英语语言学概论笔记（期末复习资料）【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示
Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics
《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答
1.1. What is language?
―Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like ―book‖) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languag es have different ―books‖: ―book‖ in English,
―livre‖ in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, ―check‖ in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or
―new‖. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term ―human‖ in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.
1.2. What are design features of language?
―Design features‖ here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the
difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability
1.3. What is arbitrariness?
By ―arbitrariness‖, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like ―bang‖, ―crash‖, ―roar‖, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. ―Type‖ and ―write‖ are opaque or
unmotivated words, while ―type-writer‖ is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say
―arbitrariness‖ is a matter of degree.
1.4.What is duality?
Linguist s refer ―duality‖ (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning.
According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an
infinite
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number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to
talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.
1.5.What is productivity?
Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking si tuation. No one has ever said or heard ―A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon‖, but he can
say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called ―rule-bound creativity‖ (by
N.Chomsky).
1.6.What is displacement?
―Displacement‖, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless,
has a small share of ―displacement‖, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.
1.7.What is cultural transmission?
This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it ―language acquisition device‖, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If
a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the
wolf’s roaring ―tongue‖ when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.
1.8.What is interchangeability?
(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, ―Please do something to make me happy.‖ Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that 更多精华请登陆考研1号网 https://www.doczj.com/doc/5017353101.html,
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makes social communication possible and acceptable.
(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 ―speaking‖ and which listening.
1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?
First of all, human language has six ―design features‖ which
animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F.
Hocket’s Chart that compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8).
Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a hum an child. She was taught ―American sign Language‖, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.
Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the ―Wolf Child‖in I.7)
1.10.What functions does language have?
Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three ―Macro-Functions‖: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et
al., pp10-13, pp394-396).
1. 11What is the phatic function?
The ―phatic function‖ refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic langua ge (e.g. ―How are you?‖ ―Fine, thanks.‖) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say ―Hello‖ to a friend you meet, or
if you don’t answer his ―Hi‖, you ruin your friendship.
1.1
2. What is the directive function?
The ―directive function‖ means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., ―Tell me the result when
you finish.‖ Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin an d J.Searle’s ―indirect speech act theory‖(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278)
at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., ―If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!‖
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1.13.What is the informative function?
Language serves an ―informational function‖ when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s―Cooperative Principle‖(see Hu
Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the ―Maxim of Quality‖, when he is informing at all.
1.14.What is the interrogative function?
When language is used to obtain information, it serves an
―interrogative function‖. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the ―indirect speech act theory‖, may have this function as well, e.g., ―I’d like
to know you better.‖ This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.
1.15.What is the expressive function?
The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like ―Good heavens!‖ ―My God!‖ Sentences like ―I’m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.
1.16.What is the evocative function?
The ―evocative function‖ is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge
customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.
1.17.What is the per formative function?
This means people speak to ―do things‖ or perform actions. On certain occasions the
utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, ―OK‖, which means more than speech, and more than an average social
individual may do for the construction. The j udge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).
1.18.What is linguistics?
―Linguistics‖ is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one
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society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but
to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)
1.19.What makes linguistics a science?
Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no
linguistic ―stone‖ unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective
in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective,
matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part
of the linguistics research.
1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?
The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.
1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?
The description of a language at some point of time (as if it
stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled ―On the Use of THE‖, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).
1.2
2.What is speech and what is writing?
(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of
linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech
is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came
into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.
Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds:
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individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.
(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as
written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.
(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.
1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches? A linguistic study is ―descriptive‖ if it
only describes and analyses the facts of language, and ―prescriptive‖ if it tries to lay down rules for ―correct‖ language behavior. Linguistic
studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on ―high‖ (literary or reli gious) written records. Modern
linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes
that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.
1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?
F. De Saussure refers ―langue‖to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers ―parole‖ to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The
langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.
1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?
(1) According to N. Chomsky, ―competence‖ is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and ―performance‖ is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A
speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.
(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence,
rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his
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native language.
(3) C homsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as,
though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product,
and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.
1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?
M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many
topics. What he actually says (i.e. his ―actual linguistic behavior‖) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).
1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?
Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means ―knowing‖, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for ―doing‖ or
―performing actions‖. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.
1.28.What is phonetics?
