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Lexicology

Lexicology
Lexicology

Chapter 1

Introduction of Words

Some Interesting Facts

?There is no egg in eggplant, nor ham in hamburger, Neither apple nor pine in pineapple.

?And while no one knows what is a hotdog, you can be pretty sure it isn?t canine(犬类).

?English muffins(=hot muffins热松饼,美式早餐/英式午茶糕点) were not invented in England,Nor French-fries in France,(炸薯条); 再如:

?French window

?落地窗,

?take French leave

?不辞而别,

?French grey

?浅灰色

?Sweetmeats(糖果);sweetbreads(甜面包)?

?In English we find that quicksand can work slowly, Boxing rings(拳击赛台)are square.

?And why is that writers write, but fingers don't fing,grocers don't groce, and hammers don't ham?

?If the plural of tooth is teeth, why isn?t the plural of booth,beeth? One goose,two geese, So, one moose(驼鹿), two meese?(复数形式仍然是moose);One mouse, two mice; One louse(虱子), two lice; One house? two hice?

?If teachers taught, why didn't preacher praught?(preached)

?If a vegetarian eats vegetables, what does a humanitarian eat?

?Why do people recite at a play, and play at a recital? Ship by truck or car and send cargo by ship?(动词与动词的功能差异;为什么演话剧时人们要朗诵,而在独奏会上却要演奏:polysemy)

?Have noses that run and feet that smell?

?Park on driveways and drive on parkways?

?美国的房子周围有driveway(入户的车道):私人车道;parkway大路,干道)

?How can a slim chance and a fat chance be the same, while a wise man and a wise guy are opposites?

?When a house burns up, it bums down.(方位稳喻)

?You fill in a form by filling it out. (collocation)

?And an alarm clock goes off by going on.

?You get in and out of a car, yet you get on and off a bus.

?If there is a phrase of ―gold bar‖, then what does ―gold brick‖ mean?

?And why, when I wind up my watch, I start it, But when 1 wind up this essay, I end it?(一词多义)Lexicology as a part of linguistics

?Lexicology is the part of linguistics, dealing with the vocabulary of a language and the properties of words as the main units of language.

?V ocabulary means the sum of all the words in the language.

?Good knowledge of the description of the vocabulary, rules of word-formation, origin and history of words helps to guess and remember the meaning of new-learned words, to master the standards of their usage, and to prevent mistakes.

?Two ways to study lexicology: 1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学

?1. The definition of a word comprises the following points:

?(1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.

?A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.

?词是语音、意义和语法特点三者统一的整体。词又是语句的基本结构单位。(P.1)

?A fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a given syntactic function.

?词,今指语言组织中的基础单位,能独立运用,具有声音、意义和语法功能。《辞海》1984,上海辞书出版社

2. Sound and Meaning:

?Introduction of Naturalist and Conventionalist

?The difference between the two schools lies in the belief that sound has or hasn‘t dire ct or necessary connection with meaning.

?The nationalists think the sound must be an echo of the sense.(音必须成为义的回声。)(p.2)

?The conventionalists hold that there is no intrinsic logical connection or relationship between the sound and the meaning except onomatopoeia (拟声词), because:

?1)代表同一意义的词在不同的语言(包括同一语言)中有时具有不同的语音外壳。(p.2)

?(1)His beloved friend has breathed his last(咽气了)

?(2)His dear friend has passed away(与世长辞)

?(3)His close friend has died(死J,)

?(4)His old guy has kicked the bucket.(翘辫子)

?(5)His old friend has abandon the world/join the choir invisible/go to Nirvana/pay the debt of nature(谢世/归寂/去极乐世界/了结尘缘)

?2)代表不同意义的词可以具有相同的语音外壳。(scale n. 鱼鳞,天平,标度;v.攀登) (p.2)

?3)另外也需注意,代表同一意义的词在不同的语言中有时具有近似的语音外壳。例如:

?鸭叫:quack英;couin法;qua qua意;quak quak德

?猫meaw/miaow咪/喵;鸽子:coo-咕咕;牛:moo哞

?狼:howl嚎

?Onomatopoeia (拟声词)

?Definition: onomatopoeic words are echoic words whose sound reflects the sense.

?Gingle—铃声—铃pat—轻拍声—轻拍

?Ping-pong—乒乓声—乒乓球

?Cuckoo—布谷鸟叫声—布谷鸟

?Drum—鼓声—鼓bomb—爆炸声—炸弹

?Crash--轰隆声--猛撞,崩溃,破产,垮台

?E.g. The thunder crashed overhead.

?雷声在头顶隆隆作响。

?The boiling water cracked the glass.

