Modern Linguistics
Song Y an Chapter 1. Introduction
1. What is Linguistics?
1.1 Definition: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of la nguage.
Remark:
“scientific” refers to the way in which it is studied
“study” means investigate or examine.
“language” means languages in general.
. A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language stru cture.
1.2 The scope of linguistics
1.2.1 General Linguistics: the study of language as a whole.
1.2.2 Core of Linguistics:
Phonetics:the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to th e establishment of a branch of linguistics.
Phonology:how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.
Morphology:the study of the way in which these symbols (sounds are p rimary in linguistic communication, they are represented by certain sym bols) are arranged to form words.
Syntax : the combination of these words to form permissible sentences i n languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies.
Semantics:the study of meaning was gradually developed and became k nown as semantics.
Pragmatics:the study of meaning is conducted in the context of use, it b ecomes another branch of linguistic study.
1.2.3 Interdisciplinary branches of linguistic study
Sociolinguistics: the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch. Psycholinguistics: relates the study of language to psychology. Applied Linguistics:findings in linguistic studies can often be applied t o the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech abilit y.
In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguisti
c theories an
d principles to languag
e teaching, especially the teaching o
f foreign and second languages.
1.3 Some important distinctions
1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive
Prescriptive: if a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct” b ehavior .
Descriptive: if a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language pe ople actually use.
Remark: modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.
1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic
Synchronic study: the description of a language at some point in time. Diachronic study the description of a language as it changes through ti me. And it is a historical study. That means it studies over a period of ti me.
Remark: The former has the priority over the latter.
1.3.3 Speech and writing
Modern Linguistics regards the spoken language as primary;
while traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance
of the written word, partly because of its permanence.
a. In any human society we know of, speech precedes writing;
b. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication tha n the written.
From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing; for the writing system is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world, there are still many langua ges that can only be spoken but not written.In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of inform ation conveyed.
Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mot her tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to scho ol.
d. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of h uman speech. While the written language is only the “revised” record of it.
1.3.4 Langue and Parole
In the early 20th century, the distinction between Langue and Parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure.
Definition:
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community;
Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
It varies from person to person, situation to situation.
Relatively stable, d oesn’t change frequently.
concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. abstract; it is not the language people actually use.
The concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. The set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.
parole
Langue( what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole)
语料库语言学
语料库语言学是20世纪80年代才崭露头角的一门交叉学科，它研究自然语言文本的采集、存储、加工和统计分析，目的是凭借大规模语料库提供的客观翔实的语言证据来从事语言学研究和指导自然语言信息处理系统的开发。语料库顾名思义就是放语言材料的仓库。现在人们谈起语料库，不言而喻是指存放在计算机里的原始文
本或经过加工后带有语言学信息标注的语料文本。现在世界上已经有了不少规模较大的语料库，有些是国家级的，有些由大学和词典出版商联合建设。另外，由于个人微机的迅猛发展和存贮数据的硬盘造价持续下降，研究者个人也开始建立适合于自己研究的小型语料库。
1.3.5 competence and performance
It was proposed by the American linguist N.Chomsky in the late 1950’s .
Definition of them:
Competence : the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic co mmunication.
Remark: What linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence. (p.7)LAD( language acquisition device)
N.Chomsky claims that human beings are biologically programmed f or language and that the language develops in the child just as other bio logical functions such as walking. Originally Chomsky referred to this i nnate ability as LAD. It was described as an imaginary “black box” exi sting somewhere in the human brain.
They are very similar , but differ at least in that Saussure took a sociolo gical view of language, his notion of langue is a matter of social conven tions;
Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, it is a p roperty of the mind of each individual.
2. What is language
2.1 Definitions of language:( p.9)
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human comm unication.
2.2 Design features :
The defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
Charles Hockett specified 12, and five of which will be discussed here. Five design features:
2.2.1 Arbitrariness （任意性）
This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and s ounds
2.2.2 productivity (创造性）
This design feature makes possible the construction and interpretation o f new signals by its users.
