1.American Government
Constitution
The United States is a constitutional democracy, a type of government characterized by limitations (boundaries, restrictions) on government power spelled out in a written constitution. Written in 1787, the U.S. Constitution is both the oldest and shortest written constitution in the world. It serves as the supreme (highest, greatest) law (rule, regulation) of the United States.
The Constitution
?The Constitution outlines a federal government with three separate branches: the legislative (lawmaking) branch (Congress), the executive (decision-making) branch (the presidency), and the judicial branch (the courts).
Bill of Rights
The first ten amendments to the Constitution, which safeguard some specific rights of the American people and the states.
?Many states ratified (approved) the Constitution in 1788 and 1789 on the condition that Congress amend it to guarantee certain civil liberties. James Madison drafted these first ten amendments himself, which collectively became known as the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights protects some specific rights of both the American people and the states. The table on the next page summarizes the twenty-seven amendments to the Constitution
Legislative Branch
Congress is the legislative branch of the federal government and is responsible for creating laws.
Congress consists of two chambers, an upper chamber called the Senate (100 members) and a lower chamber called the House of Representatives (435 members).
HOR is fixed and proportionally distributed among the 50 states, each one representing the congressional district.
Senate: 100 senators, 2 per state.
Congress
?Congress has the sole (only) authority to make laws, levy taxes, declare war, and print money, among other powers. Congress also controls the federal budget.
Executive Branch
?The presidency is the executive branch of the federal government. The president is elected every four years and is responsible for enforcing the laws that Congress makes. The president is also the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and has the power to conduct foreign relations.
Judicial Branch
?The federal courts make up the judicial branch of the federal government, which consists of regional circuit courts, appeals courts, and the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court is the highest legal authority in the country and has assumed the power of judicial review to decide the legality (validity, truth) of the laws Congress makes.
Mythical Founding
?Most Americans re-imagine the founding of the United States in mythical terms, as the triumph of wisdom over tyrannical ignorance and as the creation of something new and important in the world.
?American citizens tend to revere the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, and the Founding Fathers are seen as models of virtue (quality) and political wisdom.
?The iconic image of George Washington on the one-dollar bill or the statue of Abraham Lincoln inside the Lincoln Memorial fits in with this heroic vision of the founders.
Struggle Against Tyranny and Injustice
Most Americans often think of their country as the champion of democracy and justice. Many events in American history are therefore seen as part of this struggle. Americans tend to think of the:
?Civil War as a battle to end slavery
?World War II as the defeat of evil tyrants
?Cold War as a triumph of democratic values over communism and
totalitarianism. T oday, many Americans see the fight against
terrorism as the latest example of the United States standing up
for what is right in the world. (World police)
–Today, many Americans see the fight against terrorism as
the latest example of the United States standing up for
what is right in the world. (World police)
History as Progress
?Although the United States is not a perfect democracy, many Americans interpret its history as progress toward a better democracy. In this view, America has improved from century to century, getting better and more democratic over time.
The expansion of the right to vote is the best example.
? e.g., At the start of the republic, the right to vote was restricted in most places to older, wealthy, white landowners.
Right to Vote
?Over time, all citizens won the right to vote
Including the middle classes, the poor, Women (1920), People of other races (1965), Younger people (1970), American democracy has thus grown as more people have been allowed to participate.
2. Superhero mythology reg Intro: History
What is a myth?
A story of unknown authorship that people told long ago in an attempt to answer serious questions about how important things began and occurred.
They are stories that explain natural occurrences and express beliefs of right and wrong. Myths usually have a religious or spiritual sense
?They are early mans desire to explain the universe.
i.e., Apollo, the son of Zeus, drove the chariot of the sun across the sky
Gods and Goddesses
?The gods, goddesses, and heroes are super human in nature.
i.e., Atlas bore the weight of the world and the heavens on his shoulders.
?Gods sometimes appear in disguised form
?Human emotions are experienced by the Gods
–i.e., Hera’s jealousy (we will talk about this in a moment)
Common Themes in Mythology
?Good vs. Evil Light vs. Dark
? A metamorphosis may occur Like a butterfly
?In Greek mythology
–The stories were part of their religion
–Their festivals and ritual practices came from the stories
What is Greek Mythology?
The ancient Greeks were polytheistic, meaning they worshiped multiple gods. They also told many stories (myths) about the gods, which were meant to guide human behavior and teach about the relationship between gods and humans.
? The people of ancient Greece shared stories called myths about the gods, goddesses, and heroes in which they believed.
? Each god or goddess was worshipped as a deity and ruled over certain areas of the Greeks’ lives.
? These exciting stories explained natural phenomena that could not be explained by science in the ancient world.
Why is it important?
“As one of the major contributors to Western civilization, ancient Greek cultu re has provided the creative energy and prototypes for later forms of Western society. Intellectual and cultural achievements, together with social and economic developments in ancient Greece and its neighboring areas, mark the real beginning of Western civilization and the ending of the uncivilized, barbarous age” (pg. 7).
? The Ancient Greek culture has been kept alive by the oral and later written stories handed down through thousands of years.
? Modern plays, novels, television programs, movies and even advertisements refer to Greek gods, goddesses, heroes and their stories.
? Their history entertains us and provide us with modern Western culture.
Gods and Goddesses of the Pantheon on Mount Olympus
Zeus – Leader of the Olympian Gods (page 12)
? He ruled the Olympians.
? He was the god of the sky, lightning and thunder carrying a thunderbolt as his symbol (much like a superhero we will talk about in a moment).
? He married Hera, his sister, which was a family habit.
? He fathered many children with various goddesses and mortals.
Hera – Wife of Zeus
? She was the protector of marriage and the home.
? She was associated with the peacock, because of her great beauty.
? She and Zeus were always quarreling.
? She was called the queen of intriguers, a vin dictive and jealous wife, who frequently outwitted her husband, Zeus.
Poseidon – God of the Sea
? He built an underwater palace with a great pearl and coral throne.
? Although he chose Thetis, a beautiful water nymph, as his queen, he, like his
brother Zeus, was a great wanderer fathering hundreds of children.
? He was a difficult god, changeful and quarrelsome, but created many curious forms for his sea creatures.
? He invented the horse for his sister Demeter, whom he loved.
Hades – God of the Underworld
? He was the jealous brother to Zeus and Poseidon.
? He made Persephone his wife after stealing her from her mother,
Demeter, who was his sister.
? Because he was a violent god, who was also very possessive of every new
soul, he rarely left his underworld domain.
Athena-Goddess of Wisdom, Justice, War, Civilization and Peace
? She was born full grown out of the head of Zeus.
? She taught man to use tools and taught his wife to spin and weave.
? She was the best-loved goddess on Olympus.
? She hated Ares, god of war, often besting him in battle.
? The Greek city of Athens is named after her.
? She was said to have created the spider.
Apollo-The Sun God; God of Music, Poetry, Wisdom, Light and Truth
? He was the twin brother of Artemis and the most handsom e of the gods.
? He was also the god of the healing arts and of medicine.
? He drove his chariot across the sky to pull the sun each day.
? His son, Phaethon, drives Apollo’s sun chariot with disastrous results
So what does this have to do with superheroes?
1.In addition to gods and goddesses, the Greeks included many heroes in their myths. Heroes were either human or demigods (the offspring of a human and a god or goddess).
2. Most superheroes of today have their origins in the ancient myths of Greece, Rome, and other old empires. T oday, we worship superheroes in the same ways we once worshipped the gods.
Zeus and Superman
Both Superman and Zeus are born leaders, the most powerful of their respective groups. Superman is often thought of as godlike, the alien deity who has become incredibly protective of his adoptive home. Like Zeus, Superman dons a disguise so that he may walk among the mortals and see what life is like on the ground. But both are much more at home in the sky, soaring above us like the gods they are.
Hades and Batman
The dark prince, preferring underground quarters and with unimaginable wealth 2. As Hades is the dark brother of Zeus, so too is Batman the dark version of Superman. Like Hades, Batman makes his home underground and a significant part of his power comes from his riches. This aspect in particular perhaps makes Batman more like Pluto, the Roman version of Hades (page 37). It’s hard not to think of Batman as ruling the underworld of the DC Universe, deciding the ultimate fate of damned souls. Additionally, Batman is often found on the outside of the JLA circle, the member no one quite trusts, much like Hades and his Olympic family.
Poseidon and Aquaman
1. Poseidon was the main inspiration for Aquaman. They have the same weapon of choice, the trident and both are considered ruler of the seven seas, able to command the ocean and its inhabitants.
2. Perhaps the main difference between the two is that while Poseidon is one of the
three most powerful of the Olympian Gods, Aquaman isn't seen as many people's favorite superhero. I guess it just goes to show that the ancient Greeks thought that the ability to talk to fish was a lot cooler than we do.
Hera and Wonder Woman
?So, putting aside the warrior aspect of the “Amazon warrior” for a moment, Wonder Woman is really all about the traditions of her people. She fiercely defends her home and her family- just like Hera. While she would likely disagree with Hera about the whole “needing a good man thing”, she does find herself paired with Superman and Steve Trevor quite a bit. At any rate, both are effectively the “mother” of their respective groups, and react quite fiercely if any of her family attacked.
What Is A Superhero?
1. Like the gods and goddesses of mythology, a superhero possesses extraordinary or superhuman powers and is dedicated to protecting the public. However, by most definitions, characters do not strictly require actual superhuman powers to be deemed superheroes.
Terms such as costumed crime fighters or caped crusaders are sometimes used to refer to those such as Batman and Superman.
2. Normally, superheroes use their powers to counter day-to-day crime while also combating threats against humanity by super-villains, their criminal counterparts. Often, one of these super-vil lains will be the superhero’s archenemy.
Common Traits Many superhero characters display the following traits:
2.Extraordinary powers or abilities, relevant skills and/or advanced
3.equipment.
4.Superhuman strength
5. Ability to fly
6. Enhanced senses
7.The projection of energy bolts
8. A strong moral (ethical) code 10. expectation of reward.
9. Willingness to risk one’s own safety in the service of good without
11.Refusal or strong reluctance to kill or wield lethal weapons.
12 A motivation (inspiration)?
13. Sense of responsibility (Spider-Man)
15. Personal vendetta against criminals (Batman)
16.Strong belief in justice and humanitarian service (Superman)
17.Independent Wealth or an occupation that allows for minimal supervision
18.A headquarters or base of operations kept hidden from the general public
Presentation3 The Old Testament 97
Jewish Culture, The Old Testament, and The New Testament
Moses & Exodus:
“Let My People Go!”
