Chapter 1 Introduction
.lDefinition of linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
1)Scope of linguistics
The study of language as a whole is often called General Linguistics.
1.13 Some distinctions in linguistics
1.1.2Prescriptive 说明性vs. Descriptive 描述性
Descriptive——describe / analyze the language people actually use.
Prescriptive——lay down rules for "correct and standard ” behaviour in using language?
1.1.3Synchronic 共时的vs. diachronic 历时的
Synchronic study■一description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study?description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time) Synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.
1.1.4Speech and writing
Speech——Primary medium of language
Writing——Later developed
Speech is prior to writing [5 reasons]
1.1.5. Langue and parole (F. de Saussure: 1857-1913 )
Langue the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community
Parole —— the realization of langue in actual use.
Langue is abstract. Parole is concrete?
Langue is stable. Parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.
1.1.6. Competence 语言能力and performance 语言运用(Chomsky)
Competence ....... the ideal user' s knowledge of the rules of his language
Performance— the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
Q： Similarity and difference between Saussure' s distinction and that of Chomsky
Similarity: both make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language ?
Difference: Chomsky' s competence-performance is from psychological point of view?Saussure" s langue-parole is from sociological point of view.
1.1.7Traditional grammar and modem linguistics
Q: What are the differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics?
Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive?
Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.
Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a
Latin-based framework?
1.1Definitions of language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
1.2Design features of language
^Arbitrariness: Generally there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds? The dog barks wow wow in English but “ 汪汪汪” in Chinese.
Ps:language is not arbitrary at compounding words and at the syntactic level.
Duality: Or double-structured. Language consists of two sets of structures, or two levels- Lower level:
sounds which are meaningless. Higher level: units of meaning by grouping or regrouping sounds? Units of meaning can be arranged into infinite number of sentences?
Creativity (productivity): language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users? This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.
Displacement: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
Cultural transmission: Language is culturally transmitted not genetically transmitted. A language is taught and learned within a particular cultural background?
1.3Functions of language
Chapter 2 Phonetics & Phonology ----- The Study of Sounds
Phonology
5.3.2Phonology and phonetics
The difference between phonetics & phonology:
Phonetics: Study sounds in isolation; one by one, phonetic features; language universal Phonology: Study sounds patterns to convey meaning; language specific
2?3?2Phone, Phoneme and allophone
Phone:
1)a phonetic unit
2)not necessarily distinctive of meaning
3)physical as perceived
4)marked with []
Phoneme:
1)a phonological unit
2)distinctive of meaning
3)abstract, not physical
4)marked with / /
Student
Phones: [t] [th]
Phoneme: /t/
Allophone: [t] [th]
23.4. Some rules in phonology
Sequential rules 序列规则/k//b//l//i/四个phoneme 造词,bilk(right), ibki(false)
Assimilation rule 同化原则
Deletion rule 省略规贝U E.g. Sign design, delete a /g/when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.
2.3.5. Suprasegmental features .............. s tress，tone, intonation
Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.
The principal suprasegmental features are:
Stress
Tone声调
Intonation 语调
Chapter 3 Morphology …The study of word structure
Morphology: Morphology refers to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.
3.2Open class and closed class
Open class: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs to which new words can be added.―( content words)e.g: beatnik
Closed class: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns to which new words are not usually added ?---(functional words)e.g: and, it, to, the, etc.
3>3Morphemes ........... the minimal units of meaning(考)
2). Morpheme 词素
Moipheme■-the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function? e.g. read-er (two morphemes)
3). Allomorphs
Allomorphs: The variant forms of a morpheme.
Indefiniteness marker
4)? Types of morpheme 词素变体
Free vs. Bound morpheme:
Free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morpheme:
a morpheme that must be attached to another one. e.g.-ed, dis-, un-.
4.Analyzing word structure
Roots and affixes
3<5Derivational vs. inflectional morphemes
Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word. E.g friend+-ly > friendly. ???change or don' t change the category.
affection/affectionate economics/macroeconomics
Inflection: grammatical markers and signify concepts as tense, number, case and so on.
E.g. plural, tense, comparative, etc.
―never change the syntactic category.
Boy/boys notice/noticed look/looking
3.6Morphological rules of word formation(不考)
*Derivation
*Compounding
Two or more free roots combine to make a new word.
Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill
Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit
Adjective compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating, dutyfree
Preposition compounds: into, throughout
Chapter 4 Syntax■“the study of sentences structure
2.31 Definition
Syntax studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
Chapter 5 Semantics (The study of meaning)
5.1Definition
5.2Some views concerning the study of meaning
2.3.1Plato: The naming theory 命名论
Plato T s naming theory： the meaning is the object in the world that the word refers to. (The word : The linguistic form; The meaning: The object the word refers to.)
1.Applicable only to nouns, rather than other word classes
2.Applicable to nouns denoting things that exist in the real world.
2.3.2Ogden & Richards: The conceptualism 概念论
There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to: rather , in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
Semantic triangle: Thought/reference
Symbol/form referent
2.3.3Firth: Contextualism 语境论
Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context一element closely linked with language behavior.
The situational context (场景语境):
The linguistic context (语言语境):
2.3.4Bloomfield: Behaviorism 行为论
situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer .
Jill use Jack
Situational Linguistic Situational
Context context context
S ............................. r s ............................... R
Stimulus Linguistic Linguistic Response (non-linguistic)
(non?linguistic) response stimulus
5.3Lexical meaning (没划重点)
531 sense ans reference
Sense :The inherent meaning of the linguistic form.
