A Summary of Language, Culture and Thought For Course of Sociolinguistics
A Summary of Chapter3---Language, culture and thought
This chapter will turn to the external relations of language, to ask whether there are natural boundaries between the phenomena covered by the term …language?and other kinds of phenomena, notably those called …culture? and …thought?.
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Culture
Culture is a term that has different meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compile d a list of 164 definitions of “culture”in Culture:A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. However, the word “culture”is most commonly used in three basic senses:
（1）Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities, also known as high culture.
（2）An integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning.
（3）The set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution, organization or group.
In Hudson?s description, The word culture is taken in the sense in which it is used by cultural anthropologists, according to whom culture is something that everybody has, in contrast with the …culture? which is found only in …cultured? circles —in opera houses, universities and the like. The term is used differently by different anthropologists, but always refers to some characteristics shared by a community, especially those which might distinguish it from other communities. Ward Goodenough takes culture as socially acquired knowledge:
As I see it, a society’s culture consist of whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to operate in a matter acceptable to its members…Culture, being what people have to learn as distinct from their biological heritage, must consist of the end-product of learning: knowledge, in a most general…sense of the term. (Goodenough 1957)
Therefore, the term “knowledge” which includes common-sense knowledge and
specialist knowledge should be discussed belloew:
As Goodenough points out, we must take …knowledge?here in a broad sense, to include both …know-how?and …know-that?—for instance, to cover both the ability to tie knots and the knowledge that one pound coin buy as much as ten ten-penny coins.
Lay people?s knowledge is often refers to as common-sense knowledge, and is the kind which is of most interest to anthropologists, just as linguists are more interested in day-to-day usage than in prescriptive grammars or dictionaries. On the other hand, the specialist knowledge of scientist or scholar is also a part of culture, and one of the most interesting questions in the study of culture is about the relations between common-sense and specialist knowledge, since it is clear that influence goes in both directions.
1.2 Thought
1.2.1 Distinction of memory and inference; Distinction of concepts and proposition
The term …thought?covers a number of different types of mental activity, and Hudson distinguishes first between MEMORY and INFERENCE, and then between CONCEPTS and PROPOSITIONS, as the objects of memory or inference. A concept may either exist in our memory, as a category used in thinking, or may be created as a new category which could then be stored away in memory.
1.2.2The relation between thought and culture.
Given the definition of culture as …socially acquired knowledge?, it is easy to see that culture is one part of memory, namely the part which is …acquired socially?in contrast with that which does not involve other people. This distinction might distinguish between propositions which are known to be true from one?s own experience and those which have been learned from other people.
Some concepts are cultural and others are not. A non-cultural concept, on the other hand, is one which we build without reference to other people, as a convenient way of interpreting our experience. If it means an approximation to the concepts or propositions in other people?s minds, it is culture, but otherwise not. However, it does not follow that non-culture knowledge must differ from person to person, since
different people can arrive at similar experiences of the universe or similar genetic predispositions.
There are three kinds of knowledge:
(1)culture knowledge, which is learned from other people;
(2)sharednon-cultural knowledge, which is shared by people within the same
community or the world over, but is not learned from each other;
(3)non-shared non-cultural knowledge, which is unique to the individual.
In this schema, we can see that most language is cultural language, since it has to be learned from others, but some is shared non-cultural knowledge.
1.2.3 The ‘classical’ theory of concepts; the ‘prototype’ theory of concept
The …classical?theory of concepts is that each one consists of a set of features which are necessary and sufficient for something to account as an instance of that concept. For example, the concept …bird?consists of a set of features referring to wings, eggs, and so on. But there are problems with this theory, such as what is covered by the words and so on.
The psychologist Eleanor Rosch showed that at least some concepts are organized around clear cases, or PROTOTYPES. In this theory, a concept has a feature-based definition, but the definition applies to the prototype, an abstract description of the most typical examples, with other examples fitting in as best they can. The prototype for …bird?has all the features we associate with typical birds. This applies the relationship between general concepts and their subconcepts: if we have to classify, we choose the concept that provides the best and most relevant fit.
There is no agreed answer on the definition of concept. Hudson prefers a much simple theory in which everything that we about a concept has the same status, without any at tempt to distinguish its …criterial?features from the rest, but where exceptions are allowed freely.
There is a good deal of evidence in favor of the prototype theory of concepts as opposed to the …criterial feature?theory. Some of the evidence comes from experimentation; for instance, it takes people less time to verify a sentence like x is a bird if the word x is the name of a typical bird than if it is a name of very atypical
birds. Evidence has also come from experiments in which people were asked to rate members of a more general categories according to how typical they were of the category concerned. For instance, trousers and coats were most typical items of clothing, and purses least typical.
Three attractions of the prototype is listed as follows::
(1) It is not too hard to understand how people can learn concepts from each other.
(2) It allows for the kind of creativity in the application of concepts which we find in real life—in other words, it predicts that the boundaries of concepts will be fuzzy, as they in fact are.
(3) It offers sociolinguist is the possibility of using the theory in explaining how people categorize the social variables to which they relate language—variables such as the kind of person who is speaking and the circumstances in which they are doing so.
1.3 Language, Culture and thought
Culture may be defined as the kind of knowledge which we learn from other people, either by direct instruction or by watching their behavior. This knowledge can be broken down into small units which we have called …concepts?and …propositions?. Most word express concepts，e.g. the concept of …bird?, or …walking?or …language?. Similarly, sentences generally express propositions, e.g. …oil floats on water?. However, there are three points of controversy that need to be considered: …classical?and …prototype-based?concepts; …concepts?and …precepts?; …knowing that?and …knowing how?.
There are three points at which language makes contact with knowledge, and more specially with the kind of knowledge that we call …culture?. As a distinguished anthropologist said, …a society?s language is an aspect of its culture…The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole? (Goodenough 1957)
(1)Language consist of concepts and propositions. In whichever way we
understand the notion …linguistic items?, we can see them as the
categories which we use to analyze our experience, i.e. as concepts.
(2)Meanings are concepts and propositions. There is considerable
controversy over the definition of …meaning?, but there is widespread
agreement that the meaning of a linguistic item is its sense.
(3)Understanding and using speech involves the whole of knowledge. This
is the province of pragmatics, the study of how we use language.
(4)Linguistically relevant social categories are concepts. As was pointed
out in the part of thought, we may assume that we categorize speakers
and circumstances in terms of concepts based, as usual, on prototypes.
2.0 Linguistic and culture relativity
2.1 Semantic relativity
Relativity concerns on how far meanings may differ from variety and to variety and whether there are any connections between differences in meaning and differences in culture.