―Phonetics‖ is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making,
especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for
their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et
al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of
phonetic research from the hearer’s point of
view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.
1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?
The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of
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the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the
resonating cavities.
1.30.What is place of articulation?
It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g.
Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h]. Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed ―labial-velar‖.
1.31.What is the manner of articulation?
The ―manner of articulation‖ literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].
1.3
2.How do phoneticians classify vowels?
Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround
vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].
1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?
The IPA, abbreviation of ―International Phonetic Alphabet‖, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic
variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.
1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?
In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between
―narrow‖ and ―broad‖ transcriptions, which he called ―Narrow Romic‖. The form er was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.
1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology? (1) ―Phonology‖ is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech
sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.
(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the
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characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are
conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign ―accent‖, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.
1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?
(1) A ―phone‖ is a phonetic unit or segment. T he speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three
different[p]’s, readily making possible the ―narrow transcription or diacritics‖. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A ―phoneme‖ is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].
(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its ―allophones‖,
i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]’s in the above words are the
allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random.
In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.
1.37.What are minimal pairs?
When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a ―minimal pair‖, e.g.,
―pill‖ and ―bill‖, ―pill‖ and ―till‖, ―till‖ and ―dill‖,
―till‖ and ―kill‖, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).
1.38.What is free variation?
If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in ―free variation‖. The
plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation.
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一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标
课程教学大纲 《体育保健学》课程教学大纲 一、课程名称课程名称：体育保健学 二、学时、学分及适用专业总学时数：50，其中，讲授学时：46，实践（实验）学时：4。学分： 4 学分 三、适用专业及开设学期 适用专业：社会体育专业（本科）开设学期：第 4 学期 四、课程的性质、目标和任务 目标：通过对体育保健课的学习，使学生懂得人体生命活动的基本特征和影响人体生命活动的各种因素之间相互制约的内在联系，以及学校体育要使学生终身受益的要求，掌握人体保健的基本理论和基本知识，掌握人体在体育运动中的保健规律和措施，掌握不同性别、不同年阶段人群的体育保健特点和要求，为从事体质与健康教育工作、指导人们从事符合生理规律的运动，提供科学的理论依据和有关知识与技能。 课程性质：专业必修课 课程任务： 《体育保健学》其主要任务是研究体育运动参加者的身体发育、健康状况与机能水平，为体育教学、训练和比赛及全民健身提供科学依据；研究体育教学、运动训练和比赛的组织和方法是否符合运动参加者的身体特点，进行医学指导和服务；研究影响体育运动参加者健康和机能的各种因素，并制定相应的卫生措施；研究和了解各种营养素的种类、功用及来源，了解不同项目的运动员营养状况的特殊要求，正确指导运动员饮食，以确保运动员的健康，促进运动成绩的提高；研究运动性伤病的发生规律、防治方法和康复措施。 五、课程教学的基本要求 体育保健学是一门实用性学科，在教学中，要特别重视基础理论、基础知识与基本技能的教学。采用理论教学与实际操作相结合的方式，运用分班教学增加实际操作教学时数，给学生更多的机会学习和掌握实际操作能力；并紧密跟踪学科前沿，使学生能更及时的了解本学科的最新发展动态。 六、课程教学内容 第一章健康概述（共 2 学时） （一）本章教学基本要求 通过本章教学，使学生能对健康有一个全面地了解和认识，能够分析影响健康的基本因素和健康
《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断
《影视短片的制片和导演》读书笔记 寒假应学校推荐通读了《影视短片的制片和导演》一书，对本专业有了初步以及深刻的了解，一下为读书中做的笔记，以及部分心得和感悟。 整本书以制片人的角度梳理了整个电影制作的流程，大体可分为前期制作，中期制作，和后期制作，总共编排了十六章节将电影制作流程进行细化。首先前期制作之前，制片人要掌管三大部分内容，分别为资金，剧本，导演。而这也是制片人难做的原因之一，要想拍出好的作品，必须做好这些工作。 一，前期工作。 前期制作的一个主要目的是提前处理好每件事，以避免拍摄阶段可能发生的失误。我认为这其实是给了我们一个机会去应付那些我们无法预料的和超出我们掌控范围的事。当我们在为影片制作制定计划的时候，一定要预先假设各种状况，务必为最坏的情况做好打算。 同时在书中我理解出前期过程也是一个共我们继续完善构思，明确创作意图的阶段。我们需要为我们的作品构建基础性元素，为它设计形式与风格，同时也要发掘创造一部成功的作品的各种可能性。 一个不能不看到的事实是前期制作具有无形的经济价值。这一阶段所作出的所有努力会为实拍阶段节省大量开支。另外，前期制作阶段拥有充裕的东西——时间。因为实拍阶段付出时间就等于付出金钱。 因此，在前期制作阶段安排周密的计划，解决潜在的问题能够为以后节约大量宝贵的经费。 二，制作阶段 在制作阶段我们会无数次的回顾我们所做的各向准备，计划和排练，于演员建立了积极的合作关系。我们在准备阶段的忘我工作使得拍摄组能够游刃有余的发挥出剧本演员和剧组员工所提供的全部可能性。 最好的应变方法就是，与各各部分保持不间断的交流和沟通，形成一种“格式塔心里效应”。在前期制作阶段，如果你能预见各种可能在某天出现错的问
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