?Moses received revelations from God: burning bush, rod / staff, 10 plagues, parting of the Red Sea
?End of 13th century BCE- Moses led the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt during Rames II reign called the EXODUS
?Moses led the 12 Tribes of Israel to Mount Sinai where Yahweh gave him the 10 Commandments, uniting the Hebrews under one God
?Moses and Hebrews searched for the “Promised Land” or the land of milk and honey, however they wandered in the desert for 40 years
Jewish Culture
?Jewish culture emerged and survived in extraordinary circumstances.
?The Jewish people were exiled from one country to another in Europe and elsewhere in the world.
?As part of the origins of Western civilization, Jewish culture has contributed to the Western historical development by providing substantial religious ingredients and many other aspects of the whole basic framework of Western society.
?At the same time, the Jewish people suffered a lot due to their cultural and religious distinctiveness
A brief account of Jewish history
?It is said that Jews belong to the Semitic race, as with the original Babylonians, Phoenicians, and Assyrians. They claim to be descended from Abraham, and have emigrated from Mesopotamia (along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers) and have settled in the 16th C BC in north Egyppt and then entered Canaan in the 12th C BC. After fighting many wars with local tribes, they ultimately settled on both sides of the Jordan River.
The Division and Fall of Israel
?After Solomon’s death, a separatist movement headed by Jeroboam rose up in the north of Israel and broke the country into two parts, the south: Judah and the north: Israel (ruled by the descendants of Solomon)
?Frequent wars occurred between the two sectors and weakened their power.
?In 722 BC, the Assyrian king and his troops attacked Jerusalem and Israel was ruined.
?Judah could not evade the fate of being destroyed.
?Under the leadership of Nebuchadnezzar II, the king of Babylonia, Jerusalem was besieged twice and the second siege laster three years until the city was finally taken in 586 BC. (Babylonian Captivity)
?From then on, Judah and Israel were nonexistent as independent countries. Impact of Ancient Israel
?Covenant = formal agreement between Hebrews and God (Yahweh); Hebrews worshipped God and only God, and in return, they would be God’s Chosen People and given Canaan as the Promised Land
?Spiritual ideas profoundly influenced Western culture, morality, ethics and conduct ?Three of the world’s most dominant religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam all derive their roots from the spiritual beliefs of the Ancient Israelites
What is the bible?
?The Bible is a book that can be found almost anywhere on the earth. It has been translated into more than 2000 different languages and dialects. It is also the world's most popular book. Every year more copies of the Bible are sold than any other publication, and the number of sales is increasing.
Unknown Authorship
1. The Bible is one of the world's oldest books. Its oldest sections were written about 1500 years before the birth of Christ. Even its newest sections were written about 1900 years ago.
2. Clearly, then, having been written over a period of about 1600 years, the Bible was not written by one person. No one knows precisely how many people contributed to the Bible. It is estimated there were about forty authors.
3. One of the most important facts about the Bible is that those who wrote it did not claim to be the source of the ideas they wrote about. sometimes indirectly, the authors assert that what they were writing really came from God.
The Old Testament
The Old Testament is the first section of the Christian Bible and is based primarily upon the Jewish, Hebrew Bible, a collection of religious writings by ancient Israelites.
The importance of Christianity
?Christianity is the most important religion in the Western world. Having served as
a dominant ideological tool, Christianity once exerted powerful influences on the
social and intellectual life of the Western world. It is still of much importance to the Western culture, especially in the spiritual life of the Westerners though its heyday has passed. It could be said that no one can understand the West without studying Christianity.
However…
Christianity has been at the heart of great historical changes and has broken up into several factions, principally Catholicism, the Eastern Orthodoxy and the Protestantism, which all try to interpret the Christian doctrines from different perspectives. This has given rise to more difficulties and complexities for those wishing to acquire a better knowledge of Western religions
Christianity and Judaism
?The relationship between Christianity and Judaism proved extraordinarily difficult and complicated due to historical incidents. On one hand, the birth of Christianity indirectly acknowledged the Jewish contribution and the influence of Judaism, and once could also say Christianity could have never been established without the Jewish involvement during the dark years when the Jewish people lived under the cruel oppression of the Roman rule and had begun to fight against it.
The New Testament
?The New Testament contains 27 parts, which were completed in the later half of the first century AD or the first half of the second century AD. They are all of the recollections of the early Christians. The earliest manuscript was written in Greek and possibly translated from Arabic, the Palestine language. It conists of the four Gospels(brief collections of Jesus’ life), a book of the Acts of the Apostles, Letters, and The Revelations of John.
Presentation4 Halloween 97
Origins and Traditions Origins
Halloween began two thousand years ago in Ireland, England, and Northern France with the ancient religion of the Celts (Paganism).
They celebrated their New Year on November 1st.
This day marked the beginning of the dark, cold winter, a time of year that was often associated with human death. On the night of October 31, they celebrated Samhain, when it was believed that the ghosts of the dead returned to earth.
Costumes
People thought that they would encounter ghosts if they left their homes…
So they wore costumes. This way, the ghosts couldn’t recognize them!
Eg. Beetle juice Edward Scissor hands
The Christian Influence
As the influence of Christianity spread into Celtic lands, in the 7th century, Pope Boniface IV introduced All Saints' Day, a time to honor saints and martyrs, to replace the Pagan festival of Samhain. It was observed on May 13th.
A change of date
In 834, Pope Gregory III moved All Saint's Day from May 13th to Nov. 1st. Oct.
31st thus became All Hallows' Eve ('hallow' means 'saint').
All Souls Day
November 2nd, called All Souls Day, is the day set apart in the Roman Catholic Church for the commemoration of the dead.
Trick-or-treating began with the poor in the 15th century…
During the All Souls Day festival in England, poor peop le would beg for “soul cakes,” made out of square pieces of bread with currants
Families would give soul cakes in return for a promise to pray for the family’s relatives
children…
The practice, which was referred to as "going a-souling" was eventually taken up by children who would visit the houses in their neighborhood and be given ale, food, and money.
Today…
Children still go from house-to-house, but instead of ale, food, and money, they get candy.
With Irish Immigration…
In 1848, millions of Irish emigrants poured into America as a result of the potato famine. They brought with them their traditions of Halloween.
Halloween came to America.
They called Halloween Oidche Shamhna (`Night of Samhain'), as their ancestors had, and kept the traditional observances.
When they arrived in America they found that pumpkins were both plentiful and easier to carve than turnips.
Chapter 5 The Middle Ages: Introduction
Learning Intentions (goals)
1) Know when the Three Stages of the Middle Ages were.
2) Know some of the key events from the topic.
3)Know the key event the Unit focuses upon.
What was the Middle Ages the ‘Middle’ of?
?The Middle Ages was the period of European history between 500AD and 1500AD.
?Other names for this period include the Dark Ages and the Age of Religion.
?The most common name for this period is the Medieval Period.
?‘Medieval’ is the Latin T erm for the ‘Middle Ages’ (it comes from the same word that gave us Median in mathematics).
The Early Middle Ages (550 – 1000)
Key Events:
?End of the Roman Empire
?The Rise of Islam
?The rule of Barbarian Kings.
?Charlemagne creates the Carolingian Empire.
?Europe terrified by waves of invaders.
?The emergence of Knights and Feudalism.
The beginning of the Middle
?The Middle Ages begins with the Fall of the Roman Empire in 476.
?The Romans had ruled provinces in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa for nearly a thousand years.
?Challenges to Roman security increased during the first century (0-100 AD) as tribes from Germania (Germany) began to confront the Romans.
Division of Rome
?One of the consequences of the weakening of Rome was the division of the Roman Empire.
?This was intended to make governing easier.
?In 376 AD the Empire was divided into two:
?The Western Roman Empire (capital city of Rome)
?The Eastern Roman Empire (capital city of Constantinople)
The Barbarians takeover
?By the end of the 400s Rome had been weakened by political instability.
?Roman legions (armies) were stretched thin across an empire that was becoming too large to defend easily.
?German tribes such as the Goths, Visigoths, Vandals, Angles and Saxons took advantage of this weakness.
?In 476 the Visigoth King Odovocar removed the last Western Roman Ruler from power.
Rome’s greatest legacy - Christianity
?The Barbarians desired the farmlands, roads and wealth of the Western Roman Empire.
?The unintended consequence of conquest was that the tribes spread the Christian faith throughout all the peoples of Europe.
?Rome’s official religion since 395 had been Christianity.
?This ended nearly three centuries of persecution of Christians (including being burned alive, crucified and thrown into the gladiatorial arenas).
?Their was only one recognised church (the Roman Catholic). The Pope is the head of the church.
·Christianity became the official religion of Rome following the conversion of Emperor Constantine in 312.
?Constantine converted after he claimed to experience a vision of a flaming cross in the sky before a battle.
?He promised to convert to Christianity and succeeded in the battle.
?Some historians argue that the real reason was it secured the loyalty of Christians in his army (who were becoming a significant and influential group).
The Rise of Islam
?Christianity had started as an obscure Jewish sect (religion with a small number of followers).
?The conversion of Constantine and the Barbarian conquerors ensured that it defined European culture throughout the Middle Ages.
?24 years after the fall of western Rome a religious leader was born in Saudi Arabia whose vision would challenge the Christian world view – Muhammed.
The Spread of Islam
?Muhammad was the prophet of the faith of Islam.
?The Islamic Holy Book (The Koran) was the final authority on faith and lifestyle for the followers of Islam. It was recited by Muhammed after receiving a vision from Allah.
?Like Christianity, Islam is a monotheistic religion (acknowledging only one God).
?Although the Koran mentions both Mary and Jesus respectfully it states that Jesus was another prophet (and not the Son of God or divine).
Reasons why tension between the Christian West and Islamic East were inevitable:
1. Both religions claimed to be the One True Faith.
2. Both religions came from the Middle East and claimed similar places as Holy
(e.g. Jerusalem)
3. Islamic Empires spread rapidly – and managed to conquer parts of Europe
The New Medieval World
?The end of the Western Roman Empire meant that the political unity of Europe had collapsed.
?In response, the German tribes formed their own kingdoms.
?Their Kings had limited power so relied upon the loyalty of local land owners (called Lords).