2.2.3 duality (双重性）
Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures or two le vels: sounds (lower level) and morphemes and words. (higher level)..
2.2.4 Displacement (移位性）
language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away p laces.
2.2.5 Cultural transmission (文化传递性）
The details of any language system have to be learned and taught.
Exercises:
Study questions on page 14.
*********************************************************** **********Chapter 2 Phonology
1 the phonic medium of language
1.1 Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication.
1.2 Linguists are concerned with only those sounds that are
produced by the human speech organs in so far as they have
a role to play in linguistic communication.
1.3 Phonic medium of language: this limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of int erest to linguistic studies. and the individual sounds with in this range are the speech sounds.
2. Phonetics
2.1 Definition: the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worl d’s languages.
Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but re lated points of view:
articulatory phonetics: it studies the sounds from the spea ker’s point of view.
auditory phonetics: from the hearer’s point of view. acoustic phonetics: it studies the way sounds travel by loo king at the sound waves.
2.2 organs of speech(p19)
The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained i n three important areas or cavities:
the pharyngeal cavity- the throat;
the oral cavity- the mouth;
the nasal cavity- the nose.
2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds – broad and narrow transcription
Towards the end of the 19th century, the International Phon etic Alphabet (IPA) came into being.
Definition of IPA: a standardized and internationally accep ted system of phonetic transcription.
The basic principle of the IPA is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sound.
the IPA provides its users with a set of symbols called dia critics.
Diacritics: it can be added to the letter-symbols to make f iner distinctions than the letters alone make possible. Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only. It is generally used in dictionaries and language tea ching textbooks.
Narrow transcriptio n: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.
2.4 Classification of English speech sounds Vowels : in producing a vowel the air stream coming from th e lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind.
Consonants : it is obstructed in one way or another.
Refer to the diagram on page 26 and 27.
2.4.1 Classification of English consonants
One is in terms of manner of articulation(发音方式）：Stops (塞音）：
Fricatives (摩擦音）：
Affricates (塞擦音）：
Liquids (流音）：
Nasals (鼻音）：
Glides (滑音）：
Another is in terms of place of articulation(发音方位）: Bilabial (双唇音）：
Labiodental (唇齿音）：
Dental (齿音）：
Alveolar( 齿龈音）：
Palatal( 腭音）：
Velar(软腭音）：
Glottal (喉音):
The description of the consonants : voiced/ voiceless; plac e of articulation; manner of articulation.
2.4.2 Classification of English vowels
Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: The position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of th e mouth, the shape of the lips, the length of the vowels.
3. phonology
3.1 phonology and phonetics
Similarity: they are studies of speech sounds. Differences: they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all t he speech sounds used in all human languages.
Phonology: is interested in the system of sounds of a parti cular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to con vey meaning in linguistic communication.
Phoneticians took interests in the different versions of t he “same” sound. While phonologically, they are the same.
3.2 phone, phoneme, and allophone
Definitions of them:
Phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we h ear and produce during linguistic communication are all pho nes. [ ]
Remark: A phone doesn’t necessarily distinguish meaning; s ome do, some don’t.
Phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that of distin ctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particul ar sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a cer tain phone in a certain phonetic context.
Allophones: the different phones which can represent a phon eme in different phonetic environments are called the allop hones of that phoneme.
3.3 phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, a nd minimal pair
Phonemic contrast: if phonetically similar sounds are two d istinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contr ast.
Complementary distribution: if phonetically similar sounds
are allophones of the same phoneme, then they don’t distin guish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. S o the allophones are said to be in complementary distributi on.
Minimal pair : when two different forms are identical in e very way except for one sound segment which occurs in the s ame place in the strings, the words are said to form a mini mal pair.
Remark: consonants and vowels.
(不管形式，只看发音）。
Minimal set: all these sound combinations together constitu te a minimal set.
A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to s ee if substituting one sound for another results in a chang
e o
f meaning.
