1. Discuss the role of L1 in L2 acquisition. (20’)
Gass (2001) believes that transfer from NL plays a “rocky” role in the course of SLA and in a L2 learning situation. L1 has a great influence on L2 in phonology, morpheme, syntax, semantic, pragmatic, discourse and so on. Therefore, the role of L1 in L2 acquisition can be concluded in one word, that is, transfer, which means the influence that the learner?s L1 exerts over the acquisition of an L2 apparently in many aspects in Ellis?s view. Here, I divide transfer into four kinds, that is, negative transfer, positive transfer, avoidance and over-use.
Negative transfer can also be called interference, is caused by the sharp differences between L1 and L2. When learners transfer their L1 habits into the L2, errors are made if the habits of L1 differ greatly from those of L2. For example, Chinese learners find very difficulty to learn attributive clause in English because there is little use in Chinese. But some scholars thought that it is not agreeable that whether errors made are the results of transfer or are intra-lingual in nature. Some experiments indicate that both the two factors influence L2 learning. Whether or not an agreement on how much negative transfer acts in L2 acquisition, the fact that the langua ge phenomenon “transfer” exists will not be denied. Different L1 habits will prevent successful L2 learning in all.
Positive transfer L1 facilitates L2 learning but it doesn?t mean the absence of errors. Instead, it means the reduction of errors. Positive transfer occurs when there are similarities between L1 and L2, thus learners can use L1 habits to understand L2 more easily and better. Studies done by linguists illustrate how transfer has a facilitative or positive effect. Zoble (1980) investigated some adult English learners of French of the placements of “verbs” and “objects”. Because there are the same word-order type of verb-object exists in English, so these learners find easier to learn this kind of knowledge in French. They quickly grasp the pattern through their NL (English) transfer positively. Hyltemstam (1984) made an investigation on relative clauses in L2 Swedish, a language that does not permit pronoun retention. He investigated 45 adult subjects from 5 different language backgrounds. The languages were ranged in the extent to which they prohibit retentive pronouns. The result shows that the learners with the most similar language rules learn his TL fast. The more similarities exist in L1 and L2, the easier to grasp L2. All these serve as the positive transfer in SLA.
Avoidance can also occur when the differences between L1 and L2 are so sharp that learners can not find any clues from L1. L1 habits don?t exist in L2. The classic study of avoidance done by Schachter (1974) shows that Chinese and Japanese learners of English made fewer errors on relative clauses than
Persian and Arabic learners, not because the former mastered the TL better than the latter, but because they reduced the amount of using relative clauses or simply avoided using them.
Opposite to avoidance, the over-use, or overgeneralization refers to the frequent use of certain linguistic rules of structure of the L2. For example, L2 learners have often been observed to use the regular past tense inflection to irregular verbs in L2 English, such as “comed”, “goed”, and “runned”, etc. L2 learners overuse linguistic rules when they think overuse of rules in L1 can get right answers.
2. Comment on Krashen’s Monitor Model (main ideas and potential problems with this model). (20’)
There a re five hypotheses of Krashen?s Monitor Model, that is, the Acquisition/Learning Model, the Natural Order hypothesis, the Monitor Hypothesis, the Input Hypothesis and the Affect Filter Hypothesis.
The Acquisition/Learning Model states that there are two ways of mastering a second language, that is, learning and acquisition. Learning is a conscious process which is done with the help of peers, parents, teachers, etc. Education is the most common way for learning. However, acquisition is a subconscious process. Acquisition means things that are innate, that one person processes when he/she is born. Acquisition and learning are two distinctive and independent processes of mastering a second language. Unfortunately, Krashen doesn?t point out that learning can be come acquisition. He gives some evidence such as sometimes acquisition can occur without learning, sometimes one can also break the rules though he knows them etc. He thinks learning doesn?t precede acquisition but he doesn?t think the other hand, which means learning can precede acquisition. Besides, Krashen doesn?t define conscious and unconscious. He also doesn?t point out how do learning and acquisition differ in behavioral terms. What?s more, there is logical inconsistency in this hypothesis. If most L2 is acquired unconsciously then how can learning, which is conscious, contribute to the development of L2 competence. This hypothesis also claims that adults can access same LAD as children.
The Monitor Hypothesis concerns about the relationship between acquisition of language and learning of language. Acquisition contributes to the fluency in a language while learning plays the role of monitor or corrector in acquiring a language. Krashen lists some sufficient conditions in which the Monitor can be made full use. 1) time (sufficient time is necessary for the consciously think about and use rules effectively);
2) focus on form (performers must pay attention to what is corrected); 3) knowledge of the rule. However, there are some deficiencies of this hypothesis. Firstly, Kreshen claims that learning is available only for use in production instead for comprehension but he doesn?t give some evidence. Secondly, focus on form means focus on the correctness, there is no distinction between form and content. But sometimes letters with different forms such as site iru and sitte iru also have different meanings. Thirdly, knowing the rules of
a language is absolute in that different learners have different understanding of the rules. They can also use the rules from their own perspective to use and comprehend language even though some of them are incorrect for linguists. Krashen neglects the diverse standards of rules of different people and he also thinks that children don?t use Monitor.
