hobby and new form s of interest is…not a business that can be undertaken in a day or swiftly improved by a mere command of the will. The growth of alternative mental interests is a long process. The seeds must be carefully chosen; they must fall on good ground; they must be sedulously tended, if the vivifying fruits are to be at hand when needed. (Winston Churchill)

? A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

Allegory 讽喻

(Speaking figuratively, symbolism allegory)

Metonymy 换喻

1. He must have been spoilt from the cradle.

2. The kettle is boiling. (=The water in the kettle is boiling.)

3. Italy cannot be vanished in warfare nor Greece in studies. (=Italians cannot be vanished in warfare nor Greeks in studies.)

4. The pen is stronger than the sword. (=Those who use the pen have more influence than those who use the sword. /The officials have more say than the officers.)

5. Land belonging to the crown occupied the best part of the country. (=Land belonging to the monarch occupied…)

6. The grey hair should be respected. (=The old/aged should be respected.)

7. What is learned in the cradle is carried to the grave. (=Things learned in childhood will not be forgotten till death.)

8. Having finished the law school, he was called to the Bar. (=…he became a lawyer (Am E)/ a barrister (Br E).

9. Every government should attend to cleaning its own Augean stables…(相传国王奥杰尼斯的牛舍内养牛3000头,30年未打扫,故Augean stables c成了肮脏的代名词,这里影射政府都有腐败现象,应注意克服。)

10. Bacchus has drowned more than Nepptune but has killed fewer than Mars. (分别代表希腊、罗马神话中的酒神、海神、和战神,这里表示酒、大海和战争。说明被酒淹死者多于大海,而别就杀死者少于战争,表示了劝人戒酒和反对战争的意思。)

11. At the end of two years, your sheep-skin should be the least important thing you take away. (m美国女作家Diane Waksoke在Writer’s Digest杂志1992年8月号撰文谈道上大学进修写作时,强调要真这个机会多读书、研究和提高写作能力,而不要去追求学位文凭,并利用童话故事A Wolf in Sheep-skin说明他的观点。)

Metonymy in the press

Down Under Australia

British Lion England/the English government

Ivan The Russian people

John Bull England/the English people

Uncle Sam the United States of America

Capitol Hill the legislative Branch of the U.S.

Downing Street the British government/cabinet

Hollywood American film-making industry

Fleet Street the British press

Foggy Bottom U.S. State Department

Madison Avenue American advertising industry

the Pentagon the U.S. military establishment

Wall Street U.S. financial circles

the White House the U.S. President/administration

brain/head wisdom, intelligence, reason

heart feelings, emotions

Quisling traitor

Romeo lover

Helen beautiful woman

Milton poet

the bar the legal profession

The bench Position (or office) of judge/magistrate

the press news reporters, journalists, newspapers

Synecdoche 提喻

1. More hands (=working men) are needed at the moment.

2. We had dinner at ten dollars a head (=each person).

3. This famous port used to be a harbour which was crowded with masts. (masts=boats)

4. All the plants in the cold country are turning green in this smiling year. (this smiling year=the spring)

5. To the Carthaginian came aid from the Spaniard, and from the fierce Transalpine. In Italy, too, many a wearer of the toga shared the same sentiments. (words in read 单数表示复数)

6. Dread disaster smote his breasts with grief; so, panting, from out his lungs’very depth he sobbed for anguish. (形式上复数,即把一个身上的左右胸肺以两个的形式表示出来,意在强调,实际上只是单数)

7. There is a mixture of the tiger and the ape in the character of a Frenchman. (tiger & ape分别表示“残暴”与“狡猾”,是具体表抽象。)

8. “Einstein is my admiration,”the little girl said. (admistration指所崇拜的人物,是用抽象表具体)

9. The child who is so curious of music is going to be a Beethoven, I dare say. (句中用Beethoven 表示“杰出的音乐家”,即特殊表示一般。)

10. Even if you don’t know Pavlov’s dog from Qedipus Rex, you can write helpful, topical articles dealing with the workings of the mind or human behavior. (句中dog指巴浦洛夫神经学,是具

体表示抽象,也可作局部表示整体。)

11. Instances of synecdoche can be found in the uses of “iron”for golf club, “cotton”for dress, “pigskin”for football, etc. (句中iron指高尔夫铁投球棒,这既是以典型用具联系人,也是局部代整体,或以某物品的制作材料代表该物,等。)

Rhetoric

Grammar – science of a language????

Rhetoric – art of a language ?persuasive and forceful

A)

1. Originated in speaking

2. With printing industry, speaking and writing

3. Tend to writing the art of effective communication

Register hyper(super)formal宪法, formal领导者讲话, informal其他场合, casual小说, intimate 情人;亲热的?shared knowledge

2.1 The 3 basic elements in rhetoric

The three aesthetic criteria: Logos; pathos; ethos

(The three fundamental elements in writing: fact; reason; feeling)

逻辑;情感;人格

2.2 Logos and logical thinking

In the practice of writing and speaking, logos refers to the use of logical reasoning to persuade the readers or audience.