?滚烫的开水使玻璃杯炸裂了。

?Onomatopoeia also exists in Chinese:

?请帮我―咔嚓‖一张。

?两人都同时―哦‖了一声。

3. Meaning & Concept

?1) Relationship between meaning and concept

?Word concept referent(词是通过概念来反映客观事物或现象的)

?Polysemy(一词多义)可表示为:

Examples

?Crane n. 1.一种长脖子鸟-----鹤

? 2.一种形似鹤的机械----吊车

?Glad, delight and happy是来自不同语源的同义词,属于同一个概念,指的是同一种情绪与状态。

?Please compare the following:

?He is a father of two girls (daughters)

?Hie is over 30 now. Why not have a girl (girlfriend)?

?I‘ll have a girl (maid) help you.

4. Lexical Item, Word & Vocabulary

?1)词是构成词汇的基本要素。它们之间是个体与整体的关系;

?2)词项是词典的组成单位,包含词的读音、词性、词义,语义特征和句法特征等;(P.4)

?3)Development of English V ocabulary

?(1) - Old English (AD 450-1150) Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60, 000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.

?(2) - Middle English (1150-1500) Although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic. Between 1250 and 1500 about 9000 words of French origin poured into English. Seventy-five percent of them are still in use today.

?

?(3) - Modern English (1500-up to now) Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England. Early (1500-1700) and Late (1700-up to the present) Modern English.

?From the 16th century onward, English borrowed words from an increasing number of languages, For example, from

?French: attach, caféand so on;

?Italian (mainly in the fields of music, art and architecture): concert, duet(二重奏), piano, soprano (女高音), solo, tenor(男高音); model, bust(半身像), studio; dome, balcony and so on;

?Spanish: armada(无敌舰队), cargo, vanilla, cocoa and cigar;

?Portuguese: caste(种姓)and pagoda(塔);

?German: bismuth(铋), cobalt(钴), nickel and zinc;

?Dutch: dock, freight and keel(平底船);

?Russian: vodka, troika(三驾马车), ruble and tsar(沙皇);

?Australian: boomerang(自食其果), kangaroo and dingo;

?Arabic: sugar, sultan(苏丹)and alcohol;

?Indian: coolie(苦力), cashmere and khaki(卡其布);

?Chinese: tea, typhoon and yamen;

?Japanese: kimono (和服)and tycoon(大亨);

?African: gorilla (大猩猩)and zebra(斑马).

?The rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary (especially after the World War II) and its causes

?1. Marked progress of science and technology:

?e.g. Words used in connection with the nuclear bomb: chain reaction, radioactivity, fall-out(辐射尘); clean bomb, overkill, neutron bomb and medium-range ballistic missiles (中程弹道导弹)and so on.

?2. Socio-economic, political and cultural changes:

?e.g. New social habits and new living conditions: credit card, house sitter, microwave oven, instant noodle, supermarket etc.

?Drug addiction: upper (a stimulant drug), downer (a depressant drug)

?Some subculture: hippie, yuppie, gay, lesbian女同性恋etc.

?Women‘s Liberation Movement: Ms, chairperson, spokeswomen, saleswoman, feminism, malechauvinism, and sexism

?3. The influence of other cultures and languages:

?e.g. discotheque from French, sputnik(斯波尼克—人造卫星)from Russian, mao tai from Chinese and so on

?To sum up, the development of science, the rapid changes in society, the receptive(善于接受的)and flexible nature of English with regard to the influence of other cultures and languages---all these have resulted in a dramatic increase in vocabulary, a growth which in turn contributes to the richness and resourcefulness of the English language.

Chapter II Morphological Structure of English Words & Word Formation

?Part One Morphological Structure

?1. Morphemes

?The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.(p.10)

?What is usually considered a single word in English may be composed of one or more morphemes: ?One morpheme---nation

?Two morphemes---nation-al

?Three morphemes---nation-al-ize

?Four morphemes---de-nation-al-ize(使…非国有化)

?More than four morphemes---de-nation-al-iz-ation

?2. Free morphemes and bound morphemes

?A free morpheme自由形位(=实义形位)is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme.

?A free morpheme is a word, in traditional sense. Man, faith, read, write, red are free morphemes.

?A bound morpheme粘附形位(=语法形位=屈折形位)cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound, for instance un- in unkind, -ly in happily and re- in receive,or the ―past-tense‖ morpheme in words like work + ed and type + d, or the ―plural‖ morpheme in words like dog + s and box + es.

?Inflectional elements and affixes are bound morphemes.

?3. Allomorphs (形位变体,语[词]素变体)

?―An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned(受制约)by position or adjoining sounds‖ (Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American Language).

?E.g. the inflectional morpheme (屈折形位)–(e)s of books, pigs, horses has the same meaning ―more than one,‖ yet it has three different phonological forms: /-s, -z, iz/.