Semantic relativity is a kind of variability which holds that different languages do not simply provide different ways of expressing the same ideas, but they are also different in the more fundamental sense that the ideas that can be expressed differ from language to language.
There are some limits on semantic relativity, one limit is that all the concepts that serve as word-meaning in different languages are simply different ways if combining a limited range of rather basic …components?. For example, the English verb eat is translated into two different ways, according to whether the eater is a human or an animal. Then, …componential analysis? is used to be described in introductions to semantics, and analyzes the structure of a word?s meaning. It attempts to develop a universal semantic vocabulary for defining all words in all languages. However, it is not so applicable for culture-specific concepts.
Another possible limit to semantic relativity is that it only applies to vocabulary. Because of the different constructions of different languages, we can see that even different varieties of the same language, may allow different concepts to be expressed
by grammatical constructions. But even if we concentrate on grammatical constructions, we can still find differences from language to language in the kinds of meaning that can be expressed. Therefore, we can see that semantic relativity can be limited only by the limits of cultural variations.
2.2 Prototypes
A prototype is an abstract description of the most typical examples, with other examples fitting in as best they can. Rosch defines prototype as the “clearest cases of category membership defined operationall y by people?s judgments of goodness of membership in the category”.
Lounsbury studies on American Indian Kinship System, and the field he works in is called Cognitive Anthropology. Kinship terminologies include the terms of address used in different languages or communities for different relatives and the terms of reference used to identify the relationship of these relatives to each other. According to Lounsbury, all the concept meanings may be predicated by the meaning of the prototype. But it is impossible to translate directly the kinship terms of a society that uses one system into the language of a society that uses a different system.Even if we take the prototype approach to kinship terminology, there is still ample scope for reflecting differences in social organization, either in the prototypes themselves or in the rules for deriving other meanings from them.
There are three different ways in which a word?s prototypical meaning. Firstly, a speaker or hearer may exploit the creative flexibility by mak ing an original extension to the meaning. Secondly, there may be clear rules for extending meaning. And thirdly, there are words whose meanings centre on some prototype but whose extended meanings are stored in memory as well.
2.3 Basic-level concepts
Rosch defines the basic level as the level that has the highest degree of cue validity. And it can easily be categorized in terms of semantic features. Basic level concepts are the main level which we use in the day to day living, and the basic level categories not only share many attributes but also have attributes that differ from those of items in other basic level categories. For example, chair is a basic level
concept, furniture is a superordinate concept and kitchen chair is a subordinate concept. Therefore, the superordinate categories have fewer common attributes, and the subordinate categories shares more attributes with other subordinate categories.
The relevance of basic-level concepts to relativity is two-fold. First, if concepts could be organized hierarchically around basic ones, we should see similarities between languages in the hierarchical organization of their vocabulary. The second connection between basic-level concepts and relativity is that they offer an additional area with respect to which people may differ in their language, thus making the relativity of language look rather greater.
The relationship between linguistic and culture relativity demonstrates that the semantic system of a language is linked to the culture of its speakers, b ut it depends on various conditions.
3.0 Language and thought
3.1 Language and socialisation
Socialization is usually defined as the process whereby an individual takes on the behaviors, beliefs, and values that are appropriate to a particular society. This includes fairly general beliefs and behaviors shared by all members of a society, such as the conviction that marrying one?s mother is wrong, as well as the more particularistic attributes of an individual?s role at a given time. Language is an important medium of cultural transmission, allows our socialist to teach us facts. (For example, …Beethoven was a composer?) and to name our concepts. It seems to be more important in learning some concepts than others.
There are some concepts are independent of language. Some we learned as babies and others were formed later. There are also some concepts which we should not have if it were not for language. the more obvious cases are those relate to language as phenomenon. For example, the concepts “language”, “meaning”. Additionally, We learn many concepts by being told about them, especially during our formal education, so we do in fact learn them through language, whether or not we
could have learned them without it.
3.2The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Both Sapir and Whoof worked extensively on American Indian languages and made important contributions to our knowledge if those languages and also to linguistic theory. They put forward The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. The most important point is that Whorf is talking about how our thinking is affected by the grammar of our language. Whorf claims that Grammar involves conceptual distinctions that are very general and that we use very frequently. Whorf holds that these distinctions affect the way in which we understand our experiences at all time, whether or not we are using language. There are two important points could be captured in this theory: Language may determine our thinking patterns; Similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.
Two versions of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis have been developed:
(1) The strong version of the theory emphasizing the decisive role of language as
the shaper of our thinking patterns which is known as linguistic determinism.
(2) The weak version of this hypothesis is a modified type of its original theory
which is kown as the linguistic relativity suggesting that there is a correlation
between language, culture and thought, but the cross-cultural differences
thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis shows that concepts are wholly or partly determined by the structure of their native language. Moreover, Language dose effect thought in ways that go beyond the rather obvious effects of specific items, and it is not the only kind of experience which does affect thought.
3.3 Sexism in the language system
Sexism refers to the belief or attitude that one gender or sex is inferior to, less competent, or less valuable than the other. It can also refer to hatred of, or prejudice towards, either sex as a whole (see misogyny and misandry), or the application of stereotypes of masculinity in relation to men, or of femininity in relation to women. It is also called male and female chauvinism.
Sexism in language has launched along with the vigorous development of women?s liberation movement since the end of 1960s. As a mirror reflecting the society, language images the social views and values. Sexism in society is thus inevitably reflected in the use of language. In the light of Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, there are more general trends that run right through a language rather than being confined to individual lexical items. In English, and many other languages, there are two such tendencies that have been studied recently. Firstly, Words those are clearly restricted in reference to one sex or the other, with female words tending to have less favorable meanings. For example, a classic pair “master” and “mistress” where the male meaning is good and the female is bad. Secondly, a person whose sex is unknown with a higher position in society is often considered to be a male. People often use male-gendered terms such as "he" and "man" as generic. People often take the male as the prototype even for the sex-neutral concept.
Although more and more attention has been paid on Sexism in the Language System, there are also some difficulties for those of us who want to eliminate linguistic bias against females. For example, the pronoun he surely encourages this basis.
To sum up, some cultural concepts are learned through language, so language is an important …instrument of socialization.? Moreover, …thought patterns? may be influenced by the grammatical patterns of the language concerned. However, language is not the only one influence on human?s thinking, so …linguistic determinism? is unacceptable. All of those mentioned above are involved in the relations between language, culture and thought.