The Natural Order Hypothesis explains that the rules of the language (grammatical structures) are acquired in a predictable order, some rules tending to come early and others later. However, there are some problems left for this hypothesis. Firstly, Krashen doesn?t point out what is a …structure?? Learner has to acquire many structures of a language such as tense endings. Secondly, there is no definite order of developing a language. Individual variation makes the different order for different person. If the structures are divided into varying numbers of ordered sets, it is needless to talk about a …natural order?.
Krashen?s Affective Filter Hypothesis is one of the most significant and well-known hypotheses in second language acquisition. It shows the relationship between affect and seco nd language learning. What?s more, this hypothesis elucidates why some learners can learn second language well while some can?t to a large degree. Affect, from Krashen?s perspective, is intended to include factors such a motivation, attitude, self-confidence, and anxiety. Low anxiety, high motivation, self-confidence and comprehensible input are the ideal conditions for learner?s successful language acquisition. If the filter is up, input is prevented from passing through, thus learners cannot acquire language. If the filter is down, and if the input is comprehensible and adequate, the acquisition will take place. To summarize, according to Krashen, two conditions are necessary for successful acquisition. One is comprehensible input and the other is low affective filter. The deficiencies of this hypothesis are the following. Firstly, this hypothesis also intends to explain child and adult differences. The Filter is not present in children but is present in adults. But questions such as “How does it work? How is the input?” are not answered. Secondly, Krashen doesn?t point out why this hypothesis cannot be applied to L1?
Comprehensible Input Hypothesis is one part of Krashen?s Monitor Hypothesis. Krashen thought second language is acquired by learners? receivin g understandable information, which means the comprehensible input. Essentially, the input should be slightly ahead of a learner?s current state of grammatical knowledge. If the input is the one that learner has already learned, the acquisition is meaningless though the input is comprehensible. If the input is largely ahead of a learner?s current state grammatical knowledge, acquisition is also meaningless in that the input is far beyond learner?s current comprehension. Krashen considered a learner’s current state of knowledge as i and the next stage as i + 1. Therefore, the input must be at the i+1 level in order to be comprehensible. In all, the comprehensible input
hypothesis involves three main issues. Firstly, this hypothesis has close relationship with language acquisition instead of language learning. Secondly, with the help of extra-linguistic information, learners can understand new information which is a bit beyond their current language level. Thirdly, i+1 can emerge automatically if the input is comprehensible and adequate. Deliberate provision of i+1 will have negative effect on learners? language acquisition. Some problems are also left for this hypothesis. Firstly, Krashen doesn?t point out what does i stand for in that i has two ambiguous meani ngs. One means the next structure to be acquired. The other means the learner?s competence at one stage after stage i. Secondly, this hypothesis explains that extra-linguistic knowledge helps learner learn new knowledge a bit beyond his current language knowledge. However, extra-linguistic knowledge only provides the context for learner to comprehend new knowledge. Although learner can understand the meaning of new information, he cannot really understand the new rules and he may overuse them. Thirdly, outp ut is not important in Krashen?s view, but he doesn?t give his reason.
3. Explain the components of communicative competence and their relevance to successful communication. (20’)
There are some classical classifications of communicative competence. Canale and Swain (1980) divide communicative competence into four components, that is, grammatical competence, discourse competence, strategic competence and sociocultural competence. Sociocultural competence requires an understanding of the social context in which language is used: the roles of the participants, the information they share, and the function of the interaction. In my opinion, communicative competence involves the following components. The first one is pronunciation competence which concerns about the pronunciation of words. Because only when the speaker pronounces words correctly, I mean that the native speaker uses, can he convey his meaning successfully. The second one is spelling competence in that correct spelling that is accepted by native speakers guarantee successful communication especially in writing and reading. The third one is phrase competence which means speakers or listeners can understand the underlying and superficial meaning of phrases. Sometimes, we know the meaning of both the two words, but we cannot understand the meaning of the combined two words. Therefore, meanings of phrases do not just combine the meanings of the words comprised of the phrase together sometimes. We should know about the meanings of some frequently used phrases which fall into the above category in order to facilitate our communication. The fourth one is discourse competence with which speakers and listeners can convey/comprehend the meaning of the sentences and then the discourse successfully and they can also learn about the cohesion and organization of the text. The fifth one is grammatical competence. Correct
grammatical rules are the ones accepted by native speakers in my opinion in that they involves both those taught by teachers /grammar books and those used by native speakers but not in official grammar books. Sufficient grammar knowledge guarantees speakers/listeners make clear of the different parts of sentences, for example. Grammar knowledge involves phonology knowledge, morpheme knowledge, syntax knowledge, semantic knowledge which are necessity for successful communication. The sixth one is pragmatic competence which means how to express what to whom in which situation. Different listeners require different speaking style and content. Different situation or context requires different ways of speaking. The seventh one is strategic competence which concerns about how to express and convey your ideas to others correctly and quickly in order to establish and maintain social relationships.
4. Comment on the focus on form and focus on forms instructions (20’)
I Focus on form instruction requires learners to pay little attention to grammar with no or little interruption to communication. Focus on forms instruction requires learners pay separate attention to grammar and neglect communication.
II Form in focus on form instruction refers to language form in general which in close relationship with meaning. Forms in focus on forms instruction refers to discrete, isolated, specific language forms.
III Focus on form instruction means occasional shift of attention to form. Focus on forms means most attention to form.