?The allomorphs –ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation are the positional variants of the same suffix. Verbs ending with the sound /t/ usually take –ion (as invent, invention); verbs ending with consonants other than /t/, take –tion(as in describe, description); verbs ending in –ify and –ize take –ation (as in justify, justification; modernize, modernization); verbs ending in –d, -de, or –mit, take –sion (as in expansion, decision, omission).

?Allomorphs also occur among prefixes. Their form then depends on the first letter of the word to which they will be added.

?A prefix like im- occurs before p, b, or m (e.g. imperfect, imbalance, immobile); its allomorphs are ir- before r (e.g. irresponsible); il- before l (e.g. illogical); in- before all other consonants and vowels (e.g. inflexible, inexcusable); im-, ir- and il- are thus allomorphs of the morpheme in-.

?4.Roots and affixes

?Alternatively, morphemes may be divided into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes).

?1)Roots: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.

?E.g. work, workable, worker, worked, and working: in each word the root is work

?(a) Free roots: In English, many roots are free morphemes, such as boy, moon, walk, black (i.e. they can stand alone as words). A word consisting of one free root (or one morpheme) is a simple word.

?(b) Bound roots: Quite a number of roots derived from foreign sources, especially from Greek and Latin, belong to the class of bound morphemes, such as tain(包括ten, tin= hold,表示―拿住‖)in words like contain(con 全部+tain-->全部拿住-->包容)

detain, (de 下+tain-->拿住,拿下-->拘留)sustain (sus 下面+tain-->在下面拿住[撑住]

, or retain (re 回+tain-->拿回来-->保留), and ceive in conceive, deceive or receive.

?So bound roots are not words, and so are not free morphemes; they cannot exist on their own.

?5. Affixes: Affix is a “collective term for type of formative(构词要素)that can be used only when added to another morpheme.”

?Affixes, therefore, are considered bound morphemes. They may be divided into inflectional and derivational types.

?(a) Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) (屈折词缀或屈折词素):

?An inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is affixed.

?Inflectional affixes have only their particular grammatical meaning, as with the plural morpheme –s and the past morpheme –ed (or their variants). They can only be affixed to words of the same word class; that is, the plural morphemes are affixed to nouns only, and –ed to verbs only.

?(b) Derivational affixes (or derivational morphemes)(派生词缀或派生形位):

?They are so called because when they are added to another morpheme, they ―derive‖ a new word. A few examples of derivational affixes are: re+write, mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, mean+ness, work+er.

?Many derivational affixes have a specific lexical meaning, for instance: -ism means ―doctrine or point of view‖ as in socialism.

?Quite a number of other derivational affixes have more than one meaning. e.g.: the affix de- means ―1. to undo what has been done, to reverse the action of: decentralize, decode 2. to remove: debone 3. to reduce: devalue 4. (esp. in grammar) coming from something else: a deverbal noun(从动词派生出来的名词).

?6.prefixes and suffixes

?1)Derivational morphemes or derivational affixes are commonly subdivided into prefixes and suffixes. Affixes before the word are called prefixes (as in super market); those after are called suffixes (as in friend ship).

?2)Both prefixes and suffixes may be grouped according to:

?(1). Their linguistic origin:

?A. Native affixes are those that existed in the OE period or were formed from OE words, such as un-, mis-, be-, out-, over-, -ness, -dom, -hood, -ly, and –er.

?B. Foreign affixes came as a part of loan words from Latin, Greek, French, or other languages.

Examples: ab-(L), bi-(L), dis-(L), re-(L), kilo-(Gk), poly-(Gk), mal-(F), -ic(Gk), -ism(Gk), -ist(Gk), -able (F), and –ize(F).

?(2). Their productivity: Affixes (such as re-, un-, -able, -ize) are called productive or living when they can be used to form new words.

?3)Those that are no longer used to form new words are termed dead or unproductive. Examples of dead affixes are: for- as in forget, forgive and forbid; with- as in withdraw, withhold and withstand, and –ant or –ent as in servant, different, etc.

?Summary:

?1.Words are composed of morphemes. A morpheme, the minimal meaningful unit of the English language, possesses both sound and meaning. An allomorph is any of variant forms of a morpheme.

?2. Morphemes may be classified as free or bound. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself as

a complete utterance, while a bound morpheme cannot exist on its own; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound.

?3. Morphemes can also be classified into roots and affixes. A root carries the main component of meaning in a word. Roots can be free or bound morphemes. Free roots can stand alone as words and provide the language with a basis for the formation of new words. Bound roots cannot appear as words in modern English, although they were once words, nor can they be used to form new words.