3.4 some rules in phonology
3.4.1 sequential rules
There are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called sequential rule s.
e.g: if three consonants should cluster together at the beg inning of a word, the combination should obey the following
rules on p.37.
3.4.2 Assimilation rules
It assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a fea ture of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones si milar.
3.4.3 Deletion rule
It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.
For example, design.
Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.
3.5 suprasegmental features – stress, tone, intonation.(
超切分特征）
Definition:
The phonemic features that occur above the level of the seg ments are called suprasegmental features.
3.5.1 stress
There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence str ess.
Stress is a relative notion, only words with two or more sy llables can be said to have word stress.
In English, stress is free.
Sentence stress can change meaning.
3.5.2 tone （声调）
are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rat es of vibration of vocal cords.
English is not a tone language; Chinese is.
3.5.3 Intonation (语调）
English has four basic types of intonation.
Distinctive features: features that distinguish meaning. syllable : is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.
The syllable structure
The syllabic theory is often represented by a tree diagram. Such theories are often known as NON- LINEAR or MULTILEVEL PHONOLOGY.
O (nset)
R(hyme)
N(ucleus)
Co(da)
Open syllable and closed syllable
We can divide a syllable into two parts, the RHYME and the ONSET. As the vowel within the rhyme is the nucleus, the co nsonants after it will be termed the CODA.
Open syllable: a syllable that has no coda.
Closed syllable:
元音结尾的叫开音节；
The onset position may be empty or filled by a cluster of a s many as 3 consonants, while the coda position may be fill ed by as many as 4 consonants.( sixths)
Chapter3 Morphology
General introduction
Morphology ： etymology( 词源学）
lexicology (词汇学）
stylistics (形体学）
semantics(语义学）
Morphology can be divided into two sub-branches:
Inflectional morphology （屈折形态学)
and lexical or derivational morphology（派生形态学）.
Content words and functional words
Open class (开放类词）：
in English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up th e largest part of the vocabulary. They are the content word s of a language, since we can regularly add new words to th ese classes.
Closed class(封闭类词）：
the other syntactic categories include “grammatical” or “functional” words, conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of relatively few words and have been referred to as being closed class words since new words are not usually added to them.
1.Definition: studies the internal structure of words and t he rules by which words are formed.
2. Morpheme : the smallest unit in terms of relationship be tween expression and content, a unit which cannot be furthe r divided into smaller units without destroying or drastica lly altering its meaning. Whether it is lexical or grammati
cal.
3. Allomorph: a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phone tic forms. Each would be said an allomorph of the morpheme.
4. Types of morphemes
3.1 Free morphemes(自由词素）:
those morphemes may occur alone, that is , those which m ay constitute words by themselves.
For example, dog, nation and close are free morphemes.
In other words, all monomorphemic words are free morphemes. And polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morph emes are called compounds.
3.2 Bound morphemes（黏着词素）:
those morphemes must appear with at least another morphe me.
For example, -s in dogs, -al in national, and dis- in discl ose can not occur alone.
Another classification
3.3 Derivational affixes: are bound morphemes added to ex isting forms to construct new words. it can make the word c lass either changed or unchanged.For example, black-blacken
computer-computerize
3.4 Inflectional affixes: bound morphemes which are for t he most part purely grammatical markers. They indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjs and advs. It doesn’t change the word class of the word.
Remark: case:格；degree:级； tense: 时态； aspect:体。
The distinction can also be called derivational and infle ctional morphemes, however it applies to affixes only. Ro ots can’t be divided into inflectional and derivational on es.
Derivational affixes
According to its position in the new word, affixes are divi ded into the followings:
Prefix: occur at the beginning of a word. They modify the m eaning of the stem, but usually don’t change the part of s peech of the origina l word.
e.g: dis- un- in- mis-
Suffix: at the end. they modify meaning of the original wo rd and in many cases change its part of speech.