社会语言学研究的新角度：公众语感 定性研究和定量研究相结合在语言研究中占有方法论上的优势。本文从研究方法和研究角度两个方面对《汉语词的社会语言学研究》展开评述。调查统计、定量分析的研究方法和立足于大众语感的研究角度是该书的一大亮点，对汉语词的研究很有价值。 标签：汉语词研究方法研究角度公众语感 近读江汉大学王立教授的《汉语词的社会语言学研究》（商务印书馆，2003年8月出版。以下简称《汉语词》），感觉耳目一新。虽然此书出版已近五年，但仍有进一步推介的必要。这本著作用社会语言学的研究方法、从语感角度对汉语词进行了相关调查和研究。对汉语的基本单位“词”的研究，正如胡明扬先生所言，“是一个众说纷纭、莫衷一是的老大难问题”[1]。虽然我们已把“词”作为汉语语法的基本分析单位和基本应用单位，但对词的概念界定始终没有完全明晰起来。王立先生用社会语言学的研究方法，从一个新的角度——公众语感，为汉语词研究提供了一个全新的研究模式，也成为社会语言学研究本土化的一个成功尝试。 全书共八章。第一章采用文献研究法，将汉语词的百年研究历程分为“汉语词观念的萌发——形成——确立——传播——深化”5个时期进行考察。第二章简要阐述了“从语感的角度认识汉语的词”的研究思想是如何获得的，对“语感”“语感测量”等概念进行了界定，并结合5次语感测量的实例，着重介绍了语感测量的工作程序。第三章至第七章是整个研究过程的全面展开，是语感测量的整个研究过程，向我们展示了社会语言学的研究理念和研究方法在解决语言问题上的独特价值，可谓本书的精华部分。第八章是结语部分，主要阐述从社会语言学视角研究汉语的“词”会得到一个怎样的结果，这一结果将带给汉语研究一个怎样的启示。 这部研究汉语词的学术专著，在研究方法和研究角度上是很应该引起注意的，即调查分析、定量研究的研究方法和立足大众语感的研究角度。 一、可取的研究方法——调查分析、定量研究 对于语言本体研究来讲，不同的方法论反映了不同的语言观。社会语言学研究方法的主要特点是调查分析、定量研究，是多视角的、动态的。对汉语语法进行多视角、动态的研究是当代语法学的一个明显特征，并成为当今语法学界所致力探讨的热门话题。社会语言学奠基人拉波夫提出的定量研究模式一直是社会语言学的主要研究方法并影响至今，而调查分析就是对定量研究模式的实践。拉波夫主张把语言放在语言集团的场景中进行研究，语法问题也不例外。例如，他认为对变项X属于语法Y还是语法Z的问题，要根据整个言语群体而不是根据言语个体进行判别。《汉语词》就很好地实践了这一研究模式。正如王立在书中所言，“对词的理解是一个复杂的社会心理过程，把寻求汉语基本结构单位的研究放到汉语使用的大背景中去进行，看看存在于汉语社团成员头脑中的基本语言单
社会语言学的研究对象 （一）定义和解释 社会语言学（sociolinguistics）是联系社会各种因素对语言进行的研究，探讨语言在社会环境中的变化、功能及其使用的一般规律。 概括来说对语言的研究大致有四个角度：部研究、外部研究、比较研究、应用研究。 社会语言学属于对语言的外部研究，但并不是纯粹的外部研究。 （二）研究对象的不同界定 1.布莱特（美国）1964 （1）说话人的身份； （2）听话人的身份； （3）言语事件的社会环境； （4）社会方言的分析； （5）言语行为的社会评价； （6）语言变异的程度； （7）社会语言学的实际应用。 2.礼德（英国） （1）语言宏观社会学、语言人口统计学； （2）双语、多语、多方言研究； （3）语言规、语言发展和规化； （4）语言混合； （5）社会方言； （6）社会语言学和教学； （7）言语的人种史、语言环境； （8）语域和言语能力； （9）语言变化的社会因素； （10）语言和社会化及其传播； （11）社会语言学的方法； （12）语言体系的功能理论； （13）语言相对性； （14）话语理论； （15）人种方法论的语言学。 3.祝畹瑾《社会语言学概论》（1992） 总的来说，社会语言学研究的对象主要包括五个方面： （1）一个国家或地区的语言状况如双语、多语或多方言状况，以及各类言语共同体使用语言的状况和特征； （2）各类语言变体的构造特点及其社会功能； （3）社会以及不同集团对各种语言或语言变体的评价和态度以及由此产生的社会效应；（4）由于社会、文化、经济、政治等原因以及语言接触所引起的语言变化的方式和规律；（5）交际情景与选择语码之间的关系以及语码选择与人际关系的相互作用。 4.戴庆厦《社会语言学概论》（2004） （1）社会因素（阶级、阶层、职业等）对语言结构的影响； （2）个人因素（年龄、性别、性格等）对语言的影响； （3）语言政策、双语等； （4）社会因素引起的语言关系，如语言接触、语言融合；
1. What is the scope of Sociolinguistic research? 问：什么是社会语言学研究的范围？ 答：广义的把从不同角度去考察语言的都看成社会语言学等等范围，如社会学、人类学、民族学、心理学、地理学、历史学、哲学等等。狭义的是研究语言使用中的变异现象与社会环境之间的相互关系。变异指语言运用上的变化和差异，通过使用各种不同的语言上的变体表现出来。具体来说，社会语言学的研究范围包括：1）一个国家或地区的语言状况如双言制、双语、多语或多方言状况； 2）各种语言变体包括地域方言和社会方言、标准语和土语、正式语体和非正式语体等构造特点及其社会功能； 3）交谈情景与选择语码之间的关系以及语码选择与人际关系的相互作用； 4）社会以及不同的集团对各种语言或语言变体的评价和态度以及由此产生的社会效应； 5）由于社会的、文化的、经济的、政治的种种原因以及语言接触所引起的语言变化的方式和规律，等。 最后，社会语言学的研究范围也在不断的延伸，相信在今后的发展中社会语言说的研究会取得更大更多的成就，同时也对我们社会的发展起到巨大的作用。 Generalized to study from different angles to the language areas are regarded as social linguistics, etc。Such as sociology,
anthropology, ethnology, psychology, geography, history, philosophy and so on. Narrow the variation in use of language phenomena and the relationship between the social environments. Variability refers to the change in language and differences, through the use of different language variants shown. Specifically, social linguistics includes: (1) The language of a country or region, such as two-word system status, bilingual, multi-lingual or multi-dialect situation; (2) variations in various languages, including regional dialects and social dialects, standard language and dialect, formal and informal language body language body characteristics such as structure and social function; (3) The conversation scenarios and selection of the relationship between the Code and the Code Selection and interpersonal interactions; (4) Social and different languages or language groups on evaluation and attitude variations and the resulting social effects; (5) The social, cultural, economic and political reasons, as well as language contact caused by changes in the way of language and law, and so on. In conclusion, the development of social linguistics is constantly extending the scope; I believe in the future development