Logical reasoning stems from logical thinking, which is reflected in relevant materials and proper organization, which consists of proper words, coherent sentences and organic whole.

2.3 Formal logic and syllogism

In formal logic, there are two approaches for logical reasoning: deduction and induction. Deduction proceeds from the general to the particular while induction proceeds from the particular to the general.

Syllogism represents deductive reasoning in a pattern consisting of a major premise, a minor premise and a conclusion.

2.4 Changes in the connotation of pathos

In the beginning, “pathos” referred to the emotions in general. In modern rhetoric, “pathos” has a wide range from the study of the mental working or psychology of the readers or the audience to the technology to convince the readers or the audience by emotional appeals.

2.5 Pathos in current use

The use of pathos can be seen everywhere, for it is commonly regarded as an essential element

in advertising public relations, image making and education. Skills of emotional appeals include witty handling of language frequently accompanied by “exposure” and “eloquence”.

Exposure evokes indignation while eloquence refers to language used powerfully and fluently to appeal to people’s nobler emotions.

2.6 Ethos in rhetoric

In term of individuals, ethos refers to the character or personality of a human being, a man’s balance between the passion and caution or the contract between thought and action.

In modern rhetoric, ethos is displayed in two levels.

1. On serious occasions, ethos is based on philosophical views on different values, and different world outlooks.

2. In ordinary writing or speech, ethos is based on personal standing, academic authority and moral qualities of the writer or the speaker.

2.7 Fallacies in logical reasoning 逻辑错误

2.8 Fallacies related to pathos

2.9 Fallacious use of ethos

2.7 Logical reasoning (fallacies)

1. Non sequitur –it does not follow 结论和呈现的证据不吻合。

2. Begging the question 假设未被证明的观点正确

3. Post hoc ergo propter hoc –based on (eg: this supposition, therefore, on account of it) 证据不是但得出一个结论

So we should

a) Based on sufficient evidences

b) Evidences and conclusions should be aligned

c) We must be comprehensive or take all the factor into consideration when we draw consclusions.

2.8 Pathos (fallacies)

Ignoring the question 答非所问

Argument about a person (eg: personal attach) 人身攻击

2.9 Ethos (fallacies)

Blind worship of one’s own standard of ethos 过分相信自己的人格标准

Sham ethos 虚假的人格

The three levels of Rhetorical Operation

3.1 Selecting words and phrases (A) exactness ★

4.1 Seeking sentences variety (B) variety ★

5.1 Organizing paragraphs into a text (C)

3.2 Principles for selecting words and phrases

? Principle One: Exactness or precision

One is required to pay sufficient attention to the different in shades of meanings when it comes to synonyms, which sometimes involves a synchronic study as well as a diachronic study of word meaning.

Principle Two: economy (avoid wordy)

? Principle Three: Avoid using clichés and abstract expressions (relevant accuracy)

? Principle Four: Vividness or gracefulness

? Principle Five: Appropriateness or propriety

Rhetoric

? Communicative rhetoric: emphasizes the choices of words, selection of sentence patterns and organizing the whole piece in a proper way.

? Aesthetic rhetoric: emphasizes the vividness and gracefulness in expressing one’s ideas.

4.2 Five sentence patterns in attaining rhetorical purposes

1. ★The cumulative sentence主语+从句/短语

It begins with the basic sentence structure, followed by phases and/or dependent clauses.

eg: Happiness is composed of several ingredients among which three are the most important, namely, health, love and harmonious relations with those around you, because without sound physical conditions and wholesome psychological conditions, one can almost get nowhere; and love is the most nurturing thing for human beings and harmony between you and people around you can help you maintain a cheerful state of mind.

2. The loose sentence

The cumulative sentence is sometimes a loose sentence. The coordinated sentence is also a loose sentence.

3. ★The periodic sentence

A periodic sentence is usually a long and complex sentence in which some or all of the independent clause is held back until the very end of the sentence.

eg: The most three important ingredients elements in composing happiness, which can never be ignored, and which can contribute to your success in everything to the maintaining of your cheerful state in mind, are healthy, love and harmonious relations. 主语+附加内容+主句,主句到最后才出现。

5.2 From a paragraph(s) to a Complete Text

A) Based on word choice and sentence variety, the basic rhetorical requirements for paragraph writing can be summarized by the following two points.

1. A clear central thought

? All the statement and details employed to illustrate or develop the central thought.

2. The application of all the principles and techniques of word choice and sentence variety

B) Three parts of a paragraph

a) Topic sentence

b) Body

c) conclusion

? The topic of the central thought is normally expressed in the topic sentence, placed at the beginning of the paragraph.

? The development of the topic sentence consists of more details.

? The conclusion is the summary of the thought, which is usually placed at the end of text.

5.3 In a good essay, proper connection and an easy flow of ideas are important. Transitional words and phrases fall into the following classes according to their function.