The Rise of the Medieval Church
?The main source of continuity from Roman to Medieval times was the church.
?The Catholic Church had arranged diplomatic meetings with the leaders of barbarian tribes before the Fall of Rome.
?It also sent waves of missionaries into German tribal areas (successfully!).
?The leader of the Church (the Pope) became a symbol of unity at a time of great disruption.
Pope Francis is the reigning pope of the Catholic Church
Charlemagne the Great Odd facts
?‘Carolingian’ just means ‘Descendents of Charles’
?The FIRST Charles was ‘Charles Martel’–the grandfather of Charlemagne. The Empire was named after this common family name.
?Some of the Charles which followed after the death of Charlemagne included:
?CHARLES THE FAT, CHARLES THE BALD AND CHARLES THE SIMPLE!
Medieval Europe – Threatened from all sides.
The Medieval response: Feudalism
?The waves of invaders and raiders during the 800s and 900s made central control of Europe very difficult.
? A system based on local power and loyalty emerged. This was known as FEUDALISM: A political and social system that tied together Kings, Lords and Peasants in a relationship based upon loyalty and land.
?Feudalism was a way to provide protection and security quickly.
?It had one key weakness – the whole system relied upon having LAND to give to people in return for loyalty.
?This hunger for land (along with the invasions) resulted in a Medieval Arms race to produce the strongest military and defences.
?In this context the creation of heavily armed Knights (now using the stirrups) and castles developed!
The Three Invasions – The Vikings
?The Vikings came from Denmark, Sweden and Norway.
?Due to overpopulation and the harshness of their rocky and cold environment they set out on a series of raids.
?The brutality and speed of their attacks made them the most feared threat to Western Europe.
?The goals of their invasions differed. In some areas they simply raided monasteries and towns and carried off the treasure, food, women and slaves they needed.
?In other cases (such as the region called Normandy) they settled permanently. The Three Invasions – The Islamic
?As the Vikings attacked the North and coastal Europe Islamic raids attacked the south.
?Muslim forces controlled the islands of Sicily in the Mediterranean and southern Spain.
?They used fortresses in these regions to attack Western Europe. Fortresses were also built in France so merchants could be raided.
?Muslim forces besieged Rome in 846 and plundered the cathedrals of St.
Peter and Paul (although they never raided the city itself). They also destroyed a religious centre at Monte Cassino.
?The former Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine) had to deal with repeated raids because it was so close to the Middle East
The Three Invasions – The Magyars
?The Magyars originally came from Western Russia.
?Like another ‘barbarian’ tribe (The Huns) they were excellent horseman and could shoot arrows while riding.
?They carried out a series of raids and managed to left a path of destruction from Eastern Europe to Southern Germany.
?Their invasions were stopped in 955 when a German King called Otto the Great defeated them.
The High Middle Ages (1000-1300) Key developments:
1. The wave of invasions stops.
2. The Holy Roman Empire, France and England begin to build their kingdoms.
3. The Crusades begin.
4. Universities emerge.
5. Political stability leads to economic growth and larger towns and cities. Medieval England
?During the early Middle Ages German tribes such as the Angles, Saxons and Jutes invaded Britain.
?The name ‘England’ comes from Angleland (named after one of the German tribes).
?In 1066 William the Conquerer invaded from Normandy and defeated the English King Harold II (Harold was killed by an arrow through the eye!).
?The Battle has been portrayed on the famous Bayeux Tapestry. William was crowned King on Christmas Day.
?William introduced a strong and efficient central government.
?During the High Middle Ages England would develop a Parliament and the radical concept that the law applied to the King!
?It would also wage a series of wars with another rising European power - France.
Medieval English Towns and Villages
?There were very few towns in early Medieval England. A survey in 1087 counted only six outside of London.
?Most towns developed around religious sites or locations such as crossroads and ports where transport was easy.
?Towns also developed beside rivers –which could be used for water supplies, transport and sewage disposal (by simply dumping it into the river) Medieval English Medicine and Technology
?The fundamental assumption in medieval medicine was that people became sick because they had sinned.
?The church had also banned the practice of ‘doctors’ examining corpses –so the knowledge of anatomy was very limited.
?In reality, most doctors were part-time and usually worked as butchers or barbers.
?The red and white barber’s poles go back to medieval times (red for blood, white for bandages).
?‘Cures’ included the use of leeches to remove ‘bad’ blood and the drilling of holes in patient’s heads to remove bad spirits (to treat mental illness)
The Church
?By the High Middle Ages the church was the largest landowner in western Europe.
?They also ran the majority of schools, hospitals and orphanages.
The Crusades (1096 – 1272
?Jerusalem is a sacred city to Muslims, Christians and Jews.
?Although Jerusalem had been controlled by Arabs since the 600s the right of Christians to worship had been respected.
?In the early eleventh century Turks known as the Seljak Turks seized Jerusalem and closed it to Christians.
?The Byzantine Emperor appealed to Pope Urban II to send Knights to take back the Holy Land.
Urban Growth and Life
During the High Middle Ages cities and towns grew dramatically:
?Europe was more stable (the threat of invasion had gone and the Knights were away on crusades – not warring at home).
?The Crusades united many European Kingdoms and the movements of large numbers of crusaders encouraged trade.
?New inventions resulted in improved harvests (e.g. water mills and better plows)
?The population boomed from the years 1100-1300. Good times!
The Late Middle Ages (1300-1500)
Key Events:
1. Climate change and famine
2. The Black Death
3. The Hundred Year’s War between England and France
4. The power of the church is challenged.
5. The end of the Middle Ages.
Climate Change and Famine
?During the 1300s and 1400s the temperature of Europe began to cool.
?This resulted in violent storms and unpredictable rainfall.
?Crop yields dropped dramatically.
?The worst years were 1315-1317.
?In most towns and regions 10 to 50 per cent of the population starved to death.
?The famine lead to a dramatic increase in violent crime and there were widespread reports of cannibalism.
?The powerlessness of Church and Kings to deal with the crisis began to raise questions….
Key Event: The Black Death (1348-1350)
1. As trade had expanded in the 1300s Europeans had more regular contact with Asia.
2. The Silk Road was the main route between Europe and China.
3.T ensions occurred along this route between Europeans and the Mongolian tribesman (Mongols).
4. Italian merchants at the city of Kaffa were besieged by the Mongols in 134
5. 5. As the Mongol’s started dying because of a mysterious illness they adopted a new strategy – hurling the bodies of the dead over the Italian city walls.
Black Death (1348-1350)
?The disease killing the Mongols was the Bubonic Plague.
?During medieval times there was no cure for this disease –and it was spread easily.
?The Italian merchants returned to their port city and the disease spread rapidly throughout Europe.
?Symptoms included large blisters called Buboes, high fevers and delirium.
?‘Cures’such as donating gold to the church, self-flagellation and using leeches to drain blood had no effect.
Black death - impacts
?1/3 of Europeans are killed.
?Jews are blamed – leading to anti-semitic attacks.
?The authority of the church was questioned.
?So many workers were killed that the remaining workers could argue for better conditions.
The world after the Middle Ages
?The Late Middle Ages (1300-1500) had been a time of climate change, war, famine and poverty.
?Despite these events there were several reasons the period from 1500 was the beginning of Modern Europe.
–Cities in Italy were rediscovering the influence of Greek and Roman culture. This would lead to a Renaissance of ideas from these
periods.
–European nations began to explore the world (most importantly Columbus discovered America in 1492).
–Nations such as France, England, Spain, Switzerland and Russia were more united and determined to protect their independence.
Presentation6/8 Renaissance
Renaissance is an English term translated from the Italian : “RINASCIMENTO”, which literally meant “rebirth”.The term was later used by historians to describe this period of time, because they noted it as a “rebirth” of ancient Greek and Roman ideals.
Cultural Movement
?Like most cultural movements, the Renaissance was greatly affected by the scientific advancements of it’s time.
?Most notably, the progress in the production and availability of paper and the invention of metal movable type.
Printing Press
?The invention of movable type mechanical printing technology in Europe is credited to German printer Johannes Gutenberg in 1450.
Meanwhile in China
?In point of fact, the first movable type to be developed in the world is credited to Bi Sheng, between the years 1041-1048. Sheng’s system used porcelain letters and did not lend itself to the speed and repeated use necessary to mass produce written works. By 1490, Bi Sheng’s system was improved to a Bronze design by wealthy printer Hua Sui.
Latin & Vernacular
?The language or dialect spoken by ordinary people in a particular country or region.
Reminder
Renaissance means “rebirth” of interest in ancient culture (Greece and Rome) Factors that Contributed to the Beginning of the Renaissance
?Trade and commerce increased
?Cities grew larger and wealthier
?Newly wealthy merchants and bankers supported the growth of the arts and learning
?The Renaissance was an age of recovery from the disasters of the 14th century, such as the plague, political instability, and a decline of Church power ?Recovery went hand-in-hand with a rebirth of interest in ancient culture (e.g., ancient Greece and Rome)
? A new view of human beings emerged as people in the Italian Renaissance began to emphasize individual ability
What was the Renaissance?
The Renaissance was a cultural movement and a time of renewal (Europe was recovering from the Dark Ages and the Black Death/Bubonic Plague)
Renaissance means “rebirth” of classical knowledge and “birth”of the modern world (new intellectual and artistic ideas that developed during the Renaissance marked the beginning of the modern world)
Where did the Renaissance begin?
·Italy Italian Cities
Urban Societies / Major Trading Centers
·Secular Movement ：People lost their faith in the church and began to put more focus on human beings and material possessions
The Renaissance produced new ideas that were reflected in the arts, philosophy, and literature.
Patrons, wealthy from newly expanded trade, sponsored works which glorified city-states in northern Italy. Education became increasingly secular
Classical art showed the importance of people and leaders, as well as gods and goddesses
Medieval art and literature focused on the Church and salvation
Renaissance art and literature focused on the importance of people and nature, along with religion
WORK: Madonna and Child with Two Angels (Filippo Lippi)
Bathing Venus, (UNKNOWN)
Classical Art
?Figures were lifelike but often idealized (more perfect than in real life)
?Figures were nude or draped in togas (robes)
?Bodies looked active, and motion was believable
?Faces were calm and without emotion
?Scenes showed either heroic figures or real people doing tasks from daily life
Medieval Art
?Most art was religious, showing Jesus, saints, people from the Bible, and so on
?Important figures in paintings were shown as larger than others around them
?Figures looked stiff, with little sense of movement
?Figures were fully dressed in stiff-looking clothing
?Faces were serious and showed little feeling
?Paint colors were bright
Renaissance Art
?Artists showed religious and nonreligious scenes
?Art reflected a great interest in nature
?Figures were lifelike and three-dimensional, reflecting an increasing knowledge of anatomy
?Bodies looked active and were shown moving
?Figures were either nude or clothed
?Scenes showed real people doing everyday tasks
?Faces expressed what people were thinking
?Paintings were often symmetrical (balanced, with the right and left sides having similar or identical elements)
Renaissance artists embraced some of the ideals of ancient Greece and Rome in their art.