体育保健学 1.体育保健学：研究人体在体育运动过程中保健规律与措施的一门综合性应用科学 2.健康：不仅仅是没有疾病和衰弱的状态，而是一种在身体上、精神上和社会上的完好状态 3.第一状态----健康状态 第二状态----疾病状态 第三状态----亚健康状态 亚健康状态：虽然没有疾病，但有虚弱现象，诸多不适和各种症状且常精神欠佳，机体活力降低，反应能力减退，工作效率降低，与人处事较差，适应能力降低。 4.热损伤的预防 ●保证运动员身体状况良好 ●在热环境中，运动前，应避免运动员机体过热的情况出现 ●警惕应激的早期症状 ●体温过高的临床症状 ●运动员的跑速不应超过训练时的强度 ●运动员如有任何体温升高的疾病或运动前12小时内有体温升高的经历，都不应参加比 赛或训练 ●鼓励运动员在运动之前补水，运动中定时补水，运动后补盐 5.高原训练的要素 ●适宜的海拔高度，最佳高度为2000-2500米 ●适宜的训练强度（根据运动员训练和比赛强度水平的高低） ●训练持续时间，最适宜的持续时间为4-6周 ●出现最佳运动效果的时间 ●训练方法与手段 6.营养素：指能在体内消化吸收，具有供给热能，构成机体组织和调节生理机能，为机体进 行正常物质代谢必须的物质 7.蛋白质的营养功能 ●构成机体组织，促进生长发育 ●参与和调节各种生理功能 ●免疫系统重要的物质基础 ●供给热能 8.蛋白质的供给量与来源 成人蛋白质的供热量应占一日膳食总热量的10-12% 儿童、青少年为12-14% 9．脂肪的分类 ●甘油三酯：包括动物性和植物性 ●复合脂-磷脂、糖脂、脂蛋白 ●类脂 10.糖的营养功能 ●供给热能 ●构成机体的重要物质 ●保护肝脏 ●促进蛋白质的吸收和利用 ●抗生酮作用 ●维持心肌和骨骼肌的正常功能
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
全心全意因才思教中央戏剧学院导演系考研参考书资料讲义汇总 大家好，我是才思教育的一名学员，现在已经顺利的考上中央戏剧学院，现在和大家分享一下考研参考书的笔记，希望对大家考研有一定的帮助。 百科知识部分 刘震云《官人》 刘恒《黑的雪》 张洁《沉重的翅膀》 中国古典文学（8） 小说（5） ★罗贯中（元）《三国演义》 ★施耐庵（明）《水浒传》 兰陵笑笑生（明）《金瓶梅词话》 ★曹雪芹（清）《红楼梦》 ★蒲松龄（清）《聊斋志异》 史论（3） 胡忌《宋金杂剧考》（上海古典文学出版社） ★张庚、郭汉城《中国戏曲通史》 吴毓华《中国古代戏曲序跋集》 电影艺术（20） 影片（20） ★卡拉克斯（法）《卑贱的血统》1986 ★★库布里克（美）《全金属外壳》1987 黄蜀芹（中国）《人·鬼·情》1987 普罗什金（前苏联）《1953年寒冷的夏天》1987 ★★张艺谋（中国）《红高粱》1987 ★托尔托列（意）《新天堂影院》1988 史·索德伯格（美）《性、谎言和录象带》1988
全心全意因才思教 ★希区柯克（英）《39级台阶》1935 ★★卓别林（美）《摩登时代》1936 ★袁牧之（中国）《马路天使》1937 约翰·福特（美）《关山飞渡》1939 勒鲁瓦（美）《魂断兰桥》1940 ★★奥逊·威尔斯（美）《公民凯恩》1941 ★★大卫·里恩（英）《相见恨晚》1945 罗西里尼（意）《罗马，不设防的城市》1945 蔡楚生、郑君里（中国）《一江春水向东流》1947 ★费穆（中国）《小城之春》1948 ★★黑泽明（日）《罗生门》1950 石挥（中国）《我这一辈子》1950 ★希区柯克（美）《后窗》1951 德西卡（意）《温别尔托D》1951 ★黑泽明（日）《七武士》1954 ★大卫·里恩（英）《桂河大桥》1957 ★★伯格曼（瑞典）《野草莓》1957 第一学年第二学期 戏剧理论及社科（5） 契诃夫《创作札记》 《易卜生评论汇编》 《阿瑟·密勒论戏剧》 宾克莱《理想的冲突》 黄仁宇《万历15年》 外国戏剧（16） 普劳图斯《孪生兄弟》 ★莎士比亚《李尔王》
体育保健学心得体会 篇一：体育保健学 体育保健学 1体育保健学的概念体育保健学是研究人体在体育运动过程中保健规律与措施的一门综合性的应用科学。2健康的概念健康不仅仅是没有疾病和衰弱的状态，而是一种在身体上、精神上、道德上和社会上的完好状态。3健康的分类（1）身体健康（2）心理健康（3）社会适应良好 4亚健康状态是人们在身心情感方面处于健康与疾病之间的健康低质量状态及其体验。 5体适能是指身体适应生活、活动与环境的综合能力，是通过先天遗传和后天运动锻炼获得的。分为竞（1）稳定或下降，表示机能良好。（2）较原来快12次/分钟，机能不良，过度训练或睡眠不好（ 3）长期维持较高水平，早期过度训练导致。 运动后即刻和恢复期脉率变化俩判定、控制运动强度和运动量的大小A运动后即刻脉率b运动后恢复期（5-10min）脉搏小<144次/分恢复至安静水平中145-180次/分快2-5次/10秒 技体适能和健康体适能 6医务监督是运用医学、生理学和卫生学的内容和方法，对从事体育运动的人的身体进行全面检查和观察，评价其发育水平、训练水平和健康状况所采用的手段和措施。7身体姿势检查 （1）人体直立位的正确姿势。立正时，从后面看，人体头、颈、躯干