? To denote contrast

eg: by contrast, in contrast, however, nevertheless, whereas, in spite of the fact that, on the other hand, on the contrar y, far from…, different from…, etc.

? To denote similarity

eg: similarly, in the similar manner, likewise, in addition, in the same way, moreover, accordingly, besides, furthermore, etc.

? To denote time or place relations

eg: earlier, later, at the same time, simultaneously, meanwhile, father on, nearly, at once, etc.

? To denote cause and consequence

eg: therefore, thus, as a result, consequently, etc.

? To cite an example

eg: as an illustration, for instance, for example, etc.

? To denote repetition or summary

eg: as I have said, in other words, to repeat, in brief, in short, in summary, to sum up, etc

? To denote sequence or order

eg: first of all, first, then, at last, finally, (firstly, secondly…) etc.

5.4 Different subject matter requires different pattern, which may be subdivided into the following types.

a) Type one: exposition说明文

b) Type two: persuasion劝说; argumentation辩论

c) Type Three: narrative记叙文

d) Type Four: description描写文

6 Meaning of Words

6.1

1. Diction is the way of word choice.

2. If you wish to choose proper words in proper places, you are required to have a good command of large vocabulary.

3. Meanings of words can be viewed of different levels

6.2 Some are only the literal or face meanings whereas others are hidden between the lines.

6.3 When meanings of words are viewed in a more comprehensive way, they can be summarized as the three types of meanings.

Referential meaning 参照

Social meaning

Affective meaning 情感

6.3 Referential meaning 字典中的第一个意思

The referential meaning of a word or phrase refers to a person, an object, an event, an abstract notion, a state, an action.

6.4 Social meaning

The social meaning of a word or phrase is the type of meaning that we wish to identify certain social characteristics of speakers or situations

6.5 Affective meaning

The affective meaning refers to the emotional color that is attached to words and phrases.

7. Denotation and Connotation

7.1 To choose the right word among the synonyms, we are required to acquire an understanding or the distinction between denotation外延意义and connotation. 内涵意义

Denotation: =①=②=③=④

The basic part of the meaning of a word is its denotation or denotations, that is, the ②dictionary meaning or meanings of the word, so it is also called the “③explicit meaning”. ④Referential meanings fall into the category of denotation.

Connotation: =①=②=③=④

①Meanings beyond its denotations, a word may also have connotations. Connotations are its ②overtones of meaning. Connotations are sometimes called “③implicit meanings”.

The two basic aspects of connotations may be called “favorable” and “unfavorable” or “positive” and “negative”, or “approving” and “disapproving”.

Connotations imply attitude, emotions, etc. of a speaker or writer. ④Affective meanings fall into the category of connotations.

A word often acquires connotations by its past history and associations.

8. Generalization and Specification

8.1 Generality and specificity are intended for different purpose. When you are engaged in writing something on a general subject, an abstract of an academic thesis etc, you are supposed to resort to the means of generalization, or generality or general statements; however, when you are required to give some specific details to support to resort to the means of specification or specificity or specific details or examples.

Generality and specificity are often combined in one piece of writing and they are comparative. For example:

? He often writes about people famous in literary circles.

? He often writes about Shakespeare and Russell.

Figure of Speech

1. Simile 明喻

A simile is a figure of speech which makes a comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic in common. The comparison purely imaginative, that is, the resemblance between the two unlike things in that one particular aspect exists only in mind, “in our inward eye” and not in the nature of the things themselves. To make the comparison, words like “as”, “as…so” and “like” and used to transfer the quality we associate with one to the other. Similes have three main uses: descriptive, illuminative and illustrative…

1. Descriptive.

eg: Pop looked so unhappy, almost like a child who’s lost his pi ece of candy.

2. Illuminative.

eg: He was like a cock who thought the sun had risen to hear his crow.

A list of trite hackneyed similes

3. Illustrative

eg: as poor as church mice; as cold as ice, as strong as an OX.

2. Metaphor 暗喻

A metaphor, like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements, but unlike simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated. For example, “The world is like a stage” is a simile “The world is a stage” is a metaphor.

eg: Kissinger has always been a political chameleon, able to take on the coloration of his environment.

3. Analogy 类比

Analogy is also a form of comparison, but unlike simile or metaphor which usually uses comparisons on one point of resemblance, analogy draws a parallel between two unlike things that have several qualities or points of resemblance.

Here’s an example:

The chess-board is the world; the pieces are the phenomena of the universe; the rules of the game are what we call the laws of nature. The player on the other side is hidden from us. We know that his play is always fair, just and patience. But we also know, to our cost, that he never overlooks a mistake, or makes the smallest allowance for ignorance.

4. Personification拟人

It is a figure of speech that gives human forms or feelings to animals, or life and personal attributes to inanimate object, or to ideas and abstractions.

eg: The ancient wilderness dreamed, and stretched itself to the sun and seemed to sigh with

immeasurable content.