IV Focus on form instruction means learners? first engagement is in meaning, and then they explore some linguistic knowledge. Focus on forms requires learners to pay primary attention to form.
V Focus on form instruction applies an analytical approach while focus on forms instruction applies a syntactical approach.
VI Focus on form instruction teaches linguistic knowledge in context while focus on forms instruction teaches linguistic knowledge in isolation.
VII Focus on form instruction mainly uses task-based and content-based language teaching approach and process syllabus. Focus on forms instruction mainly uses grammar-translation teaching approach and structural syllabus.
5. Read the passage below and then answer the following questions. (20’)
The tragic case of “Genie” bears directly on the critical period hypothesis. Genie was discovered in 1970, at the age of thirteen, having been brought up in conditions of inhuman neglect and extreme isolation. She was severely disturbed and underdeveloped, and had been unable to learn language. In the course of her treatment and rehabilitation, great efforts were made to teach her to speak. She had received next to no linguistic stimulation between the ages of two and puberty, so the evidence of her language-learning ability would bear directly on the Lenneberg hypothesis. Analysis of the way Genie developed her linguistic skills showed several abnormalities, such as a marked gap between production and comprehension, variability in using rules, stereotyped speech, gaps in the acquisition of syntactic skills, and a generally retarded rate of development. After various psycholinguistic tests, it was concluded that Genie was using her right hemisphere for language (as well as for several other activities), and that this might have been the result of her beginning the task of language learning after the critical period of left-hemisphere development. The case was thus thought to support Lenneberg’s hypothesis, but only in a weak form. Genie was evidently able to acquire some language from exposure after puberty (she made great progress in vocabulary, for example, and continued to make gains in morphology and syntax), but she did not do so in a normal way. Question: What can you learn from this passage about language learning? And what implications can you draw for second language acquisition?
Critical period is a relatively short period within which childre n?s acquisition and learning of second language can be more rapidly and easily. Specifically, the hypothesis posits that children between birth and somewhere around the age when a child enters puberty can more easily acquire language than post-pubescent children. Learners of a second language that begin the learning process after this critical period are indeed still able to acquire a second language. The foundation of the critical period hypothesis rests on neurological research that suggests that brain functions become lateralized after puberty. As we know there are two sides of the human brain - the right and the left. Some language functions appear to be controlled or stationed in the right while others are located in the left portion. Language functions appear mainly controlled by the left side. It is believed that, before puberty, these functions are not completely assigned to either portion of the brain. The specific assignment or lateralization of brain functions is believed to be complete and set sometime during or just after puberty. The pre-pubescent brain can absorb
all new information easily. Some scholars thought this "absorption" of aspects of language to non-specific locations in the brain supposedly makes the learning of language, first or second language, easier for children than adults or older adolescents.
Therefore, children need to learn a second language before their critical period in order to acquire a natural pronunciation and grasp some basic linguistic rules gradually. For adult learners, on the other hand, it doesn?t mean they can not acquire second language. Although they miss the critical period, thus they may find more difficulties in acquiring second language, such as pronunciation, certain linguistic rules, they can also acquire second language with their mutual cognitive system and efforts.