It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.
What a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.
Question: Similarities and Difference between sense and reference
Sense Reference
The same sense may have different references in different situations.
Sense(dog) ........ Tibetan mastiff (藏羹),Toy Poodle(玩具贵宾犬)
The same reference may differ in sense?
Sense 1 (morning star)
? Reference
Sense 2(evening star)
Major sense relations
5.3.2.1Synonymy 同义词(Definition: The sameness or close similarity of meaning.)
6.1.1Dialectal synonyms 方占同义词：Synonyms used in different regional dialects. (lift-elevator) 6.1.2Stylistic synonyms: Synonyms differing in style. (father-daddy)
6.1.3Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning 评彳介(collaborator-accomplice)
4 ) Collocational synonyms: Synonyms differing in their collocation.同义词搭酉已(accuse-charge-rebuke)
2.3.5Semantically different synonyms.
5.3.2.2Polysemy 多义14
Definition: A single entry, but a list of meanings.
5.3.2.3Homonymy 同音异义
Definition: The words (differing in meaning) + (the same in sound or spelling, or both) Homophones同音异义词
Homographs同行界义词
Complete homonyms同形同音界义词
Question: How to distinguish polysemy and complete homonyms ? .........................depend on the etymology of the words.
A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word. The various meanings of the word are related to some degree (e.g. School).
Complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence?(e?g? ball: ①“a round object used in games” -a native English word; ②"a large formal social event at which people dance” -originally exists in French.)
5.3.2.4Hyponymy 下义关系
Definition: A relation of inclusion.
Superordinate: flower
Hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily
______ ) Y Co-hyponyms
5.3.2.5Antonymy 反义词
Definition: the oppositeness of meaning.
Gradable antonyms 程度
Relational antonyms 关系成对
Complementary antonyms 非此即彼
5.4Sense relations between sentences （考）
X is synonymous with Y. X 与Y 同义Truth Condition: If X is true, Y is true;
If X is false, Y is false.
X is inconsistent with Y ? X 与Y 不一致
Truth Condition: If X is true, Y is false;
If X is false, Y is true.
X entails 包含Y （Y is an entailment 含义of X.）
Truth Condition: If X is true, Y is true;
If X is false, Y is not necessarily false.
X presupposes Y （Y is a prerequisite of X.Y 是X 的前提）
Truth Condition: If X is true, Y must be true;
If X is false, Y is still true.
X is a contradiction （矛盾）
X is semantically anomalous （语义异体）
5.5Analysis of meaning （考）
5.5.1Componential Analysis 成分分析
Componential Analysis （Feature Analysis; Contrast Analysis）: The meaning of a word/phrase can be dissected into the meaning components?
Componential analysis provides an insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships that are related in meaning?
5.5.2Predication Analysis 述谓结构分析
Two points in the sentence meaning:
The meaning of a sentence 不等丁the sum total of the meanings of all its components?
there are two aspects to sentence meaning : grammatical meaning and semantic meaning ?
G. Leech: predication （述i胃结*勾）--- the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
A predication consists of argument（s）论元and predicate 谓词.
Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学
Definition: Pragmatics is "study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication
Semantics VS. Pragmatics
Similarity: They both study the meaning.
Difference:
Semantics studies the meaning in isolation.^?立“勺
Pragmatics studies the meaning in context （or the language use）.
Context
The knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Importance of Con text
Context determines the speaker's use of language; the hearer's inteipretation of what is said to him or her.
Sentence meaning vs. Utterance meaning
Sentence meaning: abstract and de-contextualized
Utterance meaning: concrete and context-dependent
E.g. "John is still single” .
Sentence meaning: JOHN (BE SINGLE)
utterance meaning may be: Encourage the listener to date John.
Summary:
Utterance meaning=Sentence meaning+ Context
三、问答题
Lwhat are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?
Phonetics——il's defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it's concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.
Phonology—the study of sounds systems一the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.
Morphology…It's a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
Syntax ------ its a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language?
Semantics?It\ simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.
Pragmatics—the study of meaning in context of words.
2.why do we say language is arbitrary?
3? what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?
4Js modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why
Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language? unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.
现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究, 否则很难从历吋性角度对语言进行描述。
5 Speech enjoys for the following reasons: 1)Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution. 2) A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing. 3)speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language. 6>how is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's ? Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language? their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at Chapter Language and Society language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual. L In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same in speech situations known as domains. 4. A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety of that language. 5. A pidgin is not a native language of a particular region. 6.When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages concerned, he is converting one mode of thinking into the other. 7.Pidgins are rule-governed, like any human language. 8.According to the strong version of the Sapir-Shorf hypothesis, speaker's perceptions determine language and pattern their way of life. 9.The sentences “He crazy” and “He be sick all the time v are both acceptible in black English vernacular because copula deletion and habitual be are two famous of black English. 10.There are words of more or less the same menaing used in different regional dialects. Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition https://www.doczj.com/doc/6d15434310.html,nguage use is both systematic and non-systematic, subject to external as well as to internal variation. 3.In linguistic study, linguists first work out a theory about language structure, then, test it with language facts. 4.Formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of SLA? 5.If language learners are provided with sufficient and the right kind of language exposure and chances to interact with language input, they will acquire the native-like competence in the target language. 6.Phonologically slower rate of delivery is an example of conversational modification. 7.Children^ grammar develops gradually until it becomes exactly the adult's grammar. 8.Foreinger talk is always ungrammatical. 9.Learners with different first languages would learn a second language in differnet ways.
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