关注社会语言学视角下的第二语言习得研究 摘要：本文认为，以社会语言学的视角，用社会语言学的知识和理论来解释语言能力、言语交际、接受心理过程等第二语言习得中的一些重要问题，特别是汉语作为第二语言习得过程中的一些现象，应该看作是为语言应用研究引进了一种新视角，是语言习得研究的一条有效途径。同时，也扩展了社会语言学的研究领域，为社会语言学服务语言应用提供了实际内容。 关键词：社会语言学汉语作为第二语言习得研究 1．目前，在国内外，社会语言学研究和狭义的应用语言学中的语言习得研究基本上是分别在两个学科领域内进行的，而实际上，社会语言学与应用语言学水乳交融。语言学发展到今天，结合语言环境、言语互动和语言的社会交际来研究语言习得，特别是汉语作为第二语言的习得，越来越受到学者的重视。用社会语言学的知识和理论来解释第二语言习得中的语言能力、言语交际、接受心理过程等“二语”习得中的重大问题，应该看作是为语言应用研究引进了一种新视角，是开拓语言研究领域的一条有效途径，同时，也丰富了社会语言学的研究范畴，为社会语言学服务语言应用提供了重要的研究内容。 “汉语热”在全球范围内的持续升温，而汉语教学理论的研究却相对滞后。汉语作为第二语言习得理论研究的薄弱，已经带来一系列实质性问题：教师、教材、教学法、语言测试、教学评估等。解决这些问题不仅需要对具体问题的微观研究，更需要理论上的勇气——转换角度，调整思路，跳出一门学科的条框界限，借鉴相关学科的思路方法与研究成果，尝试用另一种眼光观察、探究、分析疑难问题，或许可以找到新的解释方法和分析途径，从而推动理论提升，为汉语教学实践开拓新鲜的思路，提供有益的借鉴。 社会语言学和语言教学与习得理论同属交叉性极强的学科，都受到诸多学术思想的影响。前者与人类学、社会学、心理学等学科关系密切，后者则与教育学、心理学、文化学密不可分。二者共同
《立场--社会语言学视角》评介 Alexandra Jaffe (ed.), Stance: Sociolinguistic Perspectives (Oxford Studies in Sociolinguistics). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Pp. vii+261. 21世纪初期，语言学及相关学科领域里的研究者对“立场”(stance)产生了浓厚的兴趣。总体上看，以往研究主要从系统功能语言学、语用学等角度研究立场，着眼于识别立场的词汇语法实现形式，及按语义对其进行归纳描述。近年来，研究者开始关注立场与各社会文化因素之间的关系，Alexandra Jaffe的新作《立场---社会语言学视角》（Stance: Sociolinguistic Perspectives）体现了这一新趋势，是其中的代表作。 1．主要内容 本书共分为十章。第一章为概论，作者首先指出立场表达的普遍性，介绍了立场表达的研究背景及本书的研究目标，作者回顾立场表达研究的相关文献，着重介绍立场表达及相关术语的定义。 第二章的作者从语篇分析法和修辞角度分析了一美籍非裔政治家在不同语境下产出的多种口语和书面语语料，指出说话者持续连贯的立场植根于其身份，角色及特定的意识形态。 在第三章，作者以尼日利亚传教士和伦敦教会之间的通信为语料，集中考察对传教士泰勒先生的过失双方采取的立场。文章标题直指分析的核心—个体能动性的局限。作者对信件的分析结果表明“立场可以是被赋予的，而非说话者主动采取的”（70）。作者因此指出，过分强调立场表达中的说话者意向性和能动性会隐藏说话者将立场强加于他人的方式，即立场并非由说话者主观选择，而由说话者所处的权力和意识形态结构决定。 第四章，作者Janet McIntosh探究了白肯尼亚人访谈中第一人称索引性的多样性。作者采用戈夫曼提出的“立足点”和“参与者角色”两个概念展示了受访者对超自然力量的矛盾态度。一方面，他们倾向于选择理性价值观和独立身份，而另一方面，其本体论立场不可避免地受到当地社会文化因素的影响。说话者立场的矛盾性反映出剧变下社会混乱的深层状态。 第五章，作者对玛雅方言的使用者作了民族志研究。研究强调戈夫曼提出的―当事人‖这一概念在考察―道德反讽‖这类话语中的重要性。Shoaps对反讽细致入微的讨论对在英美语境下研究反讽具有重要启示，―不仅在方言中，即便从总体而言，对反讽的解释也不应从意图，而应该从索引性出发‖（113）。 第六章，作者探讨了双语教学中教师的立场表达如何根据权力和合法性定位教学中所使用的两种语言，并将教师自己对权威和语言水平的立场赋予学生。作者证明，在存在配对或分级角色的制度化语境下，个体在表达立场的同时也将立场赋予了他人。 第七章，作者考探讨立场、风格和身份三者之间的关系。通过分析墨西哥青少年侨民及当代媒体广告内的自然对话，作者展示了俚语的多重立场索引性是如何在互动中被说话者用以联合听话者，并建立个体性别风格的。她强调，正是立场建立了特定语言形式和社会身份之间的索引关系，由于风格是社会身份的重要部分，所以立场是建立风格，进而建构社会身份的主要话语机制。 第八章，作者更加明确地指出了立场和风格的联系，并尝试用立场来解释社会语言学中语言变体的模式。通过对维吉尼亚、匹兹堡及悉尼三地特定群体所产出的语言数据进行分析，作者论证了立场能催生具有社会意义的变体模式。作者指出，任何针对语言变体的解释应该“超越对相关模式的简单复述”（190）。此研究可以说体现了在语言变体分析中，风格和身
社会语言学教学大纲 课程名称：社会语言学 课程类别：专业选修课编号：学时：54 编者姓名：单位：人类学系职称：讲师 主审姓名：单位：人类学系职称：教授 授课对象：本科生专业：人类学年级：三年级 编写日期： 2007年1月 一、课程目的与教学基本要求 介绍社会语言学的理论、方法及应用。主要内容有：语言变异、言语交际、语言接触、双语以及语文规划等等。让学生掌握一定的社会语言学理论，并能结合社会语言现状（如我国的双语双言现象、语文规划政策等）思考、探讨社会中的语言现象。 二、课程主要内容及时间安排 一、社会语言学的兴起、研究范围、对象、途径、目标计2学时。 二、应用社会语言学的若干方面，语言与经济、政治、双语教学、语言与法律事务计4学时。 三、语言变体，语言与方言；地域方言和社会方言；标准变体和非标准变体；语体和语域计4学时。 四、言语共同体，交际能力计2学时。 五、语言变异，阶级、阶层与语言差异，性别与语言差异计4学时。 六、社会网络与语言差异计2学时。 七、言语交际，对称呼的研究计4学时。 语言区域与文化区域 八、对礼貌的研究，会话分析计2学时。 九、语言接触，双语和多语现象计4学时。 十、语码转换和语码混合，语言干扰计2学时。 十一、洋泾浜语和克里奥耳语计4学时。 十二、语言的扩散和海外体英语计2学时。 十三、语文规划，语文规划的特点和意义，语文规划的类别、步骤计4学时。