5. Hyperbole夸张= overstatement

Hyperbole is the deliberate use of overstatement or exaggeration to achieve emphasis.

eg: She was beautiful – her beauty make the bright world dim, and everything beside seemed like the fleeting image of a shade.

6. Understatement 低调陈述/含蓄陈述

Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole, or overstatement. It achieves its effects of emphasizing a fact by deliberately understating; impressing the listener or reader more by what is merely implied or left unsaid than by bare statement.

eg: He was a man of no mean wealth (he was quite rich)

7. Euphemism 委婉

Substitution of mild or vague or roundabout expression for harsh or direct one. Euphemism as a figure of speech is more than just saying something unpleasant in a pleasant way. It is to soften harsh reality, so it is sometimes considered as a psychological need.

A. To die to pass away/ to depart/ to got to heaven

B. Old age senility/ getting on in years/ past one’s prime/ feeling one’s age/ second childhood

C. Old people senior citizens

D. Mad: feel minded soft in the head/ of unsound simple-minded

E. Penniless but of pocket/ hard up/ in reduced/ circumstance/ badly of

F. The poor: the have-nots/ the underprivileged/ the disadvantaged

G. Slum: sub-standard housing

H. A maid: house keeper/domestic help/ day help

8. Pun 双关语

A pun is a play of words, or rather a play on the form and meaning of words.

eg: My doctor says that one million people are overweight. Those, of course, are round figures.

Sign on a Men’s Gym door; we have cours es to make grown mean young and young men groan. 一个词两个意思/两个词发音相同词义不同

9反语

Irony is a figure of speech that achieves emphasis by saying the opposite what is meant, the intended meaning of the words being the opposite of their usual sense. In daily speech, people call a very thin boy “fatty”, or a very fat boy “skinny”.

Here is another example.

Under these situations, I reply that I’m well and will not give up anything.

10. Paradox似是而非的隽语

A paradox is a figure of speech consisting of a statement or proposition which on the face of it seems self-contradictory, absurd or contrary to establish facts or practice but which on further thinking study may prove to be true, well founded, and even to contain a succinct point.

eg:

1. In fact, it appears that the teachers of English teach so poorly large because the teach grammar so well.

2. The curliest lies are often told in silence. 最残酷的谎言总是沉默的。

3. On the ignorance of the Learnt 论专业人员的无知。

11. Oxymoron 茅盾修辞法

An Oxymoron is a compressed paradox, formed by the joining of two contrasting, contradictory or incongrums (不和谐的) term as in “Better-sweet memories/proud humility (this refers to the quality of being humble, but not servile /orderly chaos (confusion exists but there is some method or orders in the way the things are thrown around) / a living dearth/ conspicuous absence/ a love-hate relationship.

Antithesis 平行对照

Antithesis is the deliberate arrangement of constructing words or ideas in balanced structural forms to achieve emphasis. Here the form of the expression plays a vital role for effect, for the force of the emphasis chiefly stems from the juxtaposition of direct opposites. Here are some examples.

1. Speech is silver, silence is gold.

2. Man proposes, God disposes.

3. Kings are like stars, they rise and set.

Onomatopoeia 拟声法

Onomatopoeia is a figure of speech, which means imitative words. Here is a list of words of imitating animal sounds: An ass brays (??)/ A bee bums (buzzes, drones)/ A bird twitter (chips, chirrups) / A bull bellows (lows) / calf bleats/ A cat meows (mews, purrs) A chick chirrups (A cock crows)/ A crane whoops/ A cow moes (buos, lows) / A cricket chirps (chirrups)/ Acrow caws (croaks) / A deer bleats/ A dog yaps/ yelps, barks, bays, snarls, growls, howls/ A donkey (hee howos) /A dove coos/ croodles/ A duck quacks/ A elephant trumpets / A fly hums (blazes, dronos) / A fox yelps/ A frog croaks/ A goat bleats/ A groose cockles ( gaggles) / A hen cackles (clocks chucks, chuckles/ A horse neighs (whiimmies) / A lamb bleats (boos) / A lion roars/ A magpie chatter/ A monkey screechs (chatters, gibbers, jobbers/ A mosquites hums (buzzes, drones) A mouse squeakes (peep)/ A nightingale jugs (jug-jugs)/Anowl hoots(shoops)/ A parrot squanks / A pig grunts (squeaks) A grgemam croos (croods, croodles) / A rat hisses/ A sparrow twitters (chirrups, chirrupes) / A tiger growls/ A turkey gibbles / A whale blows/ A wolf howls (growls)

Metonymy 转喻

Metonymy is a figure of speech that has to do with the substitution of the name of one thing for that of another. This substitution name may be an attribute of that thing or be closely associated with it. Metonymy is a very useful and effective rhetorical device. For it compresses much into a single word or short noun phrase. The following examples are among the familiar.