Quiz of Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False. 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( T) 2. Linguistics studies particular language, not language in general. ( F) 3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. ( F ) 4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. ( T ) 5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. ( T) 6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistics study. ( F) 7. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. ( F ) 8. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar. ( T) 9. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. ( F ) 10. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by Saussure. ( F) II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given. 1. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k nowledge of the rules of his language. 2. Langue refers to the a bstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 3. D uality is one of the desing features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units. 4. Language is a system of a rbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 5. P arole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 6. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such application is generally known as a pplied linguistics. 7. Language is p roductive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before. 8. Linguistics is generally defined as the s cientific study of language. 9. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d escriptive. 10. Modern linguistics regards the written language as s econdary . III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.
1. 商法是调整商事交易主体在其商行为中所形成的法律关系，即商事关系法律规范的总称。 2. 形式意义上的商法，是指奉行民商分立立法原则的国家在民法典之外制定的以“商法”命名的法典。 3. 实质意义上的商法是指一切调整商事关系的法律规范的总称。商法的形式包括各种有关商事的专门法规；法规范不仅仅存在于商法典之中，而且还大量地存在于民法、行政法以及其他法律、法规和判例之中。 其概念的理论理论着眼点为商事法律规范的性质、规范的作用、规范的构成、规范实施的方式等在理论上的有机统一。 4. 商法的原则是指集中体现商法的性质和宗旨，调整商事法律关系必须遵守的基本准则。它是制定商法典的根本出发点，更是适用商法的指导原则。 5. 商法的调整对象，是指商法作为特殊的法律规范体系对现实生活发生作用的范围. 5.商事法律关系，是指因商行为的实施而发生的权利义务关系。具体来说，它是指商主体及其他民事主体在实施商行为的过程中所形成的权利义务关系。 6. 商法的体系是指商法作为一个独立的法律部门，其内部具有逻辑联系的各项商事法律制度所组成的系统结构。 7. 商主体是指依照法律规定参与商事法律关系，能够以自己的名义从事商行为，享受权利和承担义务的人，包括个人和组织。 8. 固定商人，指以营利为目的，依法组织完整的机构，有计划地、反复连续地从事一种或多种商事行为，在经营中全部法律行为适用商法的商人。 9.拟制商人，指虽经商事登记，但仅从事小商人的业务或不从事商事行为的人，法律将其视为商人。 10.表见商人，是指虽非完全商人，也未在商事登记簿上注册登记，但已经以商人的表象从事了商行为，而应被视为商人的人。 11. .商法人是依法定的构成要件和程序设立的，拥有法人资格，参与商事法律关系，依法独立享有权利和承担义务的组织。 12. 国有商法人，由国家投资设立的从事生产经营的，具有独立权利能力和行为能力，并获得法人资格的企业或公司。 13.集体商法人，由公民和集体单位组合而成、从事生产和经营活动、具有独立权利能力和行为能力，能够独立承担法律责任并获得法人资格的集体商事组织。 14.合营或合资商法人，如果是不同投资主体共同投资组建的，可以是有限责任公司和股份有限公司。 15.私营商法人，由私人投资经营而取得法人资格，投资者以其出资额为限，商法人以全部财产对外承担责任的商事组织。 16.外商投资法人，外国投资者根据中国的法律规定，在中国境内投资设立的商业企业。 17. 商合伙，是指两个或两个以上的自然人、法人或其他组织按照法律和合伙协议的规定设立，普通合伙人对合伙经营所产生的债务承担无限连带责任，有限合伙人对合伙债务承担有限责任的商事组织。 注：商合伙作为商主体，具有从事商行为的权利能力和行为能力，但不具有完全责任能力。 18. 个人合伙是指两个以上自然人，按照合伙协议，各自提供资金、实物、技术等，合伙经营，共同劳动；投入的财产由个人所有，由合伙人同共使用，合伙经营积累的财产由合伙人共有；发生亏损由合伙人负连带清偿责任的商事组织。 19.合伙型联营是指企业事业单位之间依照联营合同组建的共同出资、共同经营、共享利润、共同承担无限连带责任的商事组织。 20.合伙企业，是指两个或两个以上的自然人、法人或其他组织按照法律和合伙协议的规定