The purpose of art would no longer be to glorify God, as it had been in Medieval Europe. Artists wanted their subjects to be realistic and focused on humanity and emotion. New Techniques also emerged.
What was different in the Renaissance?
Realism
Perspective
Emphasis on individualism
Geometrical arrangement of figures
Light and shadowing
Softening of edges
Artist able to live from commissions
Characteristics of Renaissance Art
1. Realism & Expression (
2. Perspective
3.Emphasis on Individualism
Batista Sforza & Federico de Montefeltre: The Duke & Dutchess of Urbino
Piero della Francesca, 1465-1466.
4.Geometrical Arrangement of Figures
Leonardo da Vinci 1469 The figure as architecture!
5. The Dreyfus Madonna with the Pomegranate
Light & Shadowing/Softening Edges
Michelangelo created his masterpiece David in 1504.
Leonardo da Vinci Painter, Sculptor, Architect, Mathematician, Engineer
Mona Lisa The Last Supper
Raphael The School of Athens
(Perspective, Subjects are mainly, secular, but can be religious ,
Figures look idealized, but can also look like everyday ordinary people,Bodies are active
Clothed or unclothed Faces are expressive Detail
Northern Renaissance
The Renaissance in northern Europe (outside Italy)
·There was increased cultural exchange between European countries
?Printed materials helped to spread ideas
?Centralization of political power made the northern Renaissance distinct from the Italian Renaissance (e.g., nation-states instead of Italian city-states)
Growing wealth in Northern Europe supported Renaissance ideas.
? Northern Renaissance thinkers merged humanist ideas with Christianity.
? The movabl e type printing press and the production and sale of books (Gutenberg Bible) helped disseminate ideas and allowed more people to become educated.
Humanism
1）Cultural and educational reform
2）The study of classical culture (ancient Greece and Rome), in contrast with the study of things related to the church and religion
3）Celebrated the individual
4）Was supported by wealthy patrons (financial supporters)
Literature
Literature flourished during the Renaissance and spread Renaissance ideas, which can be greatly attributed to Johannes Gutenberg.
In 1455 Gutenberg printed the first book produced by using moveable type, The Bible, and started a printing revolution that would transform Europe.
William Shakespeare
?English poet and playwright
?Well-known plays include:
Hamlet, Macbeth, Romeo and Juliet
?Influence and Impact on the Renaissance:
?He expanded the dramatic potential of characterization (his characters were very complex), plot, language (creative), and genre
Erasmus
Dutch humanist
Pushed for a Vernacular form of the Bible
“I disagree very much with those who are unwilling that Holy Scripture, translated into the vernacular, be read by the uneducated . . . As if the strength of the Christian religion consisted in the ignorance of it”
Wanted to reform the Catholic Church
Wrote: The Praise of Folly
Used humor to show the immoral and ignorant behavior of people, including the clergy. He felt people would be open minded and be kind to others.
Sir Thomas More
English Humanist
Wrote: Utopia
A book about a perfect society in which men and women live in harmony, there is no private property, no one is lazy, all people are educated and the justice system is used to end crime instead of executing criminals
How did the Crusades contribute to the Renaissance?
Crusades (1095 –1291) = Religiously sanctioned military campaigns waged by Roman Catholics against Muslims who had occupied the near east since the Rashidun Caliphate (founded after Muhammad’s death in 632, the Rashidun Caliphate was one of the largest empires of the time period)
Increased demand for Middle Eastern products
Stimulated production of goods to trade in Middle Eastern markets
Encouraged the use of credit and banking
Political Ideas of the Renaissance
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527)
An Italian Philosopher and Writer based in Florence during the Renaissance
The Prince (Published in 1532)
Machiavelli believed:
“One can make this generalization about men: they are ungrateful, fickle, liars, and deceivers, they shun danger and are greedy for profi t”
Machiavelli observed city-state rulers of his day and produced guidelines for how to gain and maintain power.
Absolute Rule
He felt that a ruler should be willing to do anything to maintain control without worrying about conscience.
Italian City-States
Because Italy failed to become united during the Dark Ages, many independent city-states emerged in Italy.
Each city-state was controlled by a powerful family and dominated by a wealthy merchant class. Their interest in art and emphasis on personal achievement helped to shape the Italian Renaissance.