Pen, what is written by the pen; books and articles, etc., sword instrument of force and destruction/eg: The pen is mightier than the sword. Table, source or supply of food. She sets a good table. Bottle, liquor, wine, alcohol. He took to the bottle.

Metonymy can be derived from various sources –from names of person, from animals, professions, locations or place names, etc.

1. John Bull, England, or the English people.

2. Uncle Sam, the United States of America

3. Ivan, the Russian people

4. John Joe, ordinary American people

5. Heart, feelings or emotions

6. Head, brain, wisdom, intelligence, reason

eg: Her heart rules her head.

7. Downing street, the British government or cabinet

8. The Pentagon, the U.S. military establishment.

Unity and Coherence

1. The main idea and Two Principles

? The main idea, or the central idea, or the controlling idea should have the power that holds the whole piece of writing together. In normal circumstance, the main idea of a simple sentences lies in the keywords, the central idea of a paragraph lies in the topic sentence, the controlling idea of the whole piece of writing lies in the introductory part.

? The two principles are unity and coherence. The former means that each part of the composition is closely connected with two central idea and the latter means that each of parts is connected with the one that comes before it in a smooth and logical manner.

2. Creating Unity

? Only those details which contribute to the development of the central idea are provided.

? Those irrelevant details should be deleted.

3. Maintaining coherence

In maintaining coherence, the following three points should be observed.

? A thorough understanding of the subject or the theme concerned

? A outline of what you wish to express

? Examination and revision of your draft

The Literal Use and Figurative Use of language labels in use

Labels used in the dictionary include.

1. Formality and informality such as “formal” “informal” “slang” “taboo”

2. Feelings or opinion, such as “approving” “disapproving” “humous ”

3. The origin of a word, or to the situatio n in which the words is used such as “specialized” “law” “medical” “literary” “poetic” “old use”

4. Variety of English, such as Irish English “regional”.

5. Others such as “fig” “female” not standard.

“Literal” refers to “exactly” the same as the origi nal basic meaning of a word or expression. In

contrast, the figurative use of the language means that a word or a phrase is “used not with their basic factual meaning but to suggest part of that meaning.” Here is an example. “I was intoxicated by the beaut iful sight.” In the sentence, the word “intoxicated” is figuratively used to mean “was made to feel very much happy”.

Relationship between literal/figurative and denotative/connotative meanings.

? In a broader sense, “literal/figurative” and “denotative/connotative” can be deemed as synonymous expressions.

? If examined carefully, they still show some differences, principally in two ways.

? The figurative meaning of a word or a phrase or a sentence normally suggests part of its literal meaning, while the connotative meaning is not necessarily so, though there exists some connections between them.

? The pair of “literal” and “figurative” seems to stress people’s intentional use of language while the pair of “denotative” and “connotative” principally mean s objective descriptions of the language meanings.

Economy and Clarity

1. Two basic requirements of “economy” in writing

The first principles of economy “cut off any unnecessary words in the sentences in the similar manner, act off any unnecessary sentences in the paragraph and unnecessary paragraph in the whole piece of writing.

The second principle of economy in most cases, try to avoid beating about the bush, but to come straight to the point.

2. The close relationship between economy and clarity

1) A person may have his own unique style, but everybody should observe the principle of economy if possible, for the reason that wordiness tends to affect clarity.

2) Observeing the principle of economy doesn’t necessarily mean that under all circumstan ce you should strip your sentences down to the bare minimum and the shortest words or sentences and simplest constructions are not the most economical, if they fail to convey your exact or complete meaning.

Remember: effect is the top priority , either in speaking or in writing the principle of economy should follow the principle of the first consideration being the most effective expressions.

Causes of wordiness

1) The first case is “verbal dumping”, the words just come and come, copiously, without com ing to the main point.

2) The second case is “unnecessary repetition”.

3) The third case is the use of more complex words, sentences and structures, which has become habitual.

Accuracy and Vagueness

1. Accuracy in coomunication

a) Accuracy means expressing an idea in an exact manner and to the point.

b) Accuracy largely depends on careful choice of words, and due consideration of denotations and connotations of the words selected.

2. Important of grammar in achieving accuracy

A solid foundation in grammar is essential in achieving accuracy, for any blunder in grammar is bound to cause problem in understanding.

3. Vagueness as a language attributes.

a) Sometimes we are required to employ “common words” or “general terms” to talk about the infinite varieties of human experience, words often have fuzzy boundaries of meaning. For example, words like “beautiful” “sad” “feeble” “wide” can only give fuzzy meanings.

b) Vagueness exists not only in adjective, but in other classes of words or even in structure as well. Here are some examples. Words and phrases such as “about” “more commonly” “At present” and the use of modal verbs such as “should” “dare to” and co ordinary patterns such as “either” “or” “both…and…”

c) As an attribute of language, vagueness stems from human understanding and interpretation of the objective world. For example, the geographical terms like “lowland” “plateau” are rather comparative.

d) Vagueness and ambiguities are close neighbors. That’s why we should be careful in using vague terms.