第一章语言学导论 Chapter1 Invitations to Linguistics Linguistics is nowadays coming into wide use with combination of theories and practice as well as linguistics and other disciplines. Linguistics is of great use with very wide application. —人工智能，人机对话，机器翻译 The research of linguistics has already gone beyond language itself. Definition of Linguistics How do you define linguistics? What is linguistics? ——Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human language. What are we going to learn about linguistics? 1. It is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. These can be called microlinguistics. 语音学(phonetics);音系学(phonology);形态学(morphology);句法学(syntax) —Schools of Modern Linguistics 现代语言学流派; 语义学(semantics) ; 语用学(pragmatics) (chapter2-6) 2. Macrolinguistics——interdisciplinary learning Saussure, father of modern linguistics(现代语言学之父) were intended to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance on other disciplines. However, the interactive links between linguistics and other sciences are developing fast. 尽管索绪尔的目的是给予语言学自主性，给它定义明确的研究对象，将它从对其他学科的 依赖中解放出来。然而，随着时间的推移，语言学和其他学科的联系越来越密切。Psycholinguistics Psycholinguistics, as implied by the name, is the study of psychological aspects of language. It usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. 心理语言学，顾名思义，是对语言的心理方面的研究，它通常研究的是与语言使用相关的 心理状态和心理活动。比如语言习得，语言的理解，语言的生成等等。(chapter 9/chapter11) Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics, as implied by the name, attempts to show the relationship between language and society. Sociolinguistics attempts to look at language structures by paying attention to language use in a social context and on the other hand tries to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community. 这就是社会与语言的关系，一方面通过社会语境中语言使用情况的调查了解语言结构的问 题，另一方面又通过语言现象的分析了解社会构成的问题。 Research Focus1 Cross-cultural Communication There exists a close relationship between language and culture. Language is an indispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better representation through language use. 语言是文化的载体，具有不可替代的重要性；文化通过语言得以凸现，其表现力得到充分展示。 心理学家罗杰斯(Rogers,1961), 真正的交流建立在理解基础上的倾听。 - 1 -
最重点的名词解释 1、商法：是以商事关系为调整对象的法律规范的总称。 2、商事关系：是指由商法所调整的商人从事市场经营活动所形成的社会关系，包括商事组织关系和商事交易关系。 3、营业自由是指在不违反法律的强制性规定和不违背公序良俗的前提下，任何人都享有组织营业的自由和从事营业活动的自由。 4、商主体：俗称为商人，是指依法取得商事主体资格，以自己的名义实施经营行为并能够独立享有和承担商事权利和义务的个人和组织。 5、商事能力包括商事权利能力和商事行为能力。 6、商事权利能力：是指据以充当商事主体，享有商事权利和承担商事义务的法律地位和法律资格，又称商事主体资格。 7、商事行为能力：是指商事主体据以独立参加商事法律关系、以自己的商事法律行为取得商事权利或承担商事义务的法律资格。 8、商业名称：又称商号，是商主体用以在营业商表示自己与其他商主体相区别的名称。 9、商事账簿：是指商主体为了表明其财产状况和经营状况而依法制作的用来记载其营业活动和资本运动状况的书面簿册。 10、商行为：又称商事行为，是指商主体所从事的以营利为目的的营业行为。 11、个人独资企业：指依法在中国境内设立的，由一个自然人投资，财产为投资个人所有，投资人以其个人财产对企业债务承担无限责任的经营实体。 12、合伙：是由合伙人共同约定出资，为了共同的目的，实行共同经营的联合体。 13、合伙企业：是两个以上的合伙人的集合，经过商事登记程序设立的经营性主体，具有团体的属性。 14、普通合伙企业：指由普通合伙人组成，合伙人对合伙企业债务承担无限连带责任的合伙企业。 15、合伙协议：是指两个以上合伙人为了设立合伙企业，实现共同的经济目的而达成的协议 16、入伙：指合伙企业成立后，合伙人之外的第三人加入合伙企业并取得合伙人资格或地位的法律关系。 17、退伙：指合伙人退出合伙企业，从而丧失其合伙人资格的法律行为。 18、法定退伙：指非依合伙人本人的意思，而依法律规定的条件进行的退伙。 19、除名退伙：是指某一合伙人因其行为，经其他合伙人一致要求而被强制退出合伙企业的退伙。 20、任意退伙：指声明退伙，是指依据合伙人自己的意思表示所进行的退伙。 21、特殊的普通合伙企业：是某种在债务承担方面存在特殊规则的普通合伙企业、 22、有限合伙：指由普通合伙和有限合伙依法设立的一种商业组织，其中普通合伙人对合伙组织的债务承担无限责任，有限合伙人仅以认缴的出资额危险对合伙组织的债务承担有限责任。 23、母公司：指拥有另一个公司的股权或资本达到实际控股程度，对其经营管理活动有控制权的公司。 24、子公司：指资本或股份的大部分为另一个公司所控制，且其经营管理活动受其制约的公司。子公司有其独立的财产和法人资格。 25、总公司：也称本公司，指从组织上、业务上管辖和控制其他公司的总机构。 26、分公司：指从业务上、组织上受其他公司管辖的分支机构，在法律上不具有法人资格。 27、公司法：是国家制定的调整公司在设立、组织、活动和终止过程中所发生的社会关系的法律规范的总和。 28、发起设立：也称单纯设立、共同设立，指公司的资本全部由发起人认购，不同发起人之外的任何人募集的设立方式。 29、募集设立：是指发起人只认购公司股份的一部分，其余部分向社会公开招募或者向特定对象募集的设立方式。 30、公司资本：也称公司的注册资本，指公司成立时由公司章程规定的、由股东出资形成的公司财产总额。