和两足跟间应在一垂直线上，两髂（qia）嵴应在一水平线上；从侧面看，头顶、耳屏前、肩峰、股骨大转子、腓骨小头和外踝尖各点应在同一直线上；脊柱呈正常的生理弯曲。 （2）脊柱形状。在正常情况下，人体直立时，若用细绳系一重锤与身体正中线自然下垂，脊柱的所有棘突应与细绳保持一致，若有偏离现象，且偏离距离大于0.5厘米时为侧弯。常见侧弯有“c”形和“S”形。 （3）胸廓形状。在婴幼儿期，前后径与横径基本相同。到青年期，横径与前后径之比约为4：3.胸廓的形状有正常胸、扁平胸、桶状胸、鸡胸、漏斗胸和不对称胸等。 （4）腿形与足形。在两足靠拢时，两膝间隙在1.5厘米以下的为正常，若超过1.5厘米的为“o”形腿。两膝靠拢时，两足分开达1.5厘米以上为“X”形腿。足形的检查主要查足弓，一般采用印迹法和形态测量法，即在足内侧作一切线，量切线与足迹间空白区最宽处与足印迹宽度之比。空白宽大于足迹记宽为正常足，等于为轻度扁平足，小于为中度扁平足，无空白为重度扁平足，空白最宽处无足印迹为高弓足8健康分组的依据（1）健康状况（2）身体发育状况（3）生理功能状况（4）运动史和身体素质状况9健康分组的组别与教学要求 （1）基本组。此组学生，应按照体育教学大纲的要求进行锻炼，并要求他们在一定的时间内，通过国家体育锻炼标准，也可从事专项训练和参加体育比赛。（2）准备组。此组学生可按体育教学大纲的要求进行锻炼，但进度应放慢，活动强度和运动负荷也要减少，不宜参加运动训练和激烈的体育竞赛活动。（3）医疗体育组。不能按正常的体育
第一章绪论 1.1什么是语言 1.2语言的性质 （1）语言具有系统性（systematic） （2）语言是一个符号系统 语言符号是一种象征符号。 （3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation） （4）口头性 （5）语言是人类特有的 （6）语言是用于交际的 寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。 1.3语言的起源 1.4语言的分类 1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification） 历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。 将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言 英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。 汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。 1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation） 根据词的结构类型，可分为 （1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。汉语是典型的孤立语。 （2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。 （3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。英语是不太典型的屈折语。 （4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。 根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等 1.5语言的功能 1.5.1 一般功能 1.5.2元功能（metafunction） 1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）
全心全意因才思教 北京电影学院考研参考书笔记资料讲义 一、单项选择题（在每小题的备选答案中选出一个正确的答案，并将正确答案的序号写在括号内） 1．正式作为理论概念的“小说”要到（）才出现。 A．汉代B．先秦C．秦代D．魏晋 2．李贽文学理论的核心是（）。 A．童心说B．性灵说C．现量说D．格调说 3．《读第五才子书法》的作者是（）。 A．李贽B．金圣叹C．张竹坡D．李渔 4．首次把“性格”作为基本概念运用于小说批评的批评家是（）。 A．李贽B．金圣叹C．张竹坡D．李渔 5．金圣叹人物形象塑造的中间环节是（）。 A．格物B．因缘生法C．忠恕D．间架 二、多项选择题（在每小题的备选答案中选出两个或两个以上正确的答案，并将正确答案的序号写在括号内，答案没有选全或有选错的，该小题不得分） 1．以下与金圣叹有关的选项有（）。 A．原名张采B．把小说评点推向体系化C．作有《读第五才子书法》D．评点《三国演义》E．从创作思维方面提出了“因缘生法说” 2．属于金圣叹“六才子书”的有（）。 A．《离骚》B．《史记》C．杜甫诗D．《庄子》E．《西厢记》3．共同完成《三国演义》的修订与评点，并著有《读三国志法》的人有（）。 A．金圣叹B．毛伦C．毛纶D．毛中刚E．毛宗岗
全心全意因才思教才思教育是全国知名的考研高端辅导机构，由北京电影学院师资团队创办于1995年，至今已经有20年的辉煌历史。其主要课程体系为考研全日制集训营、考研一对一辅导等考研高端培训项目。经过近20年的发展，已经成为考研高端辅导领域的旗舰品牌，参加辅导的学员，有超过98%考取北京电影学院。作为考研个性化辅导的代表机构，完全专注考研辅导的针对性和有效性，充分诠释了新商品经济时代的“长尾理论”，开拓了考研培训领域的一片蓝海。中国青年报、中国教育报、中国人事报等多家知名媒体对这种辅导模式进行过专题报导. 才思教育自1995年开始开设北京地区高校考研辅导班，其中近90%考上北京知名高校攻读硕士研究生。2015年，才思教育将继续在“全心全意、因才思教”的办学宗旨下，踏踏实实地为考研学子指引方向，接受各届同仁的监督。现2016年北京电影学院考研辅导课程正在火热报名中！