Example: The Medici family of Florence ranked among the richest merchants and bankers in Europe; they ruled Florence for over 70 years.
Presentation7 The Enlightenment
1.What does it mean to be “enlightened”?
To gain knowledge and wisdom: to be freed from prejudice, ignorance, or superstition
2.What is the Enlightenment commonly referred to as?
Age of Reason
3. What is “reason”? ——T o think logically
4. How did Enlightenment thinkers differ from scientists?
They applied reason to the “human world” not just the natural world!
5.When was the Enlightenment?
1600-1800 17th and 18th centuries
6.How were the Enlightenment and Renaissance similar?
Both studied the ideas and art of ancient Greece and Rome.
7.What new form of literature evolved during the Age of Enlightenment?The novel
8.Who wrote Don Quixote?
Cervantes (Spain) It was a story about an idiotic knight--the book made fun of knights and the middle ages
9. What was significant about Don Quixote?
It was the first novel (fiction-- not a true story)
亚历山大与希腊化时代 “希腊化”（Hellenistic）一词意即“希腊似的”，主要是指希腊文明随着希腊统治的扩张而传播到东方各地，东方被希腊化了。开启希腊化时代的主角是马其顿人。马其顿地处希腊的东北边缍，这个偏辟落后的小国是怎样崛起、进而发展成为一个地域辽阔的大国的呢？亚历山大又是怎样在他的帝国内传播希腊文化的呢？亚历山大又对希腊化时代做出什么养的贡献呢？ 公元前四世纪后半叶。正当希腊腹地发展了200年的城邦政治制度日趋衰微之时，腓力二世领导下的马其顿王国即蓬勃崛起、一技独秀。腓力选择借鉴了希腊城邦和波斯帝国的经验，对马其顿的政治制度和币制进行了改革。公元前338年，马其顿在克罗尼亚战役，进一步挫败了以雅典、底比斯为首的反马其顿盟军，迫使几乎全希腊都承认了他的霸权。此后，腓力又拟订了进一步开疆拓土的战略方针，他在希腊的拥护者号召把战争引向亚洲，把财富夺回希腊，并举行了向波斯宣战的集会。公元前336年，壮志未酬的腓力遇刺身亡。“亚力山大是马其顿国王腓力二世的儿子，也就是该国的王子，他实际上是杀死他父亲之后登上王位的，接着便开始了他惊人的征服之旅，很大程度上是受波斯人在公元前五世纪入侵希腊、洗劫雅典的启发，亚历山大生活在公元前四世纪中叶，大约是波斯战争一百多年后，他随后开始了惩罚波斯帝国的征程。”（澳大利亚悉尼大学博士丹·坡茨） 雄才大略的亚历山大是人类历史上第一位所向披靡、横扫欧亚非的军事天才。“公元前334年，以亚历山大为首的希腊东征军跨过了赫勒斯滂海峡，在格拉尼库斯河畔首战告捷，第二年又在叙利亚的伊苏斯平原，大败十万波斯军，俘
虏了波斯国大流士三世的母亲、妻子和两个女儿。”（中国人民大学历史系副教授米辰峰）然后亚历山大挥师南下，迅速攻占了腓尼基、巴勒斯坦，兵不血刃、占领了埃及。“厚颜无耻的埃及法老神庙祭司立刻尊奉亚历山大为阿蒙神之子，埃及法老的合法继承人。在平定了埃及以后，亚历山大又挥师北上，在公元前331年，在亚述古都尼尼微的附近高加美拉与号称百万的波斯大军展开了决战，开战不久，波斯国王大流士三世又一次弃阵逃跑、全军溃散。”（中国人民大学历史系副教授米辰峰）亚历山大相继攻陷巴比伦、苏撒和波塞波利斯三大古都，亚历山大的军队对古都进行了洗劫。“大肆洗劫王宫，仅仅在古都波塞波利斯一地就报抢劫了12万塔兰特的金银财宝，不久逃往大夏的波斯国王大流士三世被谋反的当地总督所杀，宫毁人亡，标志着以亚历山大为首的希腊入侵者取代了波斯帝国，在古代西亚的统治地位。”（中国人民大学历史系副教授米辰峰）公元前327年，亚历山大进一步向东扩张。“他越过了东伊朗的北部，到达索格底亚纳、大夏地区即现在的乌兹别克斯坦和阿富汗北部，随后进入印度北部、西印度的北部即现在的巴基斯坦，到达印度河谷后，他停止了前进，他不想再继续了，于是决定回师，他决定从陆地返回，他们穿过俾路支斯坦和伊朗东部的沙漠，旅途异常艰辛、损失惨重。”（澳大利亚悉尼大学博士丹·坡茨） 亚历山大于公元前324年初返回巴比伦，历时10年的东征方告结束。他认定未来世界的中心不在相对贫穷的西方，而在富庶的东方，故定都巴比伦。从此，古代世界前所未有的庞大的亚历山大帝国崛起。这个横跨欧亚非的帝国西起巴尔干半岛，南达利比亚、埃及，东至印度、中亚大夏一带，北达多瑙河和黑海北岸。在东征期间，亚历山大每占一地，都要留下驻军委任总督。据说，他在亚非大陆新建了七十多座军事要塞，都叫亚历山大里亚。“一个很普遍的现象就是古
此答案为作者手工收集，如有错误尽情谅解如需要其他答案请加群：271865091 支持作者QQ: 3023342901 一 1 【单选题】(5分) 以下哪部著作通过研究日本的国民性、服务于二战后美国对日政策，并成为将基础研究与决策研究紧密结合起来的典范？ A. 《菊与刀》 B. 《文明的冲突》正确A 查看答案解析 5分 2 【多选题】(5分) 以下描述哪些符合国民性及国民性研究的特点？ A. 国民性包含了文化表象、思维方式、价值观念、社会伦理、宗教传统等要素 B. 反映的是群体的、而非个别的认同和行为的方式 C. 通过国民性研究可以解剖一个国家的密码 D. 国民性研究是一种决策研究正确A,B,C,D 二 1 【单选题】(5分) 希腊举行的第一次全国性的奥林匹克运动会是在哪一点？ A. 公元前746年B.公元前776年C. 公元前465年正确B 2 【多选题】(5分) 下列哪些描述符合希腊文化的意境？A. 理想与美B. 直觉、诗语和精神的形象化C. 玄同忘我之境在理想和现实的交汇点产生正确A,B,C 3 【多选题】(5分) 希腊文化具有如下哪些特点？A. 来自民间的自发的民族文化；B. 心灵性，每一件艺术都是用心灵雕刻出的精品；C. 向善性；D. 唯美主义； E. 神秘性和悬念正确A,B,C,D,E 三 1 【多选题】(5分) 《荷马史诗》中的隐喻是指哪两部著作在内容和主旨上存在的反差之谜？ A. 《伊利亚特》B. 《奥德赛》C. 《工作与时日》正确A,B 查看答案解析 5分 2 【单选题】(5分) 破解《荷马史诗》的隐喻的关键点在于？ A. 从英雄主义转变到浪漫主义B. 从唯美主义到现实主义 C. 从浪漫主义到理性主义正确答案是:A 四 1 【多选题】(5分) 罗马文明之所以会取代希腊，在于其文化中的哪些特点？ A. 浪漫 B. 理性 C. 现实 D. 世俗正确答案是:B,C,D 查看答案解析 2 【多选题】(5分) 古代西方文明是由以下哪些要素共同塑造而成的？ A. 希腊文明 B. 罗马文明 C. 日耳曼文化 D. 基督教要素正确A,B,C,D 查看答案解析 5分 3 【单选题】(5分) “希腊传统”的特征是？ A. 放大了的个人 B. 放大了的国家 C. 强调家的原则 D. 罗马的反文化正确A 查看答案解析 5分 4 【单选题】(5分) “罗马传统”的特征是？ A. 放大了的个人 B. 放大了的国家
西方文明史 宗教改革对西方文明进程的影响 姓名：邓伟 学号：1314490009 班级：计算机国际班
在15～16世纪，南部欧洲掀起了文艺复兴运动，而北部欧洲则在进行宗教改革，到17世纪，这两场运动都接近尾声，虽然两场运动的矛头都对准中世纪堕落、腐败的罗马天主教会，但是历史结果却大相径庭：那些经过宗教改革而信仰新教的国家，后来都发展成为最发达的资本主义国家，如英国、荷兰、德国、北欧诸国以及美国等。宗教改革深深影响了西方文化的精神氛围，客观上为西方的政治、经济和文化生活的现代化开辟了道路。而文艺复兴运动在科学和哲学方面几乎没有什么建树，意大利人极端的个人主义、利己主义反而使道德更加堕落沦丧，与罗马天主教会成了一丘之貉。赵林教授指出：“文艺复兴说到底是阿尔卑斯山以南的富庶世界，尤其是意大利的一场华丽而感性的时髦风潮，宗教改革则是贫穷而道德严谨的北欧世界的一场质朴而深刻的思想革命。”②当基督教成了罗马帝国的国教，并且获得高于王权的高高在上的权力之后，罗马教会不可避免地腐败堕落了，正应了那句话：“权力导致腐败，绝对的权力导致绝对的腐败”。教皇、主教及教士们表面上遵从基督教的精神—贫穷、贞洁、顺从，
暗地里却大肆捞钱，发“赎罪券”、买卖圣职，表面不结婚暗地却蓄妾，建立“宗教裁判所”，铲除所谓的“异端”，对任何与他们不同的观点都赶尽杀绝，荒唐地迫害所谓的“女巫”，完全背离了基督教的基本精神，道德的堕落、信仰的虚伪，仿佛历史又回到古罗马时代。意大利的文艺复兴运动原本对罗马天主教会的荒淫无耻、虚伪伪善深恶痛绝，可是他们站在感性的立场而非理性的立场，过分强调人的感官欲望和感官享受，强调个人主义和利己主义，这正中罗马天主教会的下怀，最终导致罗马天主教会和人文主义者同流合污。一个人文主义者曾说：“没有人比我再憎恶那些教士们的野心、贪婪和放纵生活的了。 尽管如此，我在教皇的宫廷上的地位还是使我不能不为我自己的利益而希望他们是伟大的。”③罗素写到：“大多数学者痛感当时教皇的罪恶，然而他们还是乐于受教皇的聘用。”④而教皇也给人文主义者提供了精神上的支持和金钱上的赞助。这一时期在文学、艺术上取得了很大成就，可是在科学和哲学上却是个“不毛的时代”，罗素说：“文艺复兴时期的意大利人，几乎都不尊重科学，他们把在古代受到维护的那些迷信保留下来，从教会里得到解放的最初结果，并不是使人们的思考合乎理智，倒是让人对古代样样荒诞无稽的东西广开心窍。” ⑤因此有学者认为在中世纪和文艺复兴之间并没有明显和剧烈的变化。过去学界普遍认为文艺复兴和人文主义以人性对抗神性，以人间对抗天国，具有反宗教反神学的意义，这可能是个最大的误解。 与对待人文主义者的态度相反，教皇视宗教改革者是死敌。15～16