?4. Affixes are bound morphemes, because they are used only when added to other morphemes. Affixes are classified into inflectional and derivational affixes. The former are related to grammar only. Derivational affixes are subdivided into prefixes and suffixes, which are related to the formation of new words. Roots, prefixes and suffixes are the building blocks with which words are formed.

?5. On morphemic level, words can be classified into simple, complex and compound words, according to the number and type of morphemes they are composed of.

?6. Morphemes are important in the word-building process because the two most central and productive word-formation process, compounding and affixation, are related to morphemes: the former is a combination of free morphemes, the latter is the addition of bound morphemes to free ones.

Part Two: Word-formation

?Word-formation is a process of creating new words by means of existing elements and according to the patterns and rules of a given language.

?Derivation

?Compounding

?Conversion

?Quantitative changes (blending, clipping, etc.)

1. Derivation

?Derivation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a derivational morpheme (usually suffix or prefix) to the root.

?Prefixation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a prefix to the root. ?Suffixation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a suffix to the root.

?Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the root; therefore the simple word and its prefixed derivative usually belong to the same part of speech. The group of class-changing prefixes is rather small, e.g.:

?be- adj. or n. ----v. becalm, belittle, befriend

?de- n. -----v. deform, debug , defrost

?en- n. -----v. enslave, endanger

?un- n. -----v. unleash(解开…皮带), unearth

?anti- n.-----adj. anti-war, anti-carbon 防积炭的

?inter- n.-----adj. inter-state, inter-laboratory

?post- n.-----adj. postwar, postliberation

?pre- n.-----adj. prewar, replant

?1. Negative prefixes

give negative, reverse or opposite meaning

a- (apolitical不关心政治的, asexual无性的)

de- (destabilize动摇, declassify消除…密级)

dis- (disenfranchise剥夺公民权, disinvest减少投资)

il- (before l: illegal)/ im-(before p,b,m: imperceptible感觉不到的)/ in-(inadequate)/ ir-(before r: irresponsible)

non- (non-economic, non-profit, non-party, noncolor, nontaste, non-event, nonnovel非传统小说)

un- (unacceptable, undemocratic, unbook买来送人而非自己读的毫无价值的书, unperson政治上失宠的官员)

?2. Non-negative prefixes

a. Degree, measures or size:

hyper(过多)- (hypercreative, hyperdevoted);

over超过- (overestimate, overcompensate);

semi半- (semiskilled, semi-annual);

super超级- (super-dominant, supercharged);

ultra极端- (ultra-conservative, ultra-secret)

b. Repetition or possibility:

em-(before p,b,m)/en-使处于某种状态(embark, enclose)

c. Time, place, order relation:

ex-外,以前的(ex-employer, ex-tenant);

inter-交互(inter-office, inter-government);

post-在… 后(post-budget, post-election); pre- (pre-delivery, pre-budget)

d. Number and numeral relation:

bi- (bilateral, bilingual);

multi- (multi-dimensional, multi-media);

uni- (unilateral, unisex)

e. Attitude, counteraction:

anti- (anti-EEC, antiestablishment反既成或正统,antibody);

auto- (autodial, autonomy);

counter-反向(countercharge反诉,反攻, counteroffer);

pro-赞成(pro-business, pro-liberal)

f. Pejoration:

mis- (miscalculation, mismanage处置不当);

pseudo- (pseudo-random假随机, pseudo-democratic)

?Suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to the base, and usually changing the word-class of the base. e.g. boy---boyish.But there are exceptions: e.g. boy---boyhood.

?1 Noun-forming suffixes

?-age(passage, marriage, mileage…);

?-ance/-ence附于动词后构成名词或由-ant 结尾的形容词化出名词(assistance, predominance, correspondence…);

?-dom地位;职务;状况;领域;(freedom, kingdom…)

?-ee 受动者(employee, referee, absentee…);

?-eer/er与相关的人(engineer, profiteer, manager…);

?-ess附在名词后表示女性、阴性(manageress, heiress…)

?-ist(economist…)

?-hood状况、身份(adulthood, singlehood…)

?-ing行为、状态、情况,技法,材料等building, meaning, packing, tubings…)

-ion/-sion/-tion/-ition/-ation表示状态、行为、结果(production, conclusion, realization…)

-ism信念、状态(consumerism保护消费者利益运动, perfectionism至善论…)

-ment(agreement, investment…)

-ness附在形容词后构成抽象名词,表性质、状态或行为(effectiveness, kindness…)

-ship身份、技能、状态(ownership, friend ship…)

-ty/-ity…性质、状态(productivity, prosperity…)

-ure/-ture动作、结果(procedure, expenditure…)

?2 Adjective-forming suffixes

?-able/-ible―能…的,会…的‖:(manageable, permissible)