十四、我国语文规划的情况，汉语、汉文及少数民族语言和文字计2学时。 十五、语言变项的描写和研究，变项规则，定量研究计4学时。 十六、收集语料的方法和技术，语言变项的定义扩展计4学时。 十七、变项规则分析方法计2学时。 三、课程实习 拟于学期中安排一次。要求学生对家乡的语言构成、语言运用的特点，从多语、多言的角度进行观察，写成报告，并于课堂讨论。计入平时成绩。计2学时。 四、主要参考书目 1、社会语言学上海外教出版社 Spolsky 2000 2、社会语言学与语言教学上海外教出版社 Hornberger 2001 3、拉波夫语言自选集语言大学拉波夫 2001 4、社会语言学教程复旦大学游汝杰、邹嘉彦 2004 5、社会语言学概论湖南教育出版社祝畹瑾 1992 6、Hudson,R.A, Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990
社会语言学视角的2017年度汉语流行语分析 从社会语言学视角分析2017年汉语流行语，将能更好地研究和理解汉语流行语的表面意义和内涵，扩大人们的用语词汇，丰富语言表达的内涵，深刻理解社会发展。社会语言学重点研究语言和社会发展之间的关系，从这个角度出发，针对2017年汉语流行语进行全面细致的分析，全面研究了汉语流行语的实际产生源头，为充分有效的提升语言应用效果，强化总体的用语规范，提供良好的前提条件。 标签：社会语言学分析2017汉语流行语 引言 “freestyle”“贫穷限制了我的想象力”“皮皮虾，我们走”这些语句曾一度流行于网络交际中，刷爆了人们的朋友圈，是2017年的汉语流行语的重要代表。流行语是特殊性的语言现象，现阶段很多社会语言学家都充分关注到了流行语现象。从社会语言学的角度，针对2017年汉语流行语进行全面细致的分析和研究，将能更好的认识到汉语流行语的实际内涵，便于社会公众更为充分的了解汉语特征和文化表达。 一、社会语言学及流行语的研究意义 社会语言学，是语言学的重要分支之一，主要是针对语言和社会之间的相互关系进行全面细致的分析和研究。网络技术的持续更新和进步，网络社会中使用的网络流行语日益发展，社会公众所采用的网络流行语也将会逐渐成为当前关注的焦点。从社会语言学的角度，全面分析2017年网络流行语，将能够为充分有效开展语言分析工作，将能更好的认识和理解这些网络流行语。 二、流行语的产生和传播 1.时代和社会发展是流行语产生的源头 随着科技水平的提高，人们之间的信息交流也更加便捷，自然对于语言的创新使用也增加了一定的几率。人们受教育程度不断提升，人们表达自我的愿望也逐渐增强，当前社会的发展拓展了人们的交流环境。人们在交流的过程中，为了保持良好的新颖性，通常会创新一些网络用语，自行的编写一些较为特殊的词语，这些词语在传播的过程中，引起人们的兴趣，从而流传范围更广[1]。“你的良心不会痛吗”这句流行词，主要用来表达说话者想死的心情，其在当前人们交流过程中应用较为广泛，相应的也延伸出了较多形式的表情包。 2.网络空间是汉语流行语传播的巨大推力 智能手机的逐渐普及，多种社交软件的良好推广，当前社会中人们之间的网
社会语言学视角下的成都地名研究 成都是有近3000年建城史的历史文化名城，是我國中西部拥有世界遗产项目数最多的城市。成都地名既是一种语言符号，又是一种社会象征，更是文化的重要载体。本文综合运用语言学、文化学等知识，在多角度分析成都地名的语言构成与分类、历史内涵及发展变化的基础上，结合成都地名现状，提出成都地名保护的建议和措施。 标签：社会语言学成都地名语言特征文化内涵保护措施 地名是人类在认识自然和参与社会活动的过程中产生的一种语言符号，它随着历史的发展和社会的变化而不断发展。城市地名也是一个城市政治、经济、文化等方面的缩影，记录着一个城市发展变化的轨迹，是展现城市百态的一面“镜子”。通过地名研究，我们可以探索到地域深厚的历史底蕴，发掘出具有价值的语言文化信息。 成都市地处平坦的四川盆地，气候温和，降水充沛，自古就有“天府之国”的美称，是我国历史悠久的文化名城。从开明氏统治成都算起，成都有近3000年的历史，成都地名文化资源十分丰富。成都许多街道名称都与其文化渊源和历史背景密切相关。据吴世先《成都城区街名通览》统计，成都主城区的地名（街、路、巷、居民点）共有1244条[1]。目前，对成都地名进行研究的成果并不多见，主要是郭建强的《成都地名探究》[2]、杨秋《成都地名的文化语言学研究》[3]、唐林《成都地名文化遗产传承与保护对策》[4]、郭声波《宋成都平原地名考释》[5]等，以上研究成果在不同程度上促进了人们对成都地名由来和变迁的深入了解，增强了社会对地名文化的保护意识。但以上研究成果也存在一些有待深入和拓展之处，成都地名社会语言学的相关研究至今阙如。有鉴于此，我们运用《华阳国志》[6]《成都街名指南》[7]《成都地名掌故》[8]《成都出土历代墓铭券文图录综释》[9]等文献资料，从社会语言学的视角，开展成都地名的语言学、文化学、社会学等方面的相关研究。希望我们的研究成果能有助于发掘并弘扬成都乃至四川地区独特的地域文化，准确把握成都地名的语言文化内涵，整体提升对成都地名的认知水平，加强成都地名的文化传承与保护。 一、成都地名的语言构成与分类 地名作为一种语言符号，有着区别方位、反映社会文化的作用。成都地名蕴含着浓厚的地方文化，每个地名都有其独特的语言结构特征。在此，我们以成都主城区1244条地名为研究语料[10]，来具体分析成都地名的音节构成和词汇结构。 （一）成都地名音节构成分析 地名音节构成与人们的社会生活有着千丝万缕的联系。从地名的音节构成，我们可以发现一个地区民众的语言使用习惯和倾向。通过地名音节的研究，我们
本科生课程论文 论文题目：Care for Bilingual Children 课程名称：Introducing Sociolinguistics 任课教师：刘承宇 专业：英语 班级：2012级英语1班 学号：222012310032017 姓名：魏宗琴 2015 年11 月17 日
Care for Bilingual Children Abstract:Nowadays, raising bilingual children is more and more appealing to many families, but obviously it is not a easy course.This paper is to present some social linguistic phenomenons concerning some children raised in bilingual families and appeal to care for them. Key Words:individual bilingualism, language interference, language accommodation，bilingual language-planning I. Introduction Having more than one language at children’s fingers provides them more accessibilities to another world; therefore, the idea of raising bilingual children is appealing to more and more parents. These parents believe that bilingual kids have the advantage of knowing two cultures, of being able to communicate with a wider variety of people and of possible higher economic status in the future. Nevertheless, in the planning for children’s bilingual language development, parents should take some social linguistic factors into consideration as well as children’s self identity, self esteem,and schooling options etc. .