Language and Cognition Cognitive Linguistics What Is Cognitive Linguistics? Cognitive linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s. It is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world. Main Points in Cognitive Linguistics Construal and Construal Operations Categorization Image Schemas Metaphor Metonymy Blending Theory Construal and Construal Operations Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation, etc. Attention/ Salience Judgment/Comparison Perspective/Situatedness Construal and Construal Operations : Attention/ Salience The operation in salience have to do with our direction of attention towards sth. that is salient to us. In cognition, we direct our attention to the activation of conceptual structures. We use certain linguistic expressions to provoke certain patterns of activation. Construal and Construal Operations : Judgment/Comparison The construal operations of judgment/ comparison have to do with judging sth. by comparing it to sth. else. The figure-ground alignment apply to space, with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. Static and dynamic figure/ ground Trajector for a moving figure Landmark for the ground of a moving figure Categorization Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. There are three levels in categories. Basic level Super-ordinate level Subordinate level Metaphor Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is constructed in terms of another. It is often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. Lakoff and John classify conceptual metaphors into three categories Three Categories of Metaphor Ontological metaphors Structural metaphors Orientational metaphors Three Categories of Metaphor Ontological metaphors Ontological metaphors means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc. as entities and substances. Three Categories of Metaphor Structural metaphors Structural metaphors allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Three Categories of Metaphor Orientational metaphors Orientational metaphors give a concept a spatial orientation Metonymy Metonymy is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain Two Conceptual Configurations Whole ICM and its part(s) Parts of an ICM Metonymy — Whole ICM and its part(s) Thing-and-Part ICM Scale ICM Constitution ICM Event ICM Category-and-Member ICM