一、认知语言学的起源 二、主要内容 19 世纪末20 世纪初,当心理学从哲学中分离出来成为一门独立的实验学科之时,语言的认知研究便已开始。1987年是认知语言学正式的诞生年,虽然此前已有一些零星的文章预示着一种新的语言学理论即将诞生。但是一般认为,这一年出版的Lakoff“Women, Fire ,and Dangerous Things”和Langacker“Foundations of Cognitive Grammar”标志着认知语言学作为一种独立语言学理论的诞生。认知语言学研究的主要代表人物是Langacker，Lakoff，Jackendoff, Taylor 和Talmy等人。 认知语言学包括认知音系学、认知语义学、认知语用学等分支，研究内容广，覆盖面大，概括起来主要有以下几点：一、范畴化与典型理论 语言学在方法论和本质上都与范畴化(categorization)紧密相关。范畴化能力是人类最重要的认知能力之一,是“判断一个特定的事物是或不是某一具体范畴的事例”(Jackendoff , 1983∶77) 。 Labov和Rosch对范畴的研究，打破了范畴的“经典理论”或称“亚里士多德理论”一统天下的局面。“经典理论”认为:范畴是由必要和充分特征联合定义的;特征是二分的;范畴有明确的边界;范畴内的所有成员地位相等。这一理论却
受到了认知科学的有力挑战。Rosch 还提出了“典型理论”(prototype theory) ,认为大多数自然范畴不可能制定出必要和充分的标准,可以公认为必要的标准往往不是充分的;一个范畴的成员之间的地位并不相同,典型成员具有特殊的地位,被视为该范畴的正式成员,非典型成员则根据其与典型成员的相似程度被赋予不同程度的非正式成员地位。例如,在“鸟”范畴内“知更,鸟”常被视为典型成员,而“企鹅”、“驼鸟”等则为非典型成员。当然，一个范畴的典型成员会因不同的人、文化、地理位置而有所不同,但一个范畴中总有典型的。 典型理论对认知科学最有价值的贡献在于它把注意力集中在内部结构上,集中在范畴具有“核心”和“边缘”这个事实上。目前,它已用于语音、句法、词义、语用、语言习得、失语症等方面的研究,并取得了可喜的成绩。 二、概念隐喻 隐喻的认知研究可追溯到18 世纪。约在1725 年,意大利哲学家和修辞学家G. Vico就发现了隐喻的认知功能,后在其《新科学》一书中阐述了其认知观点。然而,把隐喻的研究纳入认知语言学领域的重要标志却是Lakoff &Johnson （1980）。认知语言学家认为,比喻性语言与非比喻性语言本质上无甚差别;日常语言中充满了隐喻,完全不带隐喻的句子大概只占极少数。隐喻是“我们对抽象范畴进行概念化的有
Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学 知识点： 1.*Definition: pragmatics; context 2.*sentence meaning vs utterance meaning 3.*Austin’s model of speech act theory 4.Searle’s classification of speech acts 5.*Grice’s Cooperative Principle 考核目标： 识记：*Definition: pragmatics; context 领会：Searle’s classification of speech acts 综合应用：sentence meaning vs utterance meaning；Austin’s model of speech act theory；Grice’s Cooperative Principle 一、定义 1. Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatic can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.语用学研究的是语言使用者是如何使用句子成功进行交际的。语用学也可以看作是一中意义研究。(它不是孤立地去研究语义，而是把语义置于使用语境中去研究的一门学科。) 2. Context 语境：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。一般认为他是由言者和听者的共享知识所构成的。 二、知识点 6.1.2 pragmatics vs. semantics语用学与语义学 二十世纪初，Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics 一书的出版标志着现代语言学研究的开始，同时也为现代语言学奠定了基础调，即语言应该作为一个独立的，内在的系统来加以研究。 语用学和语义学既有相关性又有相异性。两者都是对意义的研究。传统语义学把语义看成是抽象的，内在的，是语言本身的特性，不受语境的影响。因此传统语义学只研究语义的内在特征，不把语义研究置于语境中来考察。语用学研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解。语用学家认为不把意义放在语境中来考虑就不可能对语义进行充分的描述，因此在研究语义时是否考虑语境便成了传统语义学和语用学的根本区别所在。 Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分 Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.
一、填空题:（每空1 分，本大题共10 分） 1. （）语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的，它是语言学 走上独立发展道路的标志。 2. 人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制（ 掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。 3. 进入20世纪以后，语言研究的主流由历史比较语言学转为 （）。 4. 俄语属于印欧语系的（ 5. 一个音位包含的不同音素或者具体表现出来的音素叫做 （）。 6. 语言中最单纯、最常用、最原始和最能产的词是（ 7. 现代大多数国家的拼音文字的字母，大多直接来源于（）字 母。 8. 言外之意之所以能够被理解是因为（）起了补充说明的 作用。 9. 方言在社会完全分化的情况下，有可能发展成（? ）?； 在社会高度统一的情况下，会逐渐被共同语消磨直到同化。 10. 南京方言的“兰”、“南”不分，从音位变体的角度来说，[n ]和[l]是 属于（）变体。 二、单项选择题: 码填在题干上的括号内。（每小题1 分，本大题共15 分）
1. 在二十世纪，对哲学、人类学、心理学、社会学等学科产生重大影响 的语言学流派是（） A.历史比较语言学 B.心理语言学 C.结构主义语言学 D.社会语言学 2. “人有人言，兽有兽语”中的“言”属于（） A.语言 B.言语 C.言语行为 D.言语作品 3. “我爱家乡”中“爱”和“家乡”（） A.是聚合关系。 B.是组合关系。 C.既是聚合关系又是组合关系。 D. 4. 一种语言中数量最少的是 A.音素 B.音位 C.语素 D.音节 5. 英语的man—→men采用的语法手段是 A. 屈折变化 B.变换重音的位置 C. 变化中缀 D.异根 6. 在汉语普通话中没有意义区别功能的声学特征是（） A.音高 B.音强 C.音长 D.音质 7. [ε]的发音特征是 A.舌面前高不圆唇 B.舌面后高不圆唇 C.舌面前半高不圆唇 D.舌面前半低不圆唇 8. 构成“语言、身体”这两个词的语素的类型（） A.都是成词语素 B.都是不成词语素 C.“语”和“言”是成词语素，“身”和“体”是不成词语素 D.“语”和“言”是不成词语素，“身”和“体” 9. 广义地说，汉语动词词尾“着”、“了”、“过”属于语法范畴中的 （）
语言学纲要（修订版）期末考复习资料 一、名词解释 1、语言——是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具，是音义结合的符号系统。注意：文字不是语言。 2、语音——是由人的发音器官发出，负载着一定意义的声音。它是语言的物质外壳。 3、条件变体——是指一个音位因受语音环境的制约而表现为若干不同的音素。这些不同的音素所处的语音环境不同，相互处于一种互补关系中，没有区别意义的作用，如果他们在语音上又相似，我们可以把它们归为一个音位，从而成为这个音位的几个条件变体。 4、自由变体——是指可以在同一个语音环境里自由替换而不起区别词的语音形式和意义作用的几个音素。自由变体的各音素的音质虽有不同，但说这种语言或方言的人感觉不到它们是不同的音，而把它们当作同一个语音单位来使用。例如汉语武汉话里的[n]和[l]可以自由变读，而不会引起意义的改变。 5、区别特征——具体语言或方言中具有区别音位作用的发音特征。语言中的每个音位都可以分解为几个区别特征。音位的辨义功能归根结底是由区别特征负担的。例如汉语普通话里[p?]和[p]这两个音位靠“送气/不送气”这对区别特征来区别。 6、语流音变——音位和音位组合的时候，或者由于受邻音的影响，或者由于说话时快慢高低、强弱的不同，可能发生不同的临时性的变化。这种变化叫做语流音变。汉语的轻声、变调，都是，如“西瓜”中的“瓜”念轻声，“展览”中的“展”念阳平。常见的语流音变有五种： 同化：如：瓜子儿，受儿卷舌色彩的影响韵母变为?。 异化：比方两个上声字相连前一个上声214调变成35调，如“土改”念成“涂改”。 弱化：从元音来说，如木头、馒头、噱头、石头等中的头，韵母单化为o。从辅音来说，如“在”在语流中声母变为t或d或l。 脱落：比如“你们”常发成nim，“豆腐”说成douf。 增音：例如普通话语气词“啊”如果出现在后鼻音[?]收尾的音节之后，就要变读为[?a]。 7、语法范畴——是对具有同一性质的语法意义概括而成的类。常见的语法范畴有性、数、格、体、时、人称、态。 性：是主要与名词相关的语法范畴，一般把名词分为阴性、阳性、中性或二分为阴性、阳性，并用不同的形式标志表示。如俄语名词分为阴性、阳性、中性三类。 数：很多语言都有数的语法范畴，这个范畴一般包括单数和复数两种意义，或是单数、双数或复数，多与名词相关。如英语，俄语中的名词等。 格：是表示名词、代词在句中和其他词的关系，它的意义是直接和句法相关的。如俄语名词、代词、形容词都有格的变化，共有六种格。 体：表示动作行为进行的各种阶段和状态，是动词特有的语法范畴。最常见的有完成体或未完成体。如汉语的“着、了、过”也可以表示体。 时：也是动词的语法范畴，表示行为动作发生的时间。一般分为过去时，现在时和将来时。例如英语“I write”(现在时），“I wrote”（过去时），“I shall write”（将来时）。人称：不少语言的动词随着主语的人称不同而有不同的形式。俄语、法语都有三种人称。如英语一般动词的现在时单数有单数第三人称的形式变化。如：“He(she) writes”，“I write”，“You write”，“They write”。 态：也称语态，表示动作和主体的关系。动词所具有的语法范畴，一般分为主动态和被