社会语言学视角下的中西方称呼语差异- 中西方不同的称呼语中蕴含了各自独有的、深厚的社会文化背景和习惯。由此可以说称呼语并不是一种孤独的表象，而是蕴含了社会文化的一种历史积淀。称呼语是言语交际中使用最广泛、频繁的词语，它是人类进行言语交际行为的极为关键的第一步，由此可见，虽然是一个小小的称呼语，但在社会语言学中的地位却不容小觑。中西方文化之间存在有巨大差异，所以对于外语学习者来说了解这些文化异同对语言学习是非常有必要的。恰当、巧妙地使用称呼语可以拉近言语交际者之间的距离，增强话语有效度，使社会语言交际活动变得更加和谐、有效。 一、社会语言学和称呼语的相关简介 社会语言学（sociolinguistics）是一门应用型边缘学科，它与哲学、社会学、心理学等诸学科的研究紧密相关，从这点可以看出社会语言学的多样性、宽泛性和跨学科性，所以，社会语言学是一门跨学科研究。杨永林在他的《社会语言学四十年》一文中这样说道：社会语言学还表现为一种跨学科的观察方法，为其他学科研究同语言相关的问题提供一种可资在社会文化语境中分析研讨、参比反照的方法论，体现出一种学术话语模式高度兼容的特质。[1]《中国大百科全书语言文字卷》一书中把社会语言学定义为：社会语言学是研究语言与社会多方面关系的学科，它从不同的社会科学（诸如社会学、心理学、地理学、历史学等）的角度去考察语言。[2]社会语言学的代表人物有：索绪尔、布莱特、海姆斯、祝畹瑾、杨永林、陈原等。社会语言学一次是从1960年开始成为一颗耀眼的明星的。自那时起至今，学者们对它进行大量研究，至今年已经经历了五十年的风风雨雨。中国学
者杨永林认为，20世纪20年代欧美出现的伦敦功能学派和北美人类语言学派对社会语言学的建立发挥了不可磨灭的作用。许多的先驱学者们为社会语言学做了具有历史性重要作用的奠基人。这门学科如今已经由最初的巩固自我地位的初始阶段走向了与其他学科结合形成新的交叉学科的高级阶段了。 众所周知，称呼语（address forms）是我们日常生活的言语交际中很重要的交际用语，是人类社会活动中必不可少的一个言语行为。人们刚开始对它的认识是明确说话者所指称的对象，现在，人们对称呼语的认识已经发展到了更深的程度称呼语是指明互动双方的身份逐渐深入到表示礼貌和言外之意的程度。在现实生活中，由于称呼语的运用不当而引起的不必要的误会和摩擦从而导致人际关系紧张的例子也不胜枚举。称呼语看似只是很简单的一个称呼而已，但它其实是社会交际过程中十分复杂且重要的一个问题，对于交际的成败起着非常关键的作用，如果正确、合理地使用了称呼语，就会增强交际语言的表达效果，使与他人的交际变得更加的和谐、有效。称呼语的研究已逐渐成为人们关注的热点问题。国内外学者对称呼语及相关问题等已有相当的研究。美国的语言学家布朗和福特早在六十年代就成为了美国英语中的称呼语系统研究的伟大的开创者。关于称呼语，我国的很多学者也从文化、历史、民族等角度来对其进行意义和演变上的探索。 二、基于社会语言学视角下的中西方称呼语对比 中国一直都是以礼仪之邦而著称，它在悠悠长河般的文明史中已经形成了独有的一套道德规范及礼貌准则。中国称呼语的使用文化深厚，使用也是很有讲究的。西方文化中对称呼语的运用也是变化多端有讲究的。用适当的称呼问候对方或跟对方打招
简明新编英语语言学教程教案 《英语语言学》课程大纲课程名称：英语语言学 课程编号： 总学时：36 适应对象：英语本科专科 一、教学目的与任务 《英语语言学》是英语专业高年级学生开设的学科方向课。旨在使学生了解人类语言研究的 成果，提高对语言的本质、功能的认识，了解语言与人类之间的关系，培养学生的语言意识， 发展理性思维。该课程要求学生掌握语言学学科的基本概念；了解语言与心理、社会、文化、 文学等跨学科研究的关系及其发展现状和趋势。该课程的学习有助于拓宽学生的思维与视野， 培养并激发学生对语言研究的兴趣，为其在相关领域的进一步学习及研究打好基础。 二、教学基本要求 语言学是以语言为研究对象的一门科学。教学中应处理好以下方面的关系。 1、在理解的基础上进行记忆，特别是一些重要术语的翻译与定义以及几大语法学派的理论主张， 有影响力的语言学家的姓名、著作以及贡献等。注意阅读课文时要认真仔细。 2、通读和理解课文的基础上进行总结，对各部分所讲的主要内容做到心中有数，重点明确。
3、在学习过程中，注意联系、对比，将所学语言学理论与英语外语学习实际相结合。 4、注意提高运用理论解决实际问题的能力。 5、培养学生学术论文写作的能力，建构写作的理论基础及理论依据。 三、教学内容及要求： 1.1 为什么学习语言？ 1.2 什么是语言？ 1.3 语言的本质特征 1.3.1 任意性 arbitrariness 1.3.2 二重性 duality 1.3.3 创造性 productivity or creativity 1.3.4 移位性 displacement 1.4 语言的起源 1.5 语言的功能 1.5.1 信息功能 informative 1.5.2 人际功能 1.5.3 施为功能 1.5.4 感情功能emotive 1.5.5 交感性谈话 1.5.6 娱乐性功能 1.5.7 元语言功能 1.6 什么是语言学？ 1.7 语言学的主要分支 1.7.1 语音学phonetics
社会语言学视角下浅析“然并卵” - 语言伴随着人类社会的形成而产生的，而且随着社会的发展而变化。时下流行的网络语言正是伴随着网络这一新型媒介的发展而出现的，它与传统书写使用的语言符号不同，网络语言是在虚拟的网络平台和社区内用来交际的语言变体，随着网络普及，网络语言某种程度上具有了普遍性。 一、语言与社会发展 近几年，随着微博、微信的广泛应用，网络流行文体语言异军突起，如今这种语言不再局限于网络，整潜移默化地影响着我们的日常生活。从之前流行的淘宝体、丹丹体，到后来流行的蓝精灵体、TVB体，再到时下火爆的然并卵体，这类网络流行文体语言具有时尚、鲜活、快捷的特点（于根元2001）。区别于传统文体的正规与严肃，具有一定的社会应用价值，正确认识了解和掌握网络流行问题语言，对于构建和谐网络有一定积极意义。 一种语言变体的出现必然有其背景和原因，网络流行文体语言不仅是一种语言现象，而且是一种复杂的社会现象（郑远汉2002）。语言与社会的这种关系被社会语言学家称作共变。共变很可能是指语言是一个变数，社会也是一个变数；语言和社会这两个变数互相影响，互相作用，互相制约，互相接触而引起的互相变化。（陈原2000）网络语言作为一种特殊的语言现象自然有其存在的合理性及价值，我们应该对其记录、了解并加以研究。 二、社会语言学视角 （一）语言变体 在社会语言学领域，语言变体不仅指不同社会群体的语言，
也指任一国家或地区之内不同的语言形式。语言变体意义广泛，研究对象可以从一种语言中的不同方言到对某一种口音的音、词、句等特征的研究。可以说，存在一种社会分配，就存在一种语言变体。 语言变体受很多复杂因素的影响，大致可分为三类：第一类是区域变体，主要指不同区域间相同的语言团体。不同区域间，各国的社会历史条件、文化背景等都各不相同，即使使用相同的语言，也会出现语言变体。第二类是语言的社会变体。它与人的社会认同有关，不同年龄、性别、国别、人种等都各不相同。第三类是语言的功能变体，与人所处情境、语言本身、表达方式有关，由此还产生了两个概念语域和语体。 语言变体是由很多模糊又深层次的因素决定的，不仅包括声音、词汇、语法、方言等等，还包括社会、历史和文化等方面的原因。变体可指一种语言中发音、语法、词语选择的不同，它是人类语言一种普遍现象。语言交流中的语言变体甚至可以称得上是一种交际策略，而不仅止于一种特殊的语言现象。语言是多变的，语言变体是现代语言学一个热门话题引起了学者的广泛关注，其多样性是由它们的社会分配决定的。 （二）语言接触 语言接触指不同语言之间语言结构特点和功能的互动影响。语言接触是一个大系统，主要包括两个次级系统，即语言和社会，这两者之下又分别有一些小的系统。语言接触会引发语言的变化，不仅在语言本身，语言的功能也会发生变化。语言接触从这个角度上看，可以简单地说成是两种语言的互动以及对语言结构和语言功能的特点的影响。 地理因素也是引发语言接触的一个主要原因。居住在不同