Vagueness in use

4. When we face some insurmountable problem in expressing ourselves in an accurate manner, we may turn to a vague term for help.

5. When we find it unwise to be accurate, we may use a vague term. In this cases, it is called “factual expressions”

6. Appropriate use of vagueness is often a device for emphasis.

部编语文五年级【阅读理解】训练、体会修辞手法的作用 +阅读理解专项练习及

部编语文五年级【阅读理解】训练、体会修辞手法的作用 +阅读理解题和 答案 第三讲、语修辞手法的作用 小学五年级大部分课文都使用了修辞手法,这些修辞手法的使用,使句子更加生动、具体、形象,使文章更有文采,也使文章的内涵更丰富。那小学有哪些常见的修辞手法?它们的作用是什么呢? 比喻:是用具体浅显、人们比较熟悉的事物去表现抽象、难懂、人们少见的事物的一种修辞手法。一般由本体、比喻词和喻体三部分构成。比喻可使事物生动、形象、具体可感,引发读者的联想和想象,让人留下深刻的印象,使文章更有感染力。如《窃读记》一文中的句子“我像一匹饿狼,贪婪地读着”。这个句子把“我”比作“饿狼”,形象地表现了“我”对书的热爱,以及看书时的如痴如醉。 拟人:就是把物当作人来写,把人的部位、动作、情感和品质等用在物上。拟人手法的使用,可使句子更灵动,既能生动形象地写出某事物的某个特点,又能直观地表达出作者的情感。如《白杨》一课中的句子“不管遇到风沙还是雨雪,不管遇到干旱还是洪水,它总是那么直,那么坚强,不软弱,也不动摇”。这个句子把白杨当作人来写,把人的精神品质“坚强”用在了白杨上,赞美了白杨坚强的品质。 排比:是将三个或三个以上结构相似或意思相关的分句排列在一起组成的句子,它的作用是使句子读起来富有节奏感,朗朗上口,而且能增强语势,提高文章的表达效果。如《白杨》一课的开头“车窗外是茫茫的大戈壁,没有山,没有水,也没有人烟气这三个“没有“构成了一组排比,突出了戈壁的恶劣环境,反衬了白杨顽强的生命力。 夸张:就是为了达到某种表达效果的需要,有意把事物的形象、特征、作用、程度等方面进行扩大或者缩小的修辞方式。夸张的作用是能够形象具体地描述岀事物,能引起读者丰富的想象和强烈的共鸣。有时还能增强文章的幽默感。《桂花雨》一文中的句子“全年,整个村子都浸在桂花的香气里”。这个句子通过夸张的手法表现了家乡桂花的香,像“浸”在里面一样,用词生动而形象。 设问:就是有针对性地提岀问题,然后把答案说出来,即自问自答。设问的作用是提醒注意,引起思考;突出某些内容,使文章起波澜,有变化。 反问:就是用疑问的形式来表达肯定的意思,但语气比陈述句更肯定,感情色彩也更鲜明。句子中往往有“难道”“怎么”“怎能”等词作反问词。反问可以加强语气,发人深思,激发读者的感情,加深读者的印象,增强文中的气势和说服力,为文章奠定一种激昂的感情基调。 高原汽车兵 川藏公路全长两千四百多公里,穿越折多山、雀儿山等十四座大山和金沙江、大渡河等十二条奔腾咆哮的江河。恶劣的气候和复杂的地形,使这里成了可怕的“魔域车每走一步,都面临生与死的考验。 1998年秋的一天,张全林率领的车队刚刚爬上雀儿山半山腰,一场横扫藏东高原的暴雪不期而至。