-al/-tal/-ial/-tial―…的,关于…的‖,(economical, statistical)

-ant/-ent进行…动作的;有…的(redundant, dependent)

-ary与…有关的(monetary, inflationary)

-ate/-ete―…的‖,―和…有关的‖,―以…特征的‖:(accurate, complete)

-ful (dutiful, powerful)

-ish―…性质的‖,―似…的‖,―…一样的‖:(snobbish, reddish, bookish)

-ive与…有关的;具有…性质的;有…倾向的(effective, extensive)

-less“无”、“缺”、“ 没有” (effortless, powerless)

-like像…(businesslike, lifelike)

-ly―…性质的‖ (costly, orderly)

-ous/-ious像…的;具有…特征的;实行…的(ambiguous, nutritious)

-some有…倾向的;引起…的(troublesome, worrisome)

-y―有…的‖,―多…的‖,―以…为特征的‖:(sexy, worthy, daddy)

?3 V erb-forming suffixes

-en与形容词构成动词,表示―使、使成为‖;与名词构成动词,表示―使有、具有‖ (brighten, moisten)

-ify/-fy―使‖,―使成为‖,―使化成‖,― (intensify, qualify, liquefy溶解、液化, glorify 美化)

-ize/*-ise表示使成为;表示使…化(rationalize, advertise, stabilize)

______________________________

*?ize‘ is often used in American English(maximize) as an alternative spelling of ?ise‘ in British English (maximise).

?4 Adverb forming suffixes

-ly (frequently, perfectly)

*-ward/-wards朝向(windward上风的, backward, homewards)

-wise在某方面;表示方向、位置、方式等(vote-wise, percentage-wise, housingwise就住房问题来看)

________________________________

*Words formed with ?ward‘ can usually be used as either adverbs or adjectives. W ords formed with ?wards‘ are mainly used as adverbs (e.g. westward, westwards).

?Latin prefixes

?magn- large, big, great

mal- bad, badly, wrong; ill; evil; abnormal, defective

medi- middle

non- nothing, not

omni- all, every

pro- before; for, in favor of; in front of; in place of

re- back, backward, again

semi- half, partly, twice

sub- under, below

ult- beyond, excessive, to an extreme degree

uni- one, single

ver- true, truth, real, truthfulness

via- way, road, path

Some modern affixes

?1. Mega-(very large)

?Megacity特大城市

?Megadestruction大毁灭

?Megagame大赛

?Megastructure超级建筑

?Megarich十分富有

?Megaversity超级大学

?2.Cyber-(automatic/computerized)

?Cyberculture自动化/电脑化社会

?Cyberbrain电脑

?Cyberart电脑艺术/计算机技术

?Cyber-security 网络安全

?Cyber-space网络虚拟空间

?Cyber-privacy网络隐私

?3.Hyper-(super/too much)

?Hypermedia超媒体

?Hyperlinks超级链接

?Hyperfriction过度摩擦

?Hyperslow极缓慢的

?Hyberverbal说话过多的

?4. Info- (information)

?Infotech信息技术

?Infocenter信息中心

?Infotainment信息娱乐节目

?Infomercial信息商业化的

?5. nano- (one billionth)

?Nanotech纳米技术

?Nanofabrication纳米加工

?Nanocomputer超高速电脑

?6.techno- (technology)

?Technomania技术热

?Technophobia恐技术症

?Technocracy专家政治

?techno-centric 以技术为中心的

?7. tele- (long-distance transfer/television) ?Telead电话约定广告

?Telrbanking电脑化银行业务

?Telebus电话叫车/租车

?Telecenter远程计算中心

?Tele-education远程教育

?8. E- (electronic)

?E-mail电子邮件

?E-text电子文本

?E-zine电子杂志

?E-cash电子货币

?9. Of- (office)

?Oftel办公电话

?Oflot公司内部停车场地

?Ofbank银行办事处

?10. -bot (robot)

?Knowbot智力机器人

?Mobot移动机器人

?Microbot微型机器人

?11. –size (measurements)

?Downsize缩小

?Upsize放大

?Rightsize按比例制作

?life-size 按实物大小制作

?12. –ware (articles of the same kind)

?Glassware玻璃器皿

?Soft/hardware软/硬件

?Middleware中间设备

?Silverware银器

?Warehouse仓库

?13.-centric (of the center/taking…as the center)

?User-centric以用户为中心的

?Male-centric以男士为主的

?Net-Centric War 网络中心战

?IBM compatible-centric以销售IBM兼容机为主的

Exercises

?1.分析下列单词的构成并翻译成汉语

?E.g. des/integra/tion n.蜕变;分解

?Dispensable, discancer, degerate, defog, antilitter, ecocide, discounter, nonpolicy, derecognition, nonhappening, antiaging, outplace, outsubmarine, unsell, nondairy, unnational, unisex

?2.What‘s the difference between ―root‖ and ―stem‖?