acronym: is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme(e g. [t h] is an allophone of /t/ in English. When /t/ occurs in words like step, it is unaspirated [t]. Both [t h] and t] are allophones of the phoneme /t/. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching, and other areas such as translation, the compiling of dictionaries, etc. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speech sounds. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact”or “contiguous” assimilation. assimilation theory: language (sound, word, syntax, etc) change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial pars of the two words. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to, e. g. the plural morpheme in dogˊ s. broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; while, the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription. category: parts of speech and function, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc. creativity:by creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. One of the reasons why language is actually a far more complicated entity than traffic lights is that we can use it to create new meanings. concord: also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntaetic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories. coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved. Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation. compound: Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snowwhite, etc. complementary
英语语言学试题（1） I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%×10=20%) 1、As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for "correct" linguistic behavior, it is said to be ___. A、prescriptive B、sociolinguistic C、descriptive D、psycholinguistic 2、Of all the speech organs, the ___ is/are the most flexible. A、mouth B、lips C、tongue D、vocal cords 3、The morpheme "vision" in the common word "television" is a(n) ___. A、bound morpheme B、bound form C、inflectional morpheme D、free morpheme 4、A ___ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause. A、coordinator B、particle C、preposition D、subordinator 5、"Can I borrow your bike?" _____ "You have a bike." A、is synonymous with B、is inconsistent with C、entails D、presupposes 6、The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ___. A、semantics B、pragmatics C、sociolinguistics D、psycholinguistics 7、Grammatical changes may be explained, in part, as analogic changes, which are ___ or generalization. A、elaboration B、simplification C、external borrowing D、internal borrowing 8、___ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication. A、Lingua franca B、Creole C、Pidgin D、Standard language 9、Psychologists, neurologists and linguists have concluded that, in addition to the motor area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the left brain are vital to language, namely, ___ . A、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and the angular gyrus B、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and cerebral cortex C、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and neurons D、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and Exner's area 10、According to Krashen, ___ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. A、learning B、competence C、performance D、acquisition II. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in One word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. (1%×10=10%) 11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's k_______ of the rules of his language. 12、The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b______ . 13、M_______ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 14、A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 15、Synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances are called c______ synonyms. 16、The illocutionary point of r_____ is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said. 17、Words are created outright to fit some purpose. Such a method of enlarging the vocabulary is known as word c______.