十天干类象详解： 甲木 1 、滴天髓云： “甲木参天脱胎要火；水荡骑虎，火炽乘龙；地润天合，植立千古。”这几句已经说出了甲木的特性与喜忌，是我们推命时应掌握的一些通用原则 2、甲木为东方木,应震卦,震为雷,古人说甲木为雷,可以看到甲木气质轻清向上,快速积极,刚健的性质.甲木代表阳木,如森林,乔木,大树等.一棵健康的树木是离不开阳光的,也就是良好的光合作用来使其生长成材。 3、春天的甲木一般在雨水前需要丙丁火来驱除寒气,故甲木参天,脱胎要火,在雨水后,要庚金劈甲来引出丁火取贵。 4、夏天的甲木火旺木燥,地支须有水润,使木性不至于焚灭,干支生克则地润天合,植立千古.如果八字中火过多,须辰土来即火炽乘龙.为何是辰而不用丑?因辰为水库，其中乙木可以使甲木盘根,有癸水湿润，比丑土(己,辛,癸)要有效率的多，丑为金库，有损木力。 5、秋天的甲木凋零,一般以水印化官杀为用,另须木来帮助,地支最好有根基,即寅卯且不被冲合.如果是九月霜降后,还须适量的火来温暖。秋月金旺，以丁火制约庚辛为佳，反生之功效。 6、冬天的甲木寒冷,以火反生,即阳光普照则光合作用充分.如水过多漂木,则须寅木扎根,即水荡骑虎,寅木中有戊土止水,丙火温暖,甲木相助,甲、丙、戊联合运用,缺一不可，使寅木虎发挥最佳用神效果.其次可以用未土,未是燥木库,能纳水助甲,调节气温,也很不错。所以命中喜寅的人喜欢养猫,或者遇到属虎的朋友,上司帮助大,或者说缺寅的人带虎生肖饰品,家中挂幅虎画,熊猫画，养猫能改良命运。 7、命局如木火二行，成木火通明时，要看节气的深浅。要防灰飞烟灭之虞，故须看干 支水火体性，木火虽通明，也不可忽略甲木的本质，地润兼要火的认识须深入。 8、六壬中甲木主青龙，木将，主财宝、婚姻、喜庆、增福解祸，吉将。在人为辅弼、 大臣、司金铸之官、高雅端方之士、富户、媒妁、僧道。 在物为财宝、文字、重器、衣服、绢帛、羽毛、文彩、龙鱼、水族、虎豹、猫狸、林木、舟车、棺椁、枷棒、筵宴、酒食、果菜，於祟为木神、司命。 9、在《玉照定真经》中讲到“寅申庚甲，商路吏人”，甲（寅)木可以看做功曹,也就是看日元为庚还是甲，就能明确其从事职业特性了。这和六壬中甲木的形意是密切相关的。
西方文化史课外阅读书目 （带★者为必读书目） ★1．《圣经》（和合本） ★2．李泽厚著《美的历程》，文物出版社1989年版。 ★3．姜守明、洪霞著《西方文化史》，北京：科学出版社2004年版。 4．陈启能主编《西方历史名著提要》，江西人民出版社2001年版。 5．〈古希腊〉希罗多德著《历史》（王以铸译）商务印书馆1959年版。 ★6．〈法〉伏尔泰著《风俗论》，商务印书馆，上册（梁守锵译）1996年版；中册（梁守锵等译）1997年版；下册（谢戊申等译）1997年版。 ★7．〈英〉汤因比着《历史研究》上、中、下（曹未风等译），上海人民出版社1986年版。 8．裔昭印著《世界文化史》，上海：华东师范大学2000年版。 ★9．王佐良等主编《欧洲文化入门》，外语教学与研究出版社1992年版。10．〈荷兰〉彼得·李伯庚著《欧洲文化史》（赵复三译），上、下，上海社会科学院出版社2004年版。 11．郑敬高编著《欧洲文化的奥秘》，上海：上海人民出版社1999年版。12．〈德〉古斯塔夫·施瓦布著《希腊古典神话》（曹乃之译），南京：译林出版社1996年版。 ★13．〈美〉G. F. 穆尔著《基督教简史》（福建师范大学外语系编译室译），北京：商务印书馆1981年版。 14．张久宣编《圣经故事》，北京：中国社会科学出版社1982年版。15．〈苏〉苏联艺术科学院美术理论与美术史研究室编《文艺复兴欧洲艺术》上册（严摩罕等译），北京：人民美术出版社1985年版。 16．〈苏〉苏联艺术科学院美术理论与美术史研究室编《文艺复兴欧洲艺术》下册（严摩罕等译），北京：人民美术出版社1985年版。 ★17．〈英〉阿伦·布洛克著《西方人文主义传统》（董东山译），北京：三联书店1997年版。 ★18．〈德〉马克斯·韦伯著《新教伦理与资本主义精神》（于晓等译），三联书店1987年版。 19．〈美〉贝尔著《后工业社会的来临》（高铦、王宏周、魏章玲译），新华出版社1997年版。 ★20．〈美〉贝尔著《资本主义文化矛盾》（赵一凡等译），北京：三联书店1989年版。 21．〈德〉利奇德著《古希腊风化史》（杜之、常鸣译），辽宁教育出版社2000年版。 22．〈德〉奥托·基弗著《古罗马风化史》（姜瑞璋译），辽宁教育出版社2000年版。 23．〈德〉爱德华·傅克斯著《欧洲风化史·文艺复兴时代》（侯焕闳译），辽宁
西方近代文化精神的重要源头古希腊神话 摘要：神话是一种文化积淀，也是一种民族意识的积淀，直至今天，它仍以无穷的魅 力影响着现代人的生活。在漫长的西方文明发展史中，希腊文明曾放出璀璨的光芒。 古希腊的戏剧、建筑、绘画、雕塑等都从古希腊神话中汲取养料。所以可以说，古希 腊神话是西方文化的重要源头。古希腊神话是西方文化百用而不厌其烦的素材，这已 是人所共知的。本文重在试图探索西方文化从古希腊神话中汲取的两钟重要的精神血 液即人本和理性，这两种精神恰是整个西方近代文化的两个主要精神。 关键词：西方近代文化精神源头古希腊神话 古希腊神话故事的形成时期很早，是远古一代代人集体创作的结晶。神话起初口传，后来见之于书面文字。它的最早的传世书面文献当推荷马史诗。史诗中除了主体 故事外，还提及了许多其他的神话故事，那些故事显然在当时已是广为流传、普遍知 晓的。在荷马之后不久有古希腊诗人赫西奥德的长诗《神谱》，扼要地记述了许多神 话故事，并立力图把那些故事谱系化。古希腊悲剧的题材基本都是取材于神话，是作 家对那些神话故事的现实理解的戏剧体现。希腊神话在人类思想文化艺术史上始终光 彩夺目，经久不衰。 希腊文化源于古老的爱琴文明，和中国商周文明略有相像之处。他们是西洋文明 的始祖，具有卓越的天性和不凡的想像力。在那原始时代，他们对自然现象，对人的 生死，都感到神秘和难解，于是他们不断地幻想、不断地沉思。在他们想像中，宇宙 万物都拥有生命。然而在多利亚人入侵爱琴文明后，因为所生活的希腊半岛人口过剩，他们不得不向外寻拓生活空间。这时候他们崇拜英雄豪杰，因而产生了许多人神交织 的民族英雄故事。这些众人所创造的人、神、物的故事，经由时间的淬链，就被史家 统称为「希腊神话」，西元前十一二世纪到七、八世纪间则被称为「神话时代」。神 话故事最初都是口耳相传，直至西元前七世纪才由大诗人荷马统整记录于「史诗」中。 我们现在所知的所有古希腊神话的故事都来自《荷马史诗》和赫西俄德的《神谱》和《工作与时日》。《荷马史诗》包括《伊利亚特》和两部。《伊利亚特》记述的是 古代希腊人与特洛伊人交战攻打伊利亚特的经过。《奥塞德》描写了希腊军返航途中 的种种遭遇，荷马之后的赫西俄德写了《神谱》和《工作与时日》希腊诸神的渊源， 历史的发端。公元前六世纪到公元前三世纪间，希腊三为悲剧大师埃斯库罗斯、索福 克勒斯、欧里匹得斯的经典著作也极大的丰富了希腊神话的内容。古希腊神话主要包 括神的故事、英雄传说。前者包括关于天地的开辟、神的产生、神的谱系、人的起源 和神的活动等故事。古希腊神话里希腊有十二主神，他们住在希腊北部的奥斯匹斯山上。他们是管雷电的天神宙斯、天后家空之神赫拉、海神波塞东、太阳神阿波罗、月 亮神阿尔忒弥斯、智慧女神雅典娜、爱与美女神阿弗洛狄特、战神阿瑞斯、火与工匠 神赫尔斯托斯、众神使者赫尔墨斯、农神得墨忒耳、灶神赫斯提亚。此外还有小神仙 爱神厄洛斯、学问和艺术女神缪斯、大力神赫拉克勒斯。古希腊神话除诸神外还有英 雄传说，主要反映的是遥远的古代社会生活及人类心智、物质发展之后与自然的斗争，还有许多是反映人们生产斗争知识的。对与中国神话零散、片段化、孤立、情节简单 不同，希腊神话自成体系、完整、情节丰富曲折，具有非常大的魅力。 古希腊神话中也有人兽同体的遗迹，他们是诸神的祖先。希腊神话包括神的故事 和英雄传说两个部分。神的故事涉及宇宙和人类的起源、神的产生及其谱系等内容。 相传古希腊有奥林匹斯十二大神。但古希腊神话的主要人物希腊十二主神都是与人同形、与人同性的，既有人的体态美，也有人的七情六欲，懂得喜怒哀乐，参与人的活
西方文明史心得体会 篇一：我眼中的西方文明史(西方文明史论文) 西 方 文 明 史 期 末 作 业 Written by XHN Western civilization in my eyes After learning this lesson for one term，I know a lot about western in many fields such as mythology、philosophy、festival and communication. How can I describe the western civilization? I think it’s one part full of amazing、wisdom、freedom and convert during the synchronous development of the western world. We have learnt several mythologies and I find that the “god” in western mythology is not a serious image, opposite, ZeuS, gods’leader, always does many
self-willed things which sounds uncomfortable. Just because of it, the “god” makes people feel real and vivid. Not as our country, western people may prefer to believe gods is more similar to normal people, I think, at the least in emotion part. How about philosophy? We also know many philosopher from our country like Lao Tz and Chuang Tse, they usually spread their idea by teach others and write some book. But in ancient Greece, there are three famous philosopher called Socrates、Plato and Aristotle. They prefer to communicate with others than teach others what they think about. I think if we defined that Chinese philosophy likes teaching, then, western philosophy may likes debating. I should admit that the academic atmosphere in that time in western was good, I still remember there are a paint named “the school of Athens”, painted by Raphael, describe how crowd during the school, it reflect that at that time there are many people have huge thirst of knowledge, they have some topic such as “what made the world”、“what’s the resource of the world”……In a word, the philosophy in western civilization usually make me