论社会语言学视角下的二语习得理论 汪顺强 [摘要]中介语变异现象、跨文化交际、会话现象以及社会认同等的复杂性导致社会语言学视角下的二语习得理论没有形成完备的理论系统；然而西方很多学者已勾勒出了这一领域的部分理论。本文重点讨论共建、互动能力、斯特恩的二语习得模式以及二语习得的条件等理论以期对二语教学提供理论借鉴。 [关键词]共建互动能力斯特恩的二语习得模式二语习得的条件 On theories of Second Languaage Acquisition from the Perspective of Sociolinguistics Wang S h un-qiang Abstract:Second language acquisition from the perspective of sociolinguistics have not been theorized completely owing to the immense complexity of the phenomena of interlanguage variation,cross-cultural communication,conversational phenomena,and social identity,etc. Nonetheless,several western scholars have sketched proposals for what theories of part of the field might look like.This paper aims at providing theorical merits for second language acquision through discussing the following theories that have received attention recently:co-construction，international competence，Stern’s language acquisition model,and conditions of second language acquisition. Key words:Stern’s language acquisition model co-construction interactive competence conditions of second language acquisition 1引言 在应用语言学中，二语习得指的是人们逐步提高其第二语言或外语水平的过程（Richards&Platt,2000:408）。人们对这种过程进行研究，期望从中得出对语言教学有用的知识。这一术语特别被美国研究人员应用于他们感兴趣的领域，如：关于第二语言或外语学习者在句法和音韵方面的纵向研究及个案研究；关于第二语言和外语学习者口头和书面话语的分析；关于语言发展的其他方面的研究。本文从社会语言学的角度探讨二语习得的部分理论，以期为二语习得营造和谐的内外环境提供理论支撑。社会语言学或许是与理论建构关联最小的语言学分支。该领域的领先人物Charles Ferguson(1997)指出社会语言学从一开始就是问题趋向的而不是理论趋向的。通过判定一些描述现象如何在不同的社会阶级和文化背景下或不同的工作条件下表现出不同的特点实现其“理论深度”(p228),Emanuel Schegloff(1987)也拒绝了社会科学中的一位论派的理论。二语习得的社会语言学途径缺乏句法学和认知心理学家所擅长的宏观理论。然而，由于中介语变异现象，跨文化交际，会话现象以及社会认同等的巨大复杂性，所以到目前为止还没有提出明显而系统的二语习得的社会语言学理论。然而有些学者已勾勒出了适合于该领域的部分理论。 2共建理论 双语行为最具特殊预示性的理论是话语范围理论(Douglas和Selinker1985;1994a, Mora1995,Whyte1994a;1994b;1995,Zuengler1989)。这一理论预示了二语产出的精确性和话语话题的联系。话语范围理论的弱点在于其集中于互动中的个体参与者，在于其对话题和主题的个人的心理反映。另两个理论（共建和互动能力）则采取了宽广的视角，把社会现象和社会语言学现象视为互动中所有参与者共建的。Jacoby和Ochs(1995)提出“共建”并定义为“形式、阐释、立场、行为、活动、认同、惯例、技能、观念、感情或其它文化方面有意义的事实的联合创造物”（1995；171）。尽管“共建”这一术语可能暗示联
社会语言学的语言观和方法论 一、语言的社会性 社会语言学认为，应该从语言和社会的相互依存关系以及语言本身存在方式的角度研究作为社会现象的语言。这里包含两层含义： 1、从语言与社会的相互关系看，语言的生命取决于人类社会对它的使用。语言不仅是人类社会得以形成的重要因素之一，而且还是人类社会得以延续发展的必要条件。法国社会心理语言学派的代表人物梅耶认为，语言学是一种社会科学，要想了解语言的变化，就必须了解社会的变化。房德里耶斯指出，唯有研究语言的社会作用，才能懂得语言的本质。弗斯在继承了英国语言学历来重视语言应用研究传统的同时，深受英国功能人类学家马林诺夫斯基的影响，坚持认为语言研究必须重视语言的社会功能。在他看来，语言不仅有形式意义，还有情景意义，因此应当在社会环境中描写和分析语言。韩礼德进一步发展了弗斯的学说，建立了系统功能语言学，认为语言的功能、语篇、人际功能都与语言的社会环境以及该语言所属的文化存在着密切联系。 2、从语言本身的存在方式看，不同语言学派有不同的认识。索绪尔认为，语言是一种社会事实，具有社会性。但这里的社会事实非指语言和社会间的关系，也非指语言所表达的社会文化内涵，而是抽象的、同质的社会心理系统，即社会心理学意义上的“集体意识”，即索绪尔所说的“语言是一种表达观念的符号系统”。索绪尔认为，语言学的真正对象是语言，而言语是无序的，“语言科学不仅可以没有言语活动的其它要素，而且正是没有这些要素掺杂在其间，才能建立起来。”但是，特定语言系统中每个符号的能指和所指的结合对每个社会成员是不是共同的，每个社会成员是不是同样掌握了语言系统中符号的能指和所指，即语言是不是一个抽象同质的形式系统。社会语言学认为，同一个语言社会中的成员，常常分属不同的社会集团或社会阶层，因此掌握的语言符号的能指和所指的结合是有差别的，即语言是一个由符号的各种变异形式构成的系统。因此，语言的历时性变化不仅明显地表现在不同时代的语言使用者中，而且表现在同一代语言使用者甚至同一个语言使用者身上。可见，语言的历时变化不仅有语言结构内部和社会外部的原因，而且与语言的共时变异有密切关系。社会语言学对语言的变异研究不排除语言变异的共时描写，
从社会语言学视角比较中美恭维语 本文从社会语言学角度对中美恭维语及其回应语进行比较，主要包括恭维语的词汇、人称、对象和内容以及回应语的不同方式。通过研究，本文揭示出由于社会因素不同而导致的中美恭维语的差异，并借此使读者更好地认识到不同民族的不同交际方式，同时也证明在语言学研究中，社会因素的重要地位。 1.引言 20 世纪60 年代，社会语言学在美国兴起。这门学科采用社会学和语言学的理论和研究方法，结合不同的视角研究语言的异同性。本文选取民族学的社会语言学中的一个小方面，主要对中国和美国环境中的恭维语及其回应语进行比较，以期揭示出民族交际风格的差异导致的语言差异。通过这样的研究，希望能够帮助读者更清楚地了解到由于民族历史、民族文化、民族心理等的差异以及用语特点。 2.理论背景 在语言交际中，为了体现自己的礼貌，同时赞美对方，人们会经常使用恭维语。从上世纪80年代开始，国外很多学者就开始了对恭维语的研究（Manes&Wolfson，1980；Herbert，1988），国内学者起步稍晚，但也有不少研究成果（左焕琪，1983；贾玉新，1997；雪征，2009）。总的来说，这些学者主要是采用随机抽样的研究方法。笔者认为对英汉恭维语进行对比研究，应该采用更全面的视角，因此本文会从词汇、句型、人称以及对象和内容方面进行探索。 3.中美语言中恭维语的差异 东方大国中国与西方的美国在使用恭维语方面有着很大的差异，笔者将从以下几个方面进行分析对比。 3.1恭维语词汇 中美恭维语的词汇有类似之处，主要是模糊性很强的形容词的使用，英语和汉语恭维语都是一种程式化的语言。 3.2恭维语句型 美国英语中，最常使用的恭维语句型有以下三种： a. Subject + is/look （really）+ adj. 如：You look good. b. Subject + （really）like/love+ Object. 如：I really love your skirt.