A AcS (actor Subject), ReS (Receptor Subject) and DaS (dative vesubject) P85 Active deposit 活性沉积P393 adaptability制宜原则P39 adjustment 调整P135 AdjMr：Ajective Modifier 定语修饰语P19 Affixing morpheme of fixed position 定位性附加语素P342 Affixation 缀合法P29 All encompassing 无所不包P ix Aphasic 失语症患者P386 ApoP 同位短语式P188 Approximative system 近似体系P58 arbitrariness任意性; selectiveness 选择性P181 Aspect 体（tentative尝试体, inchoative开始体, successive继续体, perfect完成体, progressive 进行体）P114 Autonomy 自主权P53 B backshift后移P370/372 bilingualism 双语学P522 Blending 拼缀法P29 Bottom-up perception自下而上的感知，top-down perception自上而下的感知P493 C Cart Fames1980 对比分析P x circulativeness 周遍性P86 categorization范畴化, grouping 归为类P487 category word 范畴词P418/474/513 cleft sentence 分裂句P230 cognate equivalence同源对应P134/468，词根对应P478 cognitive schema认知图示P386 Cohesion 粘着性P62 Cohesion and coherence接应与连贯P74 Cohesive tie 联结关系接应词，additive 增补连接词，adversative 对比连接词，causal conjunction因果连接词，temporal conjunction 时间连接词P436 Combination (虚词功能)组合P452 Total combination完全结合，formal combination形式结合P464 Common value （语言）共同价值；special value 特征价值P47 Complement 补语P126Composition 合成法P29 Compactness of meaningful morpheme有义语素结合紧密度P299 Compressed predicate 紧缩式谓语P120 Compound （汉语）合成词P443 Conversion 转化法P29 Constant 常数（ie. tertium comparationis中间比较项）；variable变数；tertium 中间项P50
认知语言学
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近年来,认知语言学已经成为国内外学者研究语言学的重点，认知语言学能很好地解释一些其他语言学理论无法解释的语言现象。认知语言学反映了人类认知过程。英语倒装句作为复杂的语言学现象引起很多语言学家的关注。各种不同的语法学派,语言学家和学者在不同的方面做出了很多贡献，但是由于这一复杂的句法特征,很多研究不能系统地解释倒装句。本文以象似性理论为认知原理,对英语倒装句中全部倒装,部分倒装及修辞性倒装进行解释,认为象似性尤其是接近象似性原则和顺序原则是形成倒装的主要原因。 关键字:象似性；倒装句；象似性原则
倒装句作为一种语法形式,是当今语言学研究的一个重要内容。传统理论对倒装的研究忽视了语言外部的因素，未重视认知对语序的制约作用，研究不够全面。 本文以认知理论为基础,对英语倒装句进行分析研究，以象似性原理为理论为依据,对英语中的不同倒装现象进行了分析和解释。在对句首倒装成分做出解释的基础上,本文对倒装句中动词全部活部分出现于主语之前的情况进行了解释，认为邻近象似性是英语倒装句中动词或全部或部分地随着突显成分提到主语之前的原因。 2 文献综述 国内外学者对认知语言学的研究做出了很多贡献，如王寅著的《认知语言学》,赵艳芳的《认知语言学概论》,Ｌackoff. G& M. Ｊｏhnｓon’s MetaphorｓWe Lｉｖｅby等等。所以，以期刊、论文方式讨论倒装句的研究出了许多成果。传统研究主要是从修辞、句法、语用和语篇的角度进行的。徐盛桓，以语料统计为依据,研究英语倒装句，认为倒装是为实现句中各种成分的信息状态合理分布的调节装置,通过调节，使语句的成分有恰当的错位,达到全息的语用目的。余笑,从Ｖerschuｅｒn提出的语用综观说出发，探讨英语和汉语中倒装语序的语用功能。发现英汉倒装语序均具有焦点分离突出和情景设定的功能。 而从认知语言学角度研究英语倒装句日益增多。杨壮春,用射体（tｒaｊｅctory)－界标(landmarｋ)理论从认知的角度对倒装句的焦点突显功能作出解释，认为倒装句是该理论在语言学中的现实化,它把“射体-界标”转化为“界标－射体”结构形成句末焦点,以使人们注意的焦点落在新信息上，从而达到英语倒装句的凸显效果。更多的是以图形与背景理论为视角,对英语倒装句的焦点凸显功能进行重新阐释，认为英语倒装句符合图形-背景理论中的凸显原则,如王冰营，吕娜;刘先清；王海欧等。 用传统的修辞、句法、语用和语篇的角度进行的分析有其自身的缺陷,仅仅将倒装句认为是一种表示强调手段的句子。而用图形与背景理论分析可以解决为什么句子应该倒装即英语倒装句起始部分的问题,但是却解决不了为什么动词或者功能词应该放在主语前面这样的问题。象似性作为认知语言学中重要的概念，可以进一步研究英语倒装句中的问题。 3倒装句 英语句子的正常语序是主语位于谓语之前,然后是宾语或表语或其他句子成分。如果将全部谓语或谓语的一部分,或将宾语、表语、宾语补足语提到主语之前，就称为倒装语序（Inｖertｅd Ｏrｄer)。