第一编商法总论 四、名词解释 1、商 2、商法 3、商事关系 4、商事主体 5、商人 6、商合伙、7。商法人9、商号 10、公示原则11、1807年法国商法典12。美国统一商法典12、商行为14、商事代理 1、什么是商法？商法的主要特征有哪些？ 2、商法的法律渊源？ 3、什么是商法的基本原则，它的主要内容有哪些？ 4、代商法为实现交易便捷，主要采取了哪些措施？ 5、维护交易公平的意义何在？商法是如何体现这一原则 的？ 6、什么是交易安全原则？商法是如何体现这一原则的？ 7、强化企业组织原则主要体现哪些方面？ &简述商主体的特征。 9、中世纪商人法有何特点 10、什么是商人？其应具备的基本条件是什么？ 11、是否具备商人资格有什么法律意义？ 12、在我国取得商人这种特殊主体资格应具备什么基本的条件？ 13、在我国，具有商人性质的主体主要有几种形式？ 14、简述代理商、居间商、行纪商的异同。 15、商事合伙的种类？ 16、商人与商业辅助人的联系和区别？ 17、什么是商行为？广义的商行为包括哪些？ 18、简述商事行为的法律特征及其基本分类？ 19、什么是单方商行为？什么是双方商行为？ 20、单方商行为是否应当由商法调整？为什么？ 21、什么是绝对商行为，什么是附属商行为？ 22、什么是代理？商业代理的经济意义主要有哪些体现？ 23、代理与代表的区别？ 24、商事经营中不正当竞争行为的表现形态？ 25、简述商事登记的特征。 26、我国商事登记的种类。 27、简述商业登记的原则 28、简述商事登记的法律效力。 29、简述商号权的内容及特点。 30、简述商号限制的内容。 31、简述我国对商号的法律保护？ 32、简述商业名称权的法律特征： 33、简述商业名称与商标的区别。 3 4、什么事营业转让？营业转让中受让人有什么义务？ 35、什么是商业账簿？商业账簿有什么意义？ 36、商业账簿有哪些种类？设置商业账簿的基本原则有哪些？ 37、简述商事帐簿的设置原则。 六、论述题 1、试述商法的调整对象。 2、试论述商法与民法的关系 3、试述商法与经济法的关系。 4、论述商法的效益原则。 5、比较法国商法典与德国商法典的异同？ 6、分析美国商法体系的特点、体系以及优缺点。 7、比较大陆法系商法立法体例的不同模式？ 8、试述民商合一和民商分裂的立法体例的优劣？ 9、试述中世纪商人法的产生与特点。 10、请比较商事主体、企业、公司、商事组织之间的差异？ 11、试举出现实生活中的商事经纪组织，并简要描述其特征。 12、商事登记申请的审查方式有哪几种？请简要分析中国的商事登记的规定。 13、区别营业转让与公司合并的区别与联系。 14、请结合案例分析商业账簿制度的重要性和法律效力。 15、简述商事帐簿法律关系。 第二编企业与公司法 五、名词解释题 1 .企业2.个人独资企业 3. 合伙企业4、商事合 伙5、有限合伙6、隐名合伙 7。公司法8 。公司9 。一人公司10 .国有独 资公司11 。有限责任公司 12。股份有限公司13。两合公司14。人合公司15。资合公司16。上市公司 17。公司章程18、法定资本制19、许可资本制20、授权资本制21。注册资本22 。发起设立23。募集设立24 、股份25。股票26。股份转让27。股份回购28。股份收购29。股东30 。公司债券31。 公司债32。公司分立33。公司合并34。外国公司35。公积金 六、简答题 1、简述个人独资企业的概念、特征和设立条件。 2、简述个人独资企业和私营企业的异同。 3、合伙的特点及种类是什么？ 4、简述合伙企业的概念特征 5、简述合伙企业设立的条件 6、简述合伙企业和第三人的关系。 7、与公司相比较，合伙出资有什么特殊之处？ 8、简述合伙财产的性质 9、合伙企业的事务执行法律是如何规定的？ 10、合伙人在合伙事务的执行中有什么权利，承担什么义 务？ 11、请简要说明合伙企业与合伙人在债务清偿方面的相互关 系。 12、合伙人入伙，享受什么权利，承担什么义务？ 13、合伙人退伙的原因有哪些？ 14、简述一人公司和个人独资企业的异同 15、简述公司组织机构的设置原则 16、合伙企业的利润分配法律是如何规定的？ 17、合伙人的连带清偿责任是什么？ 18、合伙人的债务清偿与合伙企业的关系有哪些？ 19、入伙的条件和程序是什么？ 20、新合伙人的权利和责任是什么？ 21、退伙的原因有哪些，其效果是什么样的 22、合伙人出资份额转让有哪些相关规定？
---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ 语言学Linguistics笔记 Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学 Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言 language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness 任意性 Productivity 多产性 Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission 文化传递⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacemen t Language can be used 1/ 38
Linguistics 1.The scope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that….) phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language) phonology:（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication. morphology:（形态学）the study of the word structure and word formation. syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. semantics: (语义学) the study of linguistic meaning. pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication. Some distinctions in linguistics: 1)Prescriptive & descriptive Prescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use Descriptive: aims to lay down rules for “correct & standard” behavior in using language.(doctor)