社会语言学第八章作 业
Language and Society 13073080 刘颖 Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between the language and society, between the use of language and the social structures in which the users of the language live. There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. One of them are that while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is used to established and maintain social relationships. Another indication is that the users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. Then to some extent, language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environment of a society. As a social phenomenon, language is closely related the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a language form is entirely social. In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are regarded as member of social groups. The social group that is singled out for any special study is called the speech community. The term speech community, or linguistic community, is widely used by sociolinguistics to refer to a community based on language. Within a speech community there exist various social groups. Speech variety, or linguistic variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. In sociolinguistics studies three types of speech variety are of special interest, i.e. regional dialects, sociolects, and registers. The study of the relationship between the language and society can be approached in two ways. We can look at society as a whole and consider how it reflects the social differentiations. The other approach is to look at society from the point of view of individual members of the society. The former is sometimes refers to as micro-sociolinguistics or the sociology of language, and the latter a micro-sociolinguistics or sociolinguistics proper. The notion of a language is not monolithic and there exist types or varieties of the same language. Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers. The striking variation of age is well illustrated by children language as it develops, regarding all levels of language from phonology to vocabulary and syntax. Age divisions are 2, 5 and 12. Variation in language use is also associated with the sex of individual speakers. Sex-preferred differentiation in terms of speech varieties of males and females exists in all natural languages across the world. Women in many countries are more status-conscious than men, and therefore more aware of the social significance of linguistic variables. Language reflects obvious sex prejudice. The use of sexist language does not mean that it is the language that is sexist but rather the social attitude connoted in the language is sexist. The meanings of some English words really echo the real traditional roles of men and women in history. As social attitude towards women change in recent years, linguistic changes in many languages are taking place that reflect the feminist movement and the growing awareness that language and language use mirror social attitudes and reinforce stereotypes and bias. The change can be sensed in the morphological variation. Linguistic forms associating