西方文明史导论教学大纲 Introduction to the History of Western Civilization 全校通选课周学时 2 学分时间 任课教师北京大学历史学系朱孝远 课程网站：https://www.doczj.com/doc/508380912.html,/pkujpk/course/xfwms 西方文明史导论是一门全校性的通选课，为2006年教育部评选的全国精品课程。旨在用中国人眼光来分析、透视西方文明的发展过程。分专题讲授西方文明的特征、民族性格、国民性、思维方式、文化传统、优缺点，并从全球化角度探讨文明的整合问题。认为东西方文明的互相整合是世界文明发展的趋势。 教材：（1）马克垚主编：《世界文明史》，北京大学出版社。 简介：这是北京大学马克垚教授主编、由北京大学世界史教师为主撰写的一部教材，任课教师朱孝远、颜海英为《世界文明史》（上册）的分册主编。 （2）教材：[美]约翰·巴克勒等：《西方社会史》上、中、下卷。广西师大出版社，2004。 简介：在当代的西方历史研究上，社会文化史占着重要的地位。在某种意义上甚至可以说，它是整个历史研究的一个基础和一种发展。展开在我们面前的这部《西方社会史》，就是当代西方这方面研究中最杰出的代表作。这是一补介绍西方历史和文化遗产的经典之作。本书以社会史为核心，从普通人的兴趣点出发，重现历史上普通人的生活。本书内容和图片资料极其丰富，所述自古至今，深受读者欢迎。 译文采用的原版是读书1987年的英文修订本，由美国伊利诺斯大学三位最为著名的历史学家约翰·P·麦凯、贝内特·D·希尔、约翰·巴克勒编撰而成，该书出版不久就成为众多美国大学相继采纳的通用教材。作者们把历史置入于时空发展的框架之中，表现出动态的历史经验、生命的模式以及智觉、情感、情绪等的复杂形式，通过“历史的理解”和“历史的叙述”来把人类的经验转化成为一个个直接、具体和生动的故事。这部作品并不一定立即告诉读者各种历史结论或历史因果，但却引导你进行历史思考。《西方社会史》对于历史结构的探讨是有独创性的，作者们亲身进行了许多有趣的观察，并且利用这些经验材料论证了自己的观点。他们的见解，特别是他们从文化根源和社会基础出发分析历史演化的因果，无疑为解释历史现象提供了一种客观主义的新视野，对后来的历史学家产生了不小的影响。（《中国新闻出版报》2005.10.19 第4版） 讲课的内容 （时间安排/讲课重点/难点/知识点） 第一讲绪论（第一周） 讲课的重点：旨在说明什么是“西方”，什么是“文明”，什么是通选课的基本要求。 难点：（1）文明的概念如何理解 （2）文化与文明的关系如何把握
西方文明史复习概要中英对照+重点+部分答案 ①考试题型： 选择、填空各15分，共30分；英文简答题共4道，20分；中文论述题，三道共50分。 ②复习策略：书本为主，所考内容为每一章开章引言，以及每张重点（下文会具体交代）；PPT用来贯穿主线索，便于理解史实。两者缺一不可，相辅相成。考试不会太难，大家掌握必要常识和单词即可。 ③下面是我对知识点的总结，如有纰漏，还望指正。 总目录： Part 1古希腊 第一章：亚历山大和他的时代（古希腊文明） Part 2 古罗马 第二章：古罗马共和国兴衰史（古罗马文明） 第三章：凯撒与耶稣（早期基督教） 第四章：罗马和平和帝国的衰亡（罗马后期，帝国时代） Part 3中世纪 第五章：信仰之刃--中世纪的繁盛期（中世纪西方文明） Part 4 现代国家的滥觞 第六章：“朕即国家”--英法两国君主专制的发展（资产阶级革命前夜） 第七章：“勇于求索！”--科学革命（文艺复兴后的科技发展） 第八章：启蒙运动 第一章：本章讲述的是古希腊时期的民主制度和文化（哲学与神话），以及希腊化时代。重点掌握古希腊著名哲学思想，以及亚历山大主要事迹。 引言：（此处只是简单概述翻译，具体内容还望大家读书。下面几章的此部分内容亦是如此。） 公元前五世纪，雅典城邦（the Greek city-state Athens,城邦还可以称为 the polis）诞生了最早的民主制度,由此带来了社会文化的大繁荣，那个世纪便被称为古希腊的“黄金时代”（the Golden Age）,堪称是西方文明的滥觞。此后由于政治经济的最巨大差异，古希腊最强大的两个城邦——雅典和斯巴达（Sparta）陷入了长期的内战，直到公元前404年雅典战败才结束，史称“伯罗奔尼撒的战争”（Peloponnesian War）。但是由于斯巴达自身政治制度的落后，它的盟主地位（hegemony,盟主权）终于在公元前371年被底比斯城邦取
西方法律思想史讲义 王海山主讲 第一讲西方法律思想史的概念与方法 主要介绍这样几个问题：一、什么是西方法律思想史？着重解读西方、法律、思想、史的概念；二、为什么要学习西方法律思想史？三、如何学习西方法律思想史？四、本学期的授课内容；五、重要参考书目。 一、什么是西方法律思想史？ 西方法律思想史，顾名思义，就是研究西方法律思想发展历史的理论法学的一个分支学科。要准确理解这一点。需要理解西方、法律、思想、史以及其组合概念。下拟分述之。 1．什么是西方？ 西方首先是一个历史地理概念，其次是政治地理概念。回顾西方地理范围的变迁史。西方法律思想史是以上述历史和政治地理范围内的西方不同时期的法为对象的哲学思考。可见，西方法律思想史的空间要素限定，关键是界定西方文明发展史上不同时期的西方地理范围。只要是该范围内的法律思想都属于西方法律思想史的研究范围。 2．什么是法律？ 这首先要从法律渊源意义上来考察。正式渊源与非正式渊源：制定法、习惯法、判例法、学术法等等。 其次，西方人对法的理解，一开始就不同于我们对法作刑的理解。具体言之，西方人的法除了法的一般含义，还具有一些特殊含义：正义、规律、权力；二元对立的法律观等等。 3．什么是思想？ 思想是对存在的反映。但思想是存在于人的头脑中的，那么，我们研究的思想是谁的思想？从什么地方获得思想？尤其是从什么地方获得古人的思想呢？主要来源是着作和传说。 法律文化作为人类精神文明的一个组成部分，实际上包含两个互相依赖的方面：法律制度和法律思想（法律观念）。一方面，思想作为一种意识，指的是超越现实实践层面的精神上的观念力量，是对存在的反映，另一方面，正如许多思想家们所认为的，观念的创造导致现实的变化，观念的力量要超出于物质的力量，观念的力量可以成为比物质的力量具有更决定意义的变化的动力。以法国大革命为例,就像拿破仑曾经说过的那样,法国大革命就是由启蒙运动的观念而引发的。路易十六在阅读了伏尔泰和卢梭的着作后,叹息道:“伏尔泰和卢梭亡了法国”。法国历史学家饶勒斯在分析大革命的原因时也说:“社会革命将并不仅仅依靠事物的力量来实现,它要依靠意识和意志的活力。”马克思也说“批判的武器不能代替武器的批判，但是理论一经群众掌握也会变成巨大的物质力量。”这也可以看作是思想史研究的一个意义，追踪事物的原因。就思想史研究本身来说,它还包含着另一层意义,即探寻“价值”。探讨世界的真理、价值和意义。而这对于人类社会来说更有意义。如果说对原因的探讨是追溯过去的话,那么,这种对“价值”的探讨则将引领人们走向未来。每一个理性的存在物，应该说都是有思想的。但是，思
西方文明史----对希腊魅力描述 刘梦玲人力0902 西方文明是强调个人实现的物质文明,中国文明是和西方文明最相异的，这是西方人的第一感觉。很多非西方的古老文明，如埃及、印度、波斯，和中国都是不一样的，他们都是从上古时代，就和西方文明糅合在一起。例如埃及是四大文明古国，但埃及并不是到近代才和西方发生关系。埃及历史上有非常有名的女王克丽奥佩特拉，她和其整个家族统治埃及两三百年，但却都是希腊人，根本不会说埃及话。因此，埃及和西方从上古就已经纠缠在一起，这是因为西方文明发源地是在地中海一带，埃及、非洲原来都和西方文明糅合在一起。 在这里，我简单的把希腊文化对于世界文明的发展的重大作用进行一个简单的介绍，在丰富自己关于神秘而又美丽的希腊文明知识的同时，也加强自己对于世界文明的起源有一个更好的理解和认识。 古希腊的神话文明 当我们提到古希腊时，首先想到的也许并不是她的先进的民主政治或者城邦制下的繁荣与和平，而是她的美丽的神话故事。她用故事向我们展现的不仅是那些主角的美丽爱情，更多的则是对美的追求与向往。 阿波罗的爱情故事 传说，Daphne（达芙妮）(月桂女神)是位非常貌美的女神，当年曾与宙斯的大儿子阿波罗互相爱慕。终于，有一天阿波罗终于按耐不住自己对月桂女神的爱恋，对她展开的追求。可是因为阿波罗自己是太阳神，身体聚集了大量的热能，使得月桂难以忍受，一旦靠近就有灼伤皮肤的危险。所以每次阿波罗追月桂，她就会躲。就这样，一追一躲，可这样毕竟不是办法，终于月桂无法忍受了，她大喊救命。她的父亲因不忍女儿遭受如此痛苦，就将大地劈裂了一条大缝。月桂纵身一跳，化成了一棵大树从裂缝中长出。自此，这棵树就叫做月桂树。而阿波罗并不知道缘由，认为月桂宁可变成大树也不愿和他在一起。直到有一天，他突然意识到原来是因为自己太热了才使得月桂化作一棵大树。阿波罗发誓要永远为月桂留下一片遮蔽。那就是我们现在知道的太阳黑子，在太阳神心中留下的永远的遮蔽，他为月桂留下的遮蔽.... 阿波罗的爱情故事是美丽的、浪漫的，从这点我看到了希腊的人民的像这些美丽的神话一样纯洁善良的心。在希腊的城邦制下的小国寡民制度下，希腊人民幸勤劳动。他们不仅从事海外贸易，积极拓展自己的海外市场，向外传播优秀文化，同时还传播了自己的优秀的手工业技术，用自己的非凡的技术制造出了令人称叹的陶器。 希腊文明 古希腊文明的兴起 早在古希腊文明兴起之前约800年，爱琴海地区就孕育了灿烂的克里特文明和麦锡尼文明。大约在公元前1200年，多利亚人的入侵毁灭了麦锡尼文明，希腊历史进入所谓“黑暗时代”。因为对这一时期的了解主要来自《荷马史诗》，所以又称“荷马时代”。在荷马时代末期，铁器得到推广，取代了青铜器；海上贸易也重新发达，新的城邦国家纷纷建立。希腊人使用腓尼基字母创造了自己的文字，并于前776年召开了第一次奥林匹克运动会。奥林匹克运动会的召开也标志