亚里士多德的修辞学总结

试论亚里士多德的修辞学总结 总结: 亚里士多德修辞说服逻辑论证技术辩证法 摘要亚里士多德面对现实的修辞实践,对修辞术进行了理论上的概括与分析,标志着古典修辞术的成熟。他将修辞术与逻辑联系起来,试图确立修辞术的技术性地位,但这事实上局限了修辞术的运用。 键词修辞术辩证法技术逻辑 修辞术产生于公元前五世纪的希腊世界,并在古典时代达到繁荣的雅典民主制下盛极一时。无论是在集会、诉讼等公共场合,还是私人的日常交往,修辞技艺都获得了普遍的应用。特别是在权利的获得与城邦的治理中,成功的修辞运用更具有决定性的作用,直接影响到国家的决策与前途。修辞术之普遍受到重视,与长期修辞实践积累的丰富经验,都为修辞学的确立与研究奠定了基础,而这个任务就由亚里士多德历史的完成了。他写了大量的修辞学论著,特别是在《修辞术》中,系统地总结了修辞技艺,阐述了较完整的修辞理论思想。本文即试图对此进行初步的分析与评价。 一 对修辞术的研究早已开始。智者是早期的修辞学家。他们认为"人是万物的尺度",因而放弃了追求真理的自然派哲学传统,将通过说服而能影响和控制人的修辞术奉为最高智慧。智者们以传授修辞学为业,并为此编了很多实用性的修辞手册。这类作品都是从各自的修辞经验出发,虽然总结了一些说服技巧,但具有很大的随意性。柏拉图批判说,它们都没有解决"怎样有效的使用各种方法,怎样才能使一篇文章形成一个整体"等问题。在柏拉图看来,这类作品所讲的技巧缺乏技术的必然性,很难被初学者掌握,不过是一些"修辞学垃圾"。其实,智者的技艺真正遭到柏拉图反对之处,还是在于它不管什么真理,而一味追随大众信念的特点,正是在这个意义上他才将其贬为"奉承"的程序而予以摒弃。不过,简单的予以否定似乎没有意义,修辞术仍以一种巨大的力量在现实中发挥着作用。相比之下,以追求真理自命的哲学的现实作用却总显得微乎其微。诉诸来世的说教太苍白无力,柏拉图不得不正视修辞的价值所在,承认"修辞学却是一项重要的事业",没有其帮助,"即使知道什么是真理也不能使人掌握说服的技艺"。一方面,他坚持对"虚假修辞学"的拒斥,另一方面电子商务资料库335(1;:+.33-**1则试图构造一种"真正的修辞学"。这种修辞学首先要知道事实的真相,还要能根据不同的灵魂本性找到适合的说服方式。他认为,只有这样的修辞术才能"在人力所及的范围内取得成功",即可以被人必然的掌握。其实,柏拉图的改造不过是利用修辞术为哲学服务而已,这种理想的修辞术充其量不过是哲学的修辞学,现实意义并不大。但这至少表明,修辞术已经受到了柏拉图的重视。 亚里士多德正是在柏拉图的学院中主要从事修辞学的研究和教授的。在这里,他写成了他的最早著作,论修辞术的《波卢斯》。后来又写了大量修辞学论著,不过现在可见的主要是《修辞术》这部著作。亚里士多德极为广博的学术研究就是从修辞学开始的。

《修辞学发凡》读书笔记

《修辞学发凡》笔记 陈望道 第一篇引言 一修辞两字习惯用法的探讨 1、修辞的定义 狭义:以为修当作修饰解,辞当作文辞解,修辞就是修饰文辞; 广义:以为修当作调整或适用解,辞当作语辞解,修辞就是调整或适用语辞。 2、修辞原是达意传情的手段,主要为着意和情,修辞不过是调整语辞使达意传情能够适切的一种努力。 二修辞和语辞使用的三境界 3、三境界: (甲)记述的境界——以记述事物的条理为目的,在书面如一切法令的文字,科学的记载,在口头如一切实务的说明谈商,便是这一境界的典型。(消极手法) (乙)表现的境界——以表现生活的体验为目的,在书面如诗歌,在口头如歌谣,便是这一境界的典型。(积极手法) (丙)糅合的境界——这是以上两界糅合所成的一种语辞,在书面如一切的杂文,在口头如一切的闲谈,便是这一境界的常例。 4、所谓积极手法,约略含有两种要素:(1)内容是富有体验性的,具体性的;(2)形式是在利用字义之外,还利用字音、字形的。(这种形式方面的字义、字音、字形的利用,同那内容方面的体验性具体性相结合,把语辞运用的可能性发扬张大了,往往可以造成超脱寻常文字、寻常文法以至寻常逻辑的新形式,而使语辞呈现出一种动人的魅力。) 5、消极手法是以明白精确为主的,对于语辞常以意义为主,力求所表现的意义不另含其他意义,又不为其他意义所混乱。(求适用,不计华质和巧拙) 三修辞和语辞形成的三阶段 6、三阶段:(1)收集材料;(2)剪裁配置;(3)写说发表 7、语辞形成的过程,始终离不开一定社会实际生活的需要,而这种需要,在语辞上常被具现为一篇文章或一场说话的主意或本旨。 8、材料配置定妥之后,配置定妥和语辞定着之间往往还有一个对于语辞力调整、力求适用的过程;或是随笔冲口一晃而过的,或是添注涂改穷日累月的。这个过程便是我们所谓修辞的过程;这个过程上所有的现象,便是我们所谓修辞的现象。 9、语言文字的可能性可说是修辞的资料、凭藉;题旨和情境可说是修辞的标准、依据。情境是拘束的、理智的,或题旨是抽象的、概念的(这时只能用消极手法);情境是自由的、情趣的,或题旨是具体的、体验的(这时只能用积极手法)。 四修辞同情境和题旨 10、切实的自然的积极修辞多半是对应情境的:或则对应写说者和读听者的自然环境社会环境,即双方共同的经验;或则对应写说者的心境和写说者同读听者的亲疏关系、立场关系、经验关系等,因此或相反诘,或故意夸张,或有意避讳,或只以疑问表意,或单以感叹抒情,种种权变,无非随情应境随机措施。 11、随情应境的手法就是根据写说时的实际情况,调动和创造各种表现手法,来生动活泼、切实有力地传达自己的观点、意志到对方。 12、修辞以适应题旨情境为第一义,不应是仅仅语辞的修饰,更不应是离开情意的修饰。