I.第一单元 A定义 1Design features of language. The features that define our human languages can be called design features, including arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 2. Functions of language Informative, Interpersonal（maintain social relations）, Performative, Emotive, Phatic communion寒暄语，Recreational，Metalinguistic元语言功能 3.Main branches of linguistics Phonetics: the description, classification and transcription of speech sounds语音学 Phonology: the study of speech sounds of a language as a system音系学 Morphology: the internal structures of words形态学 Syntax: the internal structures of sentences.句法学 Semantics: the study of meaning as encoded in language.语义学 Pragmatics: the study of language use, meaning in context.语用学 B 填空 1 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2 Langue vs parole (Saussure) C 翻译terms D topic Qs 1 Important distinction in linguistics Descriptive (native speakers) vs prescriptive （rules for correct uses of language）studies Synchronic (used at a particular point) vs diachronic studies (changes over time) Langue vs parole (Saussure)--Langue (language) is the language system: social, essential, stable; Parole (speech) is the actual use of the language system: individual, accidental, unstable Competence vs performance--Competence is the underlying knowledge about one’s language; Performance is the actual use of that knowledge in language use situations. Syntagmatic （组合关系）vs paradiamatic relations（聚合关系） Modern linguistics 第二课 QUESTIIONS 1Phonetics (divisions; speech organs;) The three branches of phonetics Articulatory phonetics: the study of sound production
1、语言学的三大发源地 中国、印度、希腊—罗马。 最初的语言学是是为了给遗留下来的政治、哲学、历史、宗教、文学等古典文献作注解，而不是探索语言的规律。这时候的语言学还不是一门独立的学科。2、语言符号的特点 语言符号具有任意性和线条性的特点。 （1）任意性是指语言符号的声音形式和意义内容的结合是任意的，二者没有必然联系。比如：粤方言中读“人”，读作[zen]，新会话读作[ng? n]，开平话有的读作[ng? n] 、[ngin]，台山话读作[ngin]，闽南话读作[n^ng]，但是表达的意义是一样的。 （2）线条性指的是语言符号的能指在时间上呈线性排列。在交际过程中，语言符号只能一个跟着一个按时间顺序出现，形成延续的线性序列，绝不可能在同一时间说出两个符号。如：“庄”的语音形式就是由zh-u-a-ng四个音素依次出现而形成的。 3、组合关系和聚合关系 （1）组合关系是指构成线性序列的语言成分之间的结构关系。即两个或两个以上同一性质的结构单位（例如音位与音位、词与词等等），按照线性的顺序可以前后连接起来的横向关系。 （2）聚合关系是指同一结构内相同位置上可以互相替换的语言成分之间的纵向关系。即在语言的组合结构的某一个位置上能够互相替换的几个具有相同作用（组合能力）的单位符号之间的关系。 （3）不仅各级语言符号处在这两种根本的关系之中，构造符号的音位和意义同
样也处于这两种关系之中。 4、语音四要素 （1）音高：声音的高低，取决于发音体（人的发音体是声带）的振动频率。音高在语言中的作用：构成声调和语调。 （2）音强：声音的强弱，取决于发音体振幅的大小。对于语音而言，就是由发音时用力的大小决定的。音强在语言中的作用：构成语调、轻重音。 （3）音长：声音的长短，取决于发音体振动持续时间的长短。音长变化在许多语言中有区别意义的作用。音长在语言中的作用：构成长短音、轻音。如英语中的pool[pu:l]（水池）与pull[pul]（拖、拉）。 （4）音质：一种声音区别于其他声音的个性或特征。它决定于声波振动的形式。音质的不同主要与三个方面的因素有关：发音体、发音方法和共鸣器的形状有关。 5、音位、语流音变、音位变体 （1）一种语言中具有区别词的语音形式作用的最小的语音单位，是针对某种语言而言的。音位是从语音的社会属性的角度划分的单位。 （2）确立音位的原则 ①对立原则：凡是处于对立关系中并能区别词的语音形式的几个音素归纳为不同的音位。例如：在汉语普通话中：［p］［p‘］［t］［t‘］几个音素是对立关系确立的不同的音位； ②互补原则：处于互补关系的音素不能起到区别词的语音形式的作用，可以归纳为一个音位。例如：英语中的[p]和[p‘]，汉语中的[a][A][ɑ]等 ③相似原则：但并不是处于互补关系中的音素都可以归纳为一个音位，还要考虑语音相似原则：例如：在普通话中，[t]只出现在音节的开头，[?]只出现在音节末