A AcS (actor Subject), ReS (Receptor Subject) and DaS (dative vesubject) P85 Active deposit 活性沉积P393 adaptability制宜原则P39 adjustment 调整P135 AdjMr：Ajective Modifier 定语修饰语P19 Affixing morpheme of fixed position 定位性附加语素P342 Affixation 缀合法P29 All encompassing 无所不包P ix Aphasic 失语症患者P386 ApoP 同位短语式P188 Approximative system 近似体系P58 arbitrariness任意性; selectiveness 选择性P181 Aspect 体（tentative尝试体, inchoative开始体, successive继续体, perfect完成体, progressive 进行体）P114 Autonomy 自主权P53 B backshift后移P370/372 bilingualism 双语学P522 Blending 拼缀法P29 Bottom-up perception自下而上的感知，top-down perception自上而下的感知P493 C Cart Fames1980 对比分析P x circulativeness 周遍性P86 categorization范畴化, grouping 归为类P487 category word 范畴词P418/474/513 cleft sentence 分裂句P230 cognate equivalence同源对应P134/468，词根对应P478 cognitive schema认知图示P386 Cohesion 粘着性P62 Cohesion and coherence接应与连贯P74 Cohesive tie 联结关系接应词，additive 增补连接词，adversative 对比连接词，causal conjunction因果连接词，temporal conjunction 时间连接词P436 Combination (虚词功能)组合P452 Total combination完全结合，formal combination形式结合P464 Common value （语言）共同价值；special value 特征价值P47 Complement 补语P126Composition 合成法P29 Compactness of meaningful morpheme有义语素结合紧密度P299 Compressed predicate 紧缩式谓语P120 Compound （汉语）合成词P443 Conversion 转化法P29 Constant 常数（ie. tertium comparationis中间比较项）；variable变数；tertium 中间项P50
Linguistics What is Linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavours to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language (ie., do not split infinitives). Linguists are not required to know many languages and linguists are not interpreters. The underlying goal of the linguist is to try to discover the universals concerning language. That is, what are the common elements of all languages. The linguist then tries to place these elements in a theoretical framework that will describe all languages and also predict what can not occur in a language. Linguistics is a social science that shares common ground with other social sciences such as psychology, anthropology, sociology and archaeology. It also may influence other disciplines such as english, communication studies and computer science. Linguistics for the most part though can be considered a cognitive science. Along with psychology, philosophy and computer science (AI), linguistics is ultimately concerned with how the human brain functions. Below are several different disciplines within linguistics. The fields of phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and language acquisition are considered the core fields of study and a firm knowledge of each is necessary in order to tackle more advanced subjects. Phonetics Phonetics is the study of the production and perception of speech sounds. It is concerned with the sounds of languge, how these sounds are articulated and how the hearer percieves them. Phonetics is related to the science of acoustics in that it uses much the same techniques in the analysis of sound that acoustics does. There are three sub-disciplines of phonetics: ?Articulatory Phonetics: the production of speech sounds. ?Acousitc Phonetics: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds. ?Auditory Phonetics: the study of the perception of speech sounds. Phonology Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are organized in a language. Phonolgy examines what occurs to speech sounds when they are combined to form a word and how these speech sounds interact with each other. It endeavors to explain what these phonological processes are in terms of formal rules. Morphology