《体育保健学》课程标准 课程编码：04010061 总学时数：54 学分：3 一、课程性质及任务 体育保健学是研究人体在体育运动过程中保健规律与措施的一门应用科学。 通过教学使学生掌握体育保健学的基本理论、基本知识和基本技能，为今后从事体育教学、健康教育和体育训练奠定基础，能运用现代医学保健知识科学地指导教学和健身，以达到促进身体生长发育，增进身心健康，增强体质，防治运动性伤病的目的。 二、本课程的基本内容 绪论 （一）教学目的与要求 了解体育保健学的概念、研究任务、研究内容、发展简史，熟悉学习体育保健学的方法和要求。 （二）课时安排：1学时 （三）主要内容 体育保健学的概念、研究对象、任务、发展简史，学习体育保健学的方法和要求。 第一章健康概述 （一）教学目的与要求 了解健康的概念、健康的标准、及影响健康的诸因素，熟悉运动对个体健康的影响。（二）教学重点与难点 重点：运动对个体健康的影响 （三）课时安排：1学时 （四）主要内容
第一节现代健康观（0.5）课时 1、健康的概念 2、健康的分类 3、影响健康的因素 第二节运动对个体健康的影响（0.5）课时 1、适量运动对个体健康的影响 2、缺乏运动对个体健康的影响 第二章运动与环境 （一）教学目的与要求 了解环境污染对人体健康的危害，了解环境对人体运动能力的影响 以及运动建筑设备的卫生要求。 （三）课时安排：1学时 （四）主要内容 第一节环境污染对人体健康的危害（0.5）课时 1、环境与人体健康的关系 2、环境污染对人体健康的危害 第二节环境对人体及运动能力的影响（0.5）课时 1、热环境 2、冷环境 3、高原环境 3、运动建筑设备卫生 第三章运动与营养 （一）教学目的与要求 熟悉人体所需七类营养素的营养功用、供给量和来源，掌握运动员的合理营养、比赛期间的营养及各类运动项目的营养特点。
《英语语言学概论》课程复习题集(1-6章) 2013-6-1 Chapter I Introduction2012 I. Decide whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE: T1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. F2. Competence and performance is distinguished by Saussure. F3. A synchronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. T4. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. F5. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. F6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. T7. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T8. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T9. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. T10. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. F11. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. T12. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. F13. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. T14. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T15. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T16. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T17. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T18. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T19. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示 第一章语言的性质 语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。 第二章语言学 语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。 第三章语音学 发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。 第四章音位学 音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等. 第五章词法学 词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。 第六章词汇学 词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。第七章句法 句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。 第八章语义学 语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。 第九章语言变化 语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）； 第十章语言、思维与文化 语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。 第十一章语用学 语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原 320240*********