100个最常用的语言学术语（“欧美语言学”课） 1.语言language 2.语言学linguistics 3.语言学家linguist；philologist 4.语法grammar 5.语法单位grammatical unit 6.语法形式grammatical form 7.语法意义grammatical meaning 8.语法手段grammatical device 9.语法范畴grammatical category 10.元音vowel 11.辅音consonant 12.语文学philology 13.传统语法traditional grammar 14.历史比较语言学historical comparative linguistics 15.转换生成语法transformational generative grammar 16.结构主义语言学structural linguistics 17.应用语言学applied linguistic 18.方言dialect 19.语言教学language teaching 20.语言规划language planning 21.语言政策language policy 22.语言学习策略language learning strategy 23.发现程序discovery procedure 24.语境context；language environment 25.中介语interlanguage 26.音位phoneme 27.音节syllable 28.语素morpheme 29.词法morphology 30.句法syntax 31.交际法communicative approach 32.认知cognition 33.习得acquisition 34.第二语言second language 35.第二语言习得second language acquisition （SLA） 36.自由语素free morpheme 37.黏着语素bound morpheme 38.复合词compound word 39.普遍语法universal grammar，UG 40.词类part of speech
认知语言学不是什么和是什么 浏览了“北大中文论坛- 汉语语言学- 认知、心理与逻辑” （https://www.doczj.com/doc/6714222567.html,/bbs/forum.php?fid=83）的一些关于认知语言学的贴子，觉得 “认知语言学”这个名称算得上个难以躲避的陷阱了，太容易引人望文生义了。认知语言学不是什么和是什么，还是个问题。这个问题，我每次教认知语言学，都要碰到。例如这个学期开的课，是“汉语认知语言学”。第一次课的一个重点，就是讲认知语言学不是什么和是什么。第二次课一开始，我就问了一个问题：认知语言学是不是类似于心理语言学的语言学分支学科？每个学生的回答都是：是的，是从认知角度研究语言的学科。这样的回答，让我悲伤地想到：第一次课对此问题的唠叨毫无效果，跟他人的思维定势搏斗，何其吃力。没有办法，只好变本加厉地唠叨。 简而言之，正确答案是：认知语言学不是语言学的分支学科，而是当代语言学的一个学派。它是功能主义语言学这个大学派中的小学派。这个大学派还包括不少小学派，如西海岸学派（学者主要在美国西海岸的加州。代表性学者之一是也做汉语的安珊笛。专做汉语的李讷也属于此学派）、俄勒冈学派、系统功能语法学、词语法学等。这个大学派是当代语言学两大对立学派之一，另一大学派就是形式主义语言学（包括古典形式主义——结构主义语言学和当代形式主义——生成与法学）。这两大学派的最大基本假设对立，是语言系统及其子系统（广义句法系统[包括传统的语法和词汇]、语音系统、广义语义系统[包括狭义语义系统、语用系统、话语系统]）是不是自足的。形式主义语言学的假设是自足的，功能主义语言学的假设是不自足的。 认知语言学与功能主义语言学中的其他小学派有不少差异，如着重语言的心理因素，不同于系统能语言学等学派的着种语言的社会因素，并在上世纪80年代后期建立了三个类似的心理[广义]句法模式（Lakkof 的《女人、火和危险的东西》、Langacker的《认知语法学基础》第一卷、Fillmore和Kay的《结构式语法学教科书》）；主张意义是百科知识，不同意把语义系统分割为语言知识的狭义语义系统和百科知识的语用系统；主张主观论（如语义塑造等过程中的主观作用），不同意某些功能主义学者（如安珊笛）的客观论。尽管认知语言学着重语言的心理因素，但它并非只考虑心理因素，不能把它缩水为从认知角度研究语言。从认知（或心理）角度研究语言，是当代语言学各学派的普遍倾向，并非认知语言学的专利。R. Hardson 在《英语词语法学》的开头列出了当代语言学的10个倾向，其中之一就是“认知主义”。当代语言学的认知主义倾向，是其教父Chomsky从一开始就提出的。他早已有力地批驳了结构主义语言学的行为主义倾向，把语言假设为认知子系统。 “认知语言学“这个名称，为什么容易引人望文生义呢？大概是因为有“认知”这个时髦译名，而且这玩意儿加在“语言学”前面，让这个名称看起来像心理语言学、社会语言学、计算语言学等现役的或退役的边缘学科或交叉学科（如前二者早已是语言学的核心学科了，但曾经是边缘学科）。“认知”译自英语名词cognition或形容词cognitive。老的译名就是“认识”，没什么神秘色彩了吧：）。传统上把心理活动分为三类：认识、情感和意志。三者之中，只有认识得到了密集研究。汉语的“认识”，原是个多义的常用词，再做术语，有容易引人望文生义的缺点。新造个“认知”译名做术语，有好处。再者，用“认识”来译cognitive 打头的名称，就会有容易误解为动宾结构的“认识心理学”（认知心理学）、“认识科学”（认知科学）、“认识语言学”（认知语言学）、“认识语义学”（认知语义学）、“认识语法学”（认知语法学）、“认识音系学”（认知音系学）、“认识人类学”（认知人类学），也不如新造个“认知”来译。 认知主要指人类的信息加工杨宁兄提出了一个很好的问题。认知语言学确实有被时髦地滥用的倾向。认知语言学确实和心理语言学有很大交叉。但是想一想“认知心理学”这个词，就可以知道两者不同。有“认知心理学”而没有“心理认知学”，可见认知科学可以看作心理学一部分。两者的不同，可以说认知科学主要把认识过程看作一种信息处理加工过程。所以“认知”也不等于一般的“认识”。我们用“认知”的场合不用“认识”，原因也不仅限于杨宁兄所说的。 认知科学的主要奠基人George Miller 的名著：“神奇的数字7+2”，其副标题就是“人类信息加工能力的某些局限”(此文我翻译后发表在《心理学动态》1983(4)期)。这篇文章的英语 原文前几年有被人贴到了网上(https://www.doczj.com/doc/6714222567.html,/user/smalin/miller.html)。可见此文的地位之重要。现在许多人常常提到这个数字七，我不知道有多少人看过了原文或译文。但大家接受它，可见符合我们的心理直觉。Miller 在发表此文的同时，发表了另一篇重要文章：“人类记忆与信息贮存”此文我翻译后发表在，《思维科学》1986(1)期。这个杂志是山西出的，英文题目就叫Cognitive Science 。不知这个杂志现在还在不在？ 不过后来认知科学的发展，范围越来越大，认知语言学跟心理语言学也就越来越难分了。我觉得认知语言