?What is root?什么叫词根?

?―Root‖is the base form of a word that expresses its essential meaning,a meamng that never changes,even though affixes may be added at the begnning or at the end of the word.

?词根是词的基础形式,若再细分就要失去词的―词性‖,即本质。

?换言之,词根是除去所有的词缀所剩下的有意义的部分。如friends,friendship,friendly的词根都是friend。

?What is base? 什么叫词基?

?There are two explanations for the term??base‖or??stem‖.Some linguists consider the base to be equivalent to the term root,that is,the part of a word remaining when all affixes have been removed.But other linguists maintain that the base is any part of a word when all affix is added to a root or stem.

?―词基‖,也叫―基础‖,指一个词去掉所有附加词缀后剩下的部分,常被用来替代―词根‖和―词干‖。

?分,常被用来替代―词根‖和―词干‖。从更广泛的意义上说,它指词中的任何一个可以对其进行操作(如加前缀)的部分,如establishment.它可以加前缀anti-。在这样的情况下,establishment 也是词基。

?我们主张把base和stem当作同义词。以bilingual为例。

?-lingu-(1angue)是―语言‖的意思,是词根(root)。

?bi-是―两个‖的意思,是词缀或前缀。

?bilingu-是―两种语言‖的意思,以它为词基或词干,在它的上面加上词缀或后缀-al(的),构成bilingual,意思是―双语的‖。

?What is stem?什么叫词干?

?―Stem‖is a term used as part of a classification of the kinds of elements operating within the structure ofa word.tlat is to say,a stem is the main part of a word to which suffixes,or case endings are added.

?There are three types of stems:

?1)The stem which may consist of one root morpheme as in the word ―star‖ b elongs to the category of simple word.

?‘ 2)the stem which may consist of two root morphemes as in the word ―motherland‘‘ belongs to the category of ??compound word‖.

?3)The stem which may consist of one root morpheme and an affex as in the word ―frankness‖ or in the word ??unexpected‖ belongs to the category of the ―complex word‖.

?

?―词干‖指可以添加(屈折)词缀的词语结构成分。

?1)只包含一个词根形位的词?干称为―简单词干‖,如glove。

?2)由两个词根形位组成的词干称为―复合词干‖,如blackboard。

?3)由一个词根词于加上一个派生形位组成的词干称为―复杂词干‖,如manliness(男子汉气概)中的manli(man+ly)。

?1. desire (v.): 是词根(不可再分解),是词干(可以加屈折词缀,如过去时态-ed),是词基.

?2. desirable (adj.): 不是词根(可再分解);不是词干(不可以加屈折词缀),是词基(既可以加词缀,又能再分解下去).

?3. undesirable (n.): 不是词根(可再分解);是词干(可以加屈折词缀,如名词复数-s),也是词基.

2. Conversion - zero derivation

?The process of converting words from one part of speech to another without adding any derivative element is called conversion or zero derivation.

?"In English every word can be verbed...‖

?1.名词定语(noun attribute)(p.21)

?(1)Semantic relation

?A. subject -- object or vice versa

?Heat pollution热污染;computer output电脑输出

?Road surfacer铺路机;trouble-maker捣乱者

?Reform designer改革设计者;loan guarantee贷款担保

?B. adverbial – verb or vice versa

?Health food保健食品(function) ;insulation tape绝缘胶布

?peace demonstration (purpose) ;TOEFL preparation

?Impulse buying (means, tool); GPS driving利用全球卫星定位系统驾车

?C. appositive relation

?EL Nino phenomenon厄尔尼诺现象;injector razor弹射剃须刀;his mayor father他那位当市长的父亲

?2.名词定语定语的语法作用(P.22-23)

?A.替代形容词或分词定语

?B. 替代带‘s的生格定语(P.23)

?C.替代做定语用的介词短语(P.24)

?D.替代分词短语或动词不定式短语或定语从句(P.24-25)

2. Noun----verb conversion

?1).名词转化为动词

?(a) ―to put in/on N‖: The noun are usually locative nouns denoting a place, a container or a specified location; e.g. can v. as in ―The workers canned apples.‖ Other examples: bottle, floor(铺地板,打倒), cage, corner and pocket(贿赂).

?(b) ―to give N, to provide N‖: e.g. shelter as in ―They shelter the orphans.‖ Other examples: coat, wax, sugar, label, plaster and grease.

?(c) ―to deprive of N; or to remove the object denoted by the noun from something‖. e.g. weed as in ―Bill weeded the garden.‖ Other examples: core, dust, skin, gut (取出内脏)and peel.