西方文明史学习心得 一直以来对西方的文化和文明都颇感兴趣，记得以前曾经拜读过余秋雨先生的《千年一叹》，被书里所描述和记载的古代文明所折服，似乎也随着作者一起踏上了寻找人类古代文明路基的征程。书中的一段话给我留下了很深刻的印象：“文明之所以称为文明，是与它周际的生态相比较而言的，因此，它注定与野蛮和落后为邻。如果两方面属于不同的政治势力，必定时时起战火；如果两方面属于同一个政治范围，必定天天有内耗。” 早在春秋战国时代，先贤们就认识到，若要培养经国济世之才，就必须传授礼、乐、射、御、书、数的“六艺”，在这里面有一半都是公共教育的范畴。西方的教育家也非常重视公共艺术教育，提出博雅教育、全人教育、通识教育。西方文明史课程，不仅可以提高教师的知识面，提高修养，最重要的是，可以影响课堂，树立人文教育的起点。西方文明史是一门综合性很强的课程，是一门公共艺术教育，与很多专业学科都有着非常密切的关系，授课者须具备通识教育理念、深厚的西方文化知识沉淀以及东方、西方文明比较视野和清晰的语言表达能力。当然这对学习者也同样提出了很高的要求。学习完了清华大学外文系陈永国教授主讲的西方文明史，受益匪浅。陈教授从用其渊博的历史、地理、哲学、文学、艺术、建筑及科学等方面的知识和启发式的教学方法从全新的视角论述了文化的定义以及文化与文明的关系，即“经过特定文化的教化、开化的过程就是文明的过程”。课程注重向我们展示了意大利文艺复兴时期的文明。使我们对彼得拉克、薄伽丘、米兰多拉、马基雅维利、马萨丘、莎士比亚、洛伦佐·瓦拉、洛伦佐·德美第奇、若斯坎·德·普雷、波提切利、达芬奇、阿里奥斯托等艺术家和文学家有了更进一步的了解。 人文主义是文艺复兴时期的灵魂，那么人文主义教育就是恢复这种灵魂的精神食粮。要了解西方文化及文明发展历程，必须先了解西方文明史，进而了解形成西方人性格特征、国民性、思维方式、文化传统、以及与东方文明的差异的缘由。学习西方文明史，了解世界文明的多样性，有利于提高学习者的人文素养。东西方文化虽然产生于不同的背景，具有其各自的特点，但二者之间的关系不是
试论罗马法 定义法是社会生活中最重要和最高的法律行为规范，即在一定范围内为维护所有者利益而对个人行为规定 限度的强制性规范。罗马法，广义上一般泛指罗马奴隶制国家法律的总称，存在于罗马奴隶制国家的整个历史时期。它既包括自罗马国家产生至西罗马帝国灭亡时期的法律，以及皇帝的命令，元老院的告示，成文法和一些习惯法在内。也包括公元7世纪中叶以前东罗马帝国的法律。狭义的罗马法仅指罗马民法。 历程罗马法发源于罗马城邦。随着罗马疆域的不断扩大，从统一意大利，垄断地中海，到建立地跨欧、 非、亚三洲的奴隶制帝国，罗马法也由狭隘的城邦习惯法、市民法，发展为万民法，最后形成为第一个具有世界性质的法律制度。罗马法形成以后经过了“王政”时期，共和国时期与帝国时期几个阶段。罗马法产生后，随着罗马国家历史的延续，适应罗马政治、经济与统治阶级的需要而不断发展。公元前5世纪，罗马共和国元老院设置了法典编纂委员会，制定了古罗马第一部成文法《十二表法》。该法是罗马法发展史上的一块里程碑，它对罗马社会早期的习惯法作了初步总结，并为以后罗马法的发展奠定了坚实的理论基础。但随着罗马对外扩张以及国际交往和商业的发展，罗马公民同外邦人和被征服地区居民在法律上的矛盾和纠纷日益增多，同时产生需要局部承认外邦人合法权益并予以法律保护的问题，于是逐渐形成万民法。罗马共和时代后期，法学研究活动开始兴起，有力地推动着罗马法的发展。公元6世纪，东罗马帝国统治时期，皇帝查士丁尼亲自主持编纂了由《查士丁尼法典》、《学说汇纂》、《法学阶梯》和《查士丁尼新律》组成的《民法大全》，标志着罗马法发展到成熟、完备的阶段。这部法典完整地和系统地保留了罗马法的精华，对于欧洲各国的法律制度的形成和发展，具有无与伦比的影响。恩格斯称其为第一个世界性的法律。 罗马法律文化遗产 1）罗马人对世界文明的最大贡献，就是他们的法律制度和法学理论。提出法律就是一个相互制约的体制。相互制约，正是西方政治智慧之所在。（尽管当时并不完善）2）a《十二铜表法》标志着罗马人从习惯法走向成文法b《民法大全》是欧洲历史上第一部系统完备的法典3）罗马产生了世界上最早的律师制度4）作为重要的历史文化遗产，罗马法是以私有制为基础的法律的最完备形式，对现代西方社会产生了广泛深远的影响。它是构成现代大陆法系的重要基础。 罗马法与在近现代的影响 1.罗马法中体现的理性原则、衡平观念等，也非常适合近代资本主义社会发展的需要，成为资产阶级革命、摧毁专制黑暗的封建法制、克服诸侯割据和政治分裂局面以及建立统一的资产阶级法制的重要武器 2. 为近代世界各国立法提供了范本。 ? 如拿破仑颁布的《法国民法典》就是以罗马法的有关内容为蓝本起草的。还有英国的《权利法案》、美国的《独立宣言》和1787年宪法、法国的《人权宣言》等，都是以罗马法中的理论为基础。罗马法对近现代中国、日本等亚洲国家的立法也有一定影响。如明治维新后的日本民法、中华民国时期的民法，我国现行的《民法通则》、《继承法》也在一定程度上继承了罗马法的原则
我们知道每个民族， 都有自己的一些 自己的民族文化。 像中国， 我们有书法，我们有国画， 我们有那个中国的书法， 中国的国画， 我们有中国的民族音乐。 但是在西方呢， 也有西方的文化。 比如说交响乐，比如说芭蕾舞，比如说油画。 我们中国人， 对西方文化接受是非常认真的。你看，我们有中央音乐学院，我们有中国的交响乐团， 专门研究西方音乐。 我们有北京舞蹈学院， 我们专门研究芭蕾舞。 我们有中央美术学院， 专门研究他们的油画。 这样，这样一种文化的表象呢，它是和文化传统联系在一起的。往往代表着一个民族的 思维方式、精神状况、 社会伦理，甚至宗教传统。 那么这些东西呢， 是我们搞文化研究的人呢， 特别需要注意的。 那么今天呢， 我们就来讲 芭蕾舞系列的第一讲。 我们讲的一个内容呢， 叫做芭蕾舞诗性美的情感意境。就在讲什么呢？ 我们要讲芭蕾艺术的情感本质，和它的审美的逸韵。 为此呢， 在这一讲中我们就要分析， 从法国的皇家芭蕾， 到现代芭蕾舞它们之间的变化，以及导致这些变化的 历史文化原因。
我们还准备提出一些考察 和解释芭蕾舞题材变化的模式，这种模式呢， 就是以天性美为出发点， 以人性美、诗性美、古典美 为衡量标准。 将芭蕾舞呢和发展呢， 分成若干个层次， 以便呢，来指出芭蕾舞， 尤其芭蕾舞悲剧的奥秘。 它什么奥秘呢？ 就是在于它把美提升到极致，又赋予一种被摧毁的结局。 这样就显出这种舞蹈的 深刻的思想内涵。 那么我们呢，这些思想呢， 或者这些内容呢， 我们分成专辑呢， 一个个来讲。 那么首先呢， 我们就来讲一下， 童话与诗现实的艺术 与灵魂的艺术。 那各种门类的艺术， 在各种艺术门类中， 芭蕾之美是最直观的， 最神秘的和最富有表现力的。正如评论家恩 兰帆先生所描绘的那样， 每当那个，那个帷幕被拉开，优雅的舞姿轻盈的跳跃， 那个婷婷的脚尖旋转， 都将人们带入了 那梦幻般的艺术境界。 因此呢，我们把它称为什么？舞蹈艺术的皇冠之珠。 它又是西方人审美理想的 最典范、最完整的体系， 所以几个世纪以来， 几个世纪以来， 尽管芭蕾舞主要是 在描写美丽的童话世界， 但是它始终能够和观众 进行交流。
2018智慧树西方文明史导论答案 第一章单元测试 1【单选题】(5分) 以下哪部著作通过研究日本的国民性、服务于二战后美国对日政策，并成为将基础研究与决策研究紧密结合起来的典范？ A.《菊与刀》 B.《文明的冲突》 2【多选题】(5分) 以下描述哪些符合国民性及国民性研究的特点？ A.国民性包含了文化表象、思维方式、价值观念、社会伦理、宗教传统等要素 B.反映的是群体的、而非个别的认同和行为的方式 C.通过国民性研究可以解剖一个国家的密码 D.国民性研究是一种决策研究 3【多选题】(5分) 文明与下列哪些要素是对立的？ A.野蛮 B.动物性 4【单选题】(5分) 与中国文化相比，西方人更偏向于用下述哪种思维？ A.归纳法 B.演绎法 5【单选题】(5分) 文化兴国中的“文化”，对国家而言，指的是 A.国家的文化实力 B.单位和个人的创新能力 第二章单元测试 1【单选题】(5分) 希腊举行的第一次全国性的奥林匹克运动会是在哪一点？ A.公元前746年 B.公元前776年 C.公元前465年
2【多选题】(5分) 下列哪些描述符合希腊文化的意境？ A理想与美 B.直觉、诗语和精神的形象化 C.玄同忘我之境在理想和现实的交汇点产生 3【多选题】(5分) 希腊文化具有如下哪些特点？ A.来自民间的自发的民族文化； B.心灵性，每一件艺术都是用心灵雕刻出的精品； C.向善性； D.唯美主义； E.神秘性和悬念 4【单选题】(5分) 希腊神话中，贞节的保护神是？ A.雅典娜 B.赫拉 C.宙斯 5【多选题】(5分) 《荷马史诗》内容包含了？ A.《伊利亚特》 B.《奥德赛》 C.《工作与时日》 第三章单元测试 1【多选题】(5分) 《荷马史诗》中的隐喻是指哪两部著作在内容和主旨上存在的反差之谜？ A.《伊利亚特》 B.《奥德赛》 C.《工作与时日》 2【单选题】(5分) 破解《荷马史诗》的隐喻的关键点在于？ A.从英雄主义转变到浪漫主义 B.从唯美主义到现实主义 C.从浪漫主义到理性主义 3【单选题】(5分) 亚里士多德的老师是？ A.苏格拉底 B.柏拉图
西方文明史自测题 一、单选题 1.西方文明的主体是（）。 A.发端于古代希腊与古代罗马的那一支文化 B.以地中海大西洋文化为主体的文明 C.北美文明 D.英国文明 2.古罗马文化中最有成就的是（）。 A.法学 B.天文学 C.历史学 D.地理学 3.“西欧文化第二繁荣期”是指（）。 A.启蒙运动时期 B.文艺复兴时期 C.近代时期 D.现代时期 4.克里特文化成就的集大成者是（）。 A.克诺索斯城邦的王宫 B.迈锡尼文化 C. “阿特柔斯王的宝库” D.米诺斯王宫 5.古代罗马使用的文字被称为（）。 A.字母文字 B.象形文字 C.拉丁文 D.线形文字 6.拜占庭文化的代表是（）。 A.文学 B.雕塑 C.宗教 D.圣索菲亚大教堂 7.欧洲历史上第一部系统完备的法典是（）。 A.《汉谟拉比法典》 B.《拿破仑法典》 C.《查士丁尼法典》 D.《法国民法典》 8.西欧人开辟新航路的理论依据是（）。 A.地理大发现 B.基督教 C.天文学 D.地圆之说。 9.近代资产阶级政治思想家关于国家主权学说的第一次系统论述的著作是（）。 A.伊拉斯谟的《愚人颂》 B.尼科洛·马基雅弗利的《君主论》 C.让·博丹的《国家论》 D.弗朗索瓦·拉伯雷的《巨人传》
10.德国路德宗教改革纲领的核心点，是他的（）。 A.《九十五条论纲》 B.《书简》 C. “因信称义”学说。 D.《十二条款》 11.关于引发“三十年战争”的直接原因的叙述，正确的选项是（）。 A.它是列强之间争霸的产物 B.它是欧洲“均势”的产物 C.它是由宗教之争而引发的 D.它是由商路之争而引发的 12.下列选项，属于勒奈·笛卡尔的观点的选项是（）。 A.知识就是力量 B.人民主权论 C.我思故我在 D.社会契约论 13.启蒙运动的主战场是在（）。 A.英国 B.荷兰 C.法国 D.北美 14.“自由、平等、博爱”三位一体的口号，最终形成于（）。 A.英国资产阶级革命时期 B.美国独立战争时期 C.法国大革命时期 D.拉美独立战争时期 15.19世纪西方资产阶级最主要的政治哲学是（）。 A.保守主义 B.浪漫主义 C.自由主义 D.批判现实主义 16.20世纪对人类影响最大的交通工具是（）。 A.飞机 B.轮船 C.汽车 D.火车 17.弗洛伊德主义的理论基础是其（）。 A.《梦的解释》 B.存在主义 C.精神分析学说 D.生命哲学 18.凯恩斯经济理论最核心的内容是（）。 A.自由放任 B.计划经济 C.政府干预理论 D.消费透支 19.被誉为“猫王”的美国人是（）。 A.艾伦.弗里德 B.比尔.海利 C.艾维斯.普莱斯利 D.鲍勃.笛伦