1、晕厥是由于脑血流暂时降低或血中化学物质变化所致的意识短暂紊乱和意识丧失，也是过度紧张的一种表现形式。 2、自我监督是运动员在训练和比赛期间采用自我观察和检查的方法 3、按摩是以中医理论为基础，利用专门的手法或器械所产生的作用力，直接作用于人体皮肤（病灶或穴位），以达到调节人体生理机能和防止伤病的一种自然物理疗法 4、体育保健学是研究人体在体育运动过程中保健规律与措施的一门新兴的综合应用科学 5、肌肉拉伤是由于肌肉主动的猛烈收缩或被动的过渡牵伸，超过了肌肉本身所能承担的限度，而引起的肌肉组织损伤 6、拔罐疗法是以杯罐为工具，利用火的燃烧排除罐内的空气产生负压，吸附在皮肤上来治疗疾病的方法 7、急性闭合软组织损伤的处理原则和治疗方法 早期在24h-48h内，该期的处理原则是制动、止血、防肿、镇痛及减轻炎症。应冷敷、加压包扎并抬高伤肢；中期在损伤发生24-48h以后，该期主要是改善局部的血液和淋巴循环，促进组织的新陈代谢，加速淤血和渗出液的吸收及坏死组织的清除，促进再生修复，防止粘连形成。晚期损伤组织已基本修复，但可能有瘢痕和粘连形成，该期是恢复和增强肌肉、关节的功能。 8、运动员减轻体重或控制体重常用的措施及注意事项 措施：一是控制饮食量，限制水分摄入并加大运动负荷，以增加体能的能量消耗；二是加大排汗量，或者内服利尿剂促使大量排尿 注意事项：适宜的减体重速度是每周1kg，适宜的减体重重量以不超过3kg为限；减体重期间的饮食应是高蛋白、低热能，并有充足的维生素和必需的无机盐；注意水盐代谢平衡，一日水分摄入量应控制在2000ml左右，不吃或少吃含糖和脂肪的食物或饮料；运动员不宜采用腹泻药、食欲抑制剂、以及自我催吐等方法减轻体重；运动员减体重期间要加强医务监
一、实验项目名称 将心理描写视觉化 二、实验目的 利用影视语言的表现手法，将用文字进行的心理描写转化为用镜头来表现的具体画面影像。通过此实验，让学生明白影视语言与传统语言的不同。认识到影视语言有其独特的语法。 三、实验要求 用拍摄的影视镜头，来表现《思念》《恐惧》《怀疑》《爱慕》《失落》《嫉妒》《迷茫》等心理描写。时长不超过一分钟，表达清晰准确。 四、实验器材 主要运用的道具：佳能单反照相机，三脚架，反光板，摄像灯等器材。 五、实验注意事项 时长要在一分钟之内，越短越能准确表达越好。由于还没有学会导演技巧，所以可能拍出来的作品不能满意，但这是正常现象，只要能认识到影视语言与传统语言表达上的不同就可以了。 六、实验总结： 通过本次试验，我对镜头的运用有了新的认识。 相比较以前的拍摄，我们更多的考虑故事的起承转合，而今不仅要注重故事的情节发展，更需要运用电影镜头的影视语言和独特的表现手法，将作品想表达的内容展现在观众的眼前。 通过《刷车工》等影片，我发现镜头可以如此的简洁并将想要表达的内容表达出来。我们在实验当中也想通过用简洁的镜头将《爱慕》和《失落》突出。在拍摄《爱慕》这个短片时，我们选取的地点为图书馆，一个女孩儿为了能够见到自己爱慕已久的男孩儿每天都会离男孩儿不远的地方坐下看书，当心情烦躁或者学习累的时候，她就会偷偷的拿起小镜头假装在看自己实质是在看此刻的那个男生正在干什么······短片《失落》和《爱慕》的情节相似，但是故事情节的内容完全不同，镜头运用的也不相同，他讲述的就是一个女孩儿看自己喜欢的篮球运动员打比赛，希望能在他比赛结束的时候为他递上一瓶水，但结果却并不是想的那样······ 这次的锻炼，我们很用心的去准备，但是一贯的故事情节化的思考模式，还是让我们的短片的表现手法过于大众化不够新颖，但是我相信，在每次试验的思考积累下，我们团队的镜头运用会更完美。
体育保健学试题汇总 IMB standardization office【IMB 5AB- IMBK 08- IMB 2C】
《体育保健学》试题一、单项选择题（选择一个答案，将相应的字母填入题内的括号中。） 人体经脉系统主要为（B）经脉，即手三阴经、手三阳经、足三阴经、足三阳经等经脉，再加上任脉、督脉。 A、十二 B、十四 C、十六 D、十 （B）是曲池穴的正确穴位。 A、屈肘，在肘横纹，肱二头肌腱桡侧端凹陷处 B、屈肘，在肘横纹，肱二头肌腱尺侧端凹陷处 C、伸肘，在肘横纹上，肱二头肌腱桡侧 D、伸肘，在肘横纹上，肱二头肌腱尺侧 （D）不是擦法的手法要领。 A、手掌紧贴皮肤做直线往返运动 B、手掌紧贴皮肤往返运动时需带动皮下组织和肌肉 C、往返直线移动时距离要长 D、擦法时需要皮肤产生热量 用指掌或肢体其他部位（B）或对称性挤压体表，称挤压类手法。 A、环形移动 B、按压 C、直线移动 D、单方向移动 拨法时以指下压一定深度，再做与肌纤维肌腱呈（A）方向的移动。 A、垂直 B、向上 C、向下 D、任意方向 用拇，食，中指的拿法称（B）。 A、五指拿法 B、三指拿法 C、掌拿法 D、提拿法 抖法要领是振动幅度要小，频率要快，（A）。 A、牵引力适宜，节律均匀 B、牵引力要大，力度以能耐受为度 C、不需牵引节律均匀 D、牵引力适宜，快慢交替的进行 下列不属于治疗肩部酸沉的选穴的选项是（C）穴。 A、天宗 B、肩井 C、少泽 D、肩中俞 运行全身气血联络脏腑肢节，沟通上下内外的通路是（D）。 A、血液 B、神经 C、经脉 D、经络 保健按摩增强人体抗病能力的表现之一为（B）。 A、只能预防感冒 B、刺激或疏通经络，调和气血，扶正驱邪 通过摩擦生热，加强肌肉、筋骨、关节的温度 D、改善全身营养代谢