亚里士多德的修辞学总结演示教学

亚里士多德的修辞学 总结

试论亚里士多德的修辞学总结 总结: 亚里士多德修辞说服逻辑论证技术辩证法 摘要亚里士多德面对现实的修辞实践,对修辞术进行了理论上的概括与分析,标志着古典修辞术的成熟。他将修辞术与逻辑联系起来,试图确立修辞术的技术性地位,但这事实上局限了修辞术的运用。 键词修辞术辩证法技术逻辑 修辞术产生于公元前五世纪的希腊世界,并在古典时代达到繁荣的雅典民主制下盛极一时。无论是在集会、诉讼等公共场合,还是私人的日常交往,修辞技艺都获得了普遍的应用。特别是在权利的获得与城邦的治理中,成功的修辞运用更具有决定性的作用,直接影响到国家的决策与前途。修辞术之普遍受到重视,与长期修辞实践积累的丰富经验,都为修辞学的确立与研究奠定了基础,而这个任务就由亚里士多德历史的完成了。他写了大量的修辞学论著,特别是在《修辞术》中,系统地总结了修辞技艺,阐述了较完整的修辞理论思想。本文即试图对此进行初步的分析与评价。 一 对修辞术的研究早已开始。智者是早期的修辞学家。他们认为"人是万物的尺度",因而放弃了追求真理的自然派哲学传统,将通过说服而能影响和控制人

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修辞学重要性

不管西方所理解的修辞是被定义为“说服艺术”,“良言学”(“the science of speaking well”),还是“通过象征手段影响人们的思想,感情,态度,行为的一门实践”,它在以非暴力手段处理冲突、协调行动、更新观念、发展文明的一切努力中所发挥的关键作用是不言而喻的。从古希腊开始,修辞实践就是西方文化、社会、教育的一个重要组成部分。在当代西方,修辞不仅不露声色地支撑着交流、传播、公关、广告及一切形式的宣传,为所有这些以象征手段调节大众看法和态度的行业提供了基础观念,总体思路和基本方法,而且在保证国家根本体制的正常运转、构筑主流意识形态、维持和增强所谓“软性权力”等事关社会和民族兴亡盛衰的要害利益上起着举足轻重的作用。西方现代民主法制的施行对政治修辞和法律修辞的观念性和技术性依赖是怎么强调都不过分的。而构成现代政治、法律修辞的原则、概念、技巧、策略、程序、体裁、规范等等无不源于可以上溯到古希腊的西方修辞传统。由于修辞深深卷入西方社会、政治、文化生活的各个方面,并在从政策的制定,体制的运行到自我意识的构筑等核心任务上发挥无可替代的作用,要想真正了解西方,不能不首先了解西方修辞。要想善于和西方打交道,首先必须懂得如何和西方进行“修辞接触”(rhetorically engaging the West)。要想真正参与与“国际”话语(包括学术话语)交流,也非熟练掌握西方修辞规范不可。 我个人认为中国当前国情的一个组成部分是整个国家的实际外语水平与深化对外开放对外语提出的要求严重不相称。

就我在美国与各国留学生和学者直接接触得到的印象,我们跟欧洲非英语国家的差距不用说,就是跟发展中国家、尤其是那些所谓“后殖民”国家相比,也经常不能不感到汗颜。这一差距是全方位的,并不仅仅局限于学子学人。例如,我国对外宣传长期存在的问题是尽人皆知的。而如果跟我们派驻国外的商界人士有所接触,人们就不由得要对国家和企业的对外商业谈判和商务利益感到忧心忡忡。如何尽快缩小甚至消除上述差距似应成为现阶段我国外语领域学术研究关注的焦点。我这里当然不是在提倡将学术兴趣集中于一般意义上的“教学法”研究和其它跟改进课堂教学效果、提高学生听、说、读、写能力有关的技术性问题。我指的是国家制定外语教育政策、采取有效措施提高对外交往水平时必须依靠的那一类科研成果以及类似的宏观课题研究。例如,中国与西方的话语互动现状究竟怎样?从外语研究的角度看存在着哪些问题?又如,国内普遍觉得我们对西方的了解大大超过西方对我们的了解,这一良好感觉在多大程度上是经得起验证的呢?我们如果真正了解西方,则知己知彼,就应该能在与西方的各种交往中得心应手,游刃有余才是。如果事实正相反,我们在这种交往中经常感到事倍功半,成效差强人意,则是不是应该考虑一下自己对交流对象是不是真正了解?就类似的问题进行有创意的、求真务实的学术研究应该是外语界学者专家们当仁不让的责任。 周:您能否结合西方修辞谈谈对国内外语教育和人才培养的看

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