?(d) ―To…with N‖: More precisely, the meaning of the verb is ―to use the referent of the noun as an instrument for whatever activity particularly associated with it‖; e.g. brake, as in ―John braked the car.‖; finger as in ―She fingered the soft silk.‖ Other examples: screw, glue, elbow, knife, x-rays and

head.

?(e) ―to be/act as N with respect to…

?1) Verbs from human nouns: e.g. mother as in ―She mothered the orphan.‖ Other example: nurse, boss, pilot, referee and usher(引座员-引导、招待).

?2) Verbs from animal nouns: e.g. parrot as in ―Tom parroted what the boss had said.‖ Some other examples: ape (to imitate); monkey (to fool about); dog (to follow closely behind); wolf (to eat greedily).

This area got sardined (packed closely)

?3) Verbs from inanimate nouns: e.g. shadow as in ―The police shadowed the suspected spy.‖ (The police followed the suspected spy closely like a shadow.) Other examples: balloon (to swell out like a balloon), flood, ghost (to act as a ghost), mushroom, and snowball (to grow quickly in size or importance).

?(f) ―to make/change …into N‖: e.g. cash as in ―Please cash this check for me.‖ Other examples: cripple (to make a cripple of; damage or weaken seriously), feature (to have a prominent part for主演), orphan, fool, and group.

?(g) ―to send/ go by N‖: e.g. mail as in ―Will you please mail the parcel?‖ Other examples: ship, telegraph,and telephone. Or bicycle as in ―We bicycled to the Summer Palace.‖ Other examples: motor, boat, ski, etc.

?(h) ―to spend the period of time denoted by N‖: e.g. summer as in ―We summered in Qingdao.‖ Other examples: holiday, winter, weekend, vacation, etc.

?2).动词转化为名词

?(a) ―state‖ (generally ?state of mind‘ or ?state of sensation‘) e.g. desire as in ―He had a desire to be a scientist.‖ Other examples: doubt, disgust, want, surprise.

?(b) ―event/ activity‖ (from dynamic verbs): The converted noun indicate a singl e instance or occasion. e.g. The noun commute means ―an act or instance of commuting‖ as in ―his usual morning commute to work‖. Examples of this kind of noun usually occur following verbs like give, make, have or take, and are preceded by the indefinite article:

?To give a cry, start, howl, laugh;

?To have a look, swim, ride, try, drink;

?To make a dash, dive, guess, search, an attempt;

?To take a peep, stroll, turn.

?Such expressions are informal and colloquial.

?(c) ―object or result of V‖: e.g. find n. ―something found, esp. sth. valuable or pleasing‖ as in ―This little restaurant is quite a find.‖ Other examples: catch (of fish), answer, cough, import and reject.

?(d) ―agent of V‖: e.g. bore as in ―He is a great bore.‖ Other examples: cheat, spy, coach, help and rebel.

?(e) ― instrument of V‖: e.g. cover as in ―The cloth is good cover for the table.‖ Other examples: cure (治疗法), wrap and polish(抛光剂).

?(f) ―place of V‖: e.g. divide as in ―This is the divide between the two rivers.‖ More examples: turn, rise, return and dump(倒垃圾—垃圾场).

3. Adjective----verb conversion:

?Verbs converted from adjectives fall into two groups:

?(a) In transitive verbs meaning ―to be, become, the quality denoted by the adjective,‖ such as pale, slim, sour, mellow(成熟), dim (out) and idle (away).

?(b) Transitive verbs meaning ―to cause someone or something to be, become, the quality denoted by the adjective,‖ such as bare(使…赤裸), blunt(使迟钝), busy (oneself), free, right, smooth (out) and warm.

?Many verbs may belong to both these groups, e.g. calm (down), clear, cool, dry, dirty, empty, narrow, slow (down) and sober (up)(使醒酒).

4. Adjective----noun conversion:

?(a) Partial conversion: Some adjectives are used as nouns when preceded by the definite article such as the poor, the wounded; yet these converted nouns take on only some of the feature of the noun; i.e. they do not take plural and genitive inflections, nor can they be preceded by determiners like a, this, my, etc. Therefore, such adjective to noun conversion is partial. This partial conversion may be subdivided into following groups:

?1) ―Adjectives (including participles) denoting a quality or a state c ommon to a group of people may be used without an accompanying noun to denoting such people as a group.‖

?e.g. This is a school for the deaf and the blind.

?The poor were oppressed by the rich during pre-liberation days.

?2) Adjective ending in -sh, -se and -ch denote peoples of a nation when they are preceded by the definite article: e.g. In former days the English and the Scotch were often at war.

?3) Adjectives denoting a quality in the abstract may be used as nouns, preceded by the definite article.

?e.g. Mary has a strong dislike for the sentimental.

?4) Adverbial superlatives are sometimes preceded by a definite article and used substantively. This usage is regarded as another case of partial conversion; the same is true of adverbial superlatives preceded by the preposition at.

?e.g. I will give you a definite answer on Tuesday at the latest.

?5) Instead of being used to denote a group of peoples, some nouns converted from participles, when preceded by definite article, can refer to a single person, such as the accused, the deceased, the departed, the deserted, and the condemned. (these nouns are sometimes also used to refer to a group or class of people.)

?(b) Complete conversion: The conversion of adjective to noun is complete when the converted form takes on all the features of a noun.

?Take the adjective native for example; one can say: a native, two natives, the native’s language, and

a returned native.

?Complete conversion of adjectives to noun is not very productive.

?5. Other conversions:

?Tom went home early. (n.---ad.)

?I will take a through train. (prep.---adj.)

?My father was the then president. (ad.---adj.)

?The department head pooh-poohed our plan. (interj---v.)

?He knows all the ins and outs of the whole business. (ad.---n.)

?Is Joan‘s new ba by a he? (pron.---n.)

?His talk contains too many ifs and buts. (conj.---n.)

?She feels very under-the weather. (phrase---adj.)

?This book is a must for the students of physics. (aux. v.---n.)

?Notice that the above conversion are not very common.

3. Compounding

?A. Definition: Compounding or composition is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word.

?Compounds are written in various ways, e.g.

?(a) solid: airtight, airmail;

?(b) hyphenated: air-conditioning;

?(c) open: air force, air raid.

?B. Classification of Compounds

?1. Noun compounds: This is the commonest type, and new specimens are constantly being formed. Noun compounds are subclassified according to the syntactic relation of the compounding elements: ?(a) Subject and verb: The verb may take the form of the base or that of the base plus –ing.

?Examples are headache ―the head aches‖,

?heartbeat ―the heart beats‖;

?revolving door ―the door revolves‖.

?(b) Verb and object: The verb may take the form of the base or that of the base+-ing.

?For example:

?birthcontrol ―to control birth‖;

?housekeeping ―to keep house‖; and dressmaking ―to make dresses‖.

?The type housekeeping and dressmaking is very productive.

?(c) Verb and adverbial: Verbal noun in –ing +adverbial (consisting of a prepositional phrase)

?e.g. swimming pool ―to swim in the pool or a pool for swimming‖;

?typing paper ―to type on paper‖.

?It is a very productive type.

?(c) Verb and adverbial: Verbal noun in –ing +adverbial (consisting of a prepositional phrase)

?e.g. swimming pool ―to swim in the pool or a pool for swimming‖;

?typing paper ―to type on paper‖.

?It is a very productive type.

?(d) Subject and object:

?steamboat ―steam powers the boat‖;

?honeybee ―the bee produces honey.‖

?(e) Restrictive relation: the first element restricts the meaning of the second:

?raindrop ―a drop of rain‖;

?evening school ―a school in the evening‖;

?tablecloth ―a cloth for table‖;

?breakfast time ―time for breakfast‖.

?The types of words like tablecloth and breakfast time expressing purpose is very productive.

?(f) Appositive relation: the first element is in apposition to the second one:

?e.g. a peasant girl ―the girl is a peasant‖;

?a pine tree ―the tree is a pine‖.

?Compound nouns can also be formed from phrasal verbs. This type is very common in contemporary English. Examples are: sit-in, dropout, phone-in, breakdown, setback and take-off.

?2. Adjective compounds: Adjective compounds are also subclassified according to the syntactic relation of the compounding elements:

?(a) Subject and verb: The verb is in the form of past participle.

?Examples are thunder-struck (houses) ―thunder struck the houses‖;

?suntanned (skin) ―sun tanned the skin‖.

?This type is highly productive.

?(b) Verb and object: the verb is in the form of present participle,

?e.g. fault-finding―to find fault‖;

?peaceloving ―to love peace‖.

?It is a productive type.

?(c) Verb and adverbial: The verb is in the form of present participle or past participle:

?e.g. hardworking; well-behaved.

?(d) Noun and adjective:

?The noun denoting aspect. It is very productive type with certain adjectives that are complemented by preposition+noun;

?e.g. taxfree―free from tax‖;

?seasick―sick due to sailing on the sea‖;

?fireproof ―proof against fire‖.

?The noun denoting the thing with which the adjective is compared (as+adjective+as+noun, adjective like noun);

?e.g. ocean green―as green as ocean‖;

?crystal-clear―as clear as a crystal‖;

?shoulder-high―as high as shoulders‖.

?(e) Coordinating relationship: The two adjectives are in a coordinating relationship,

?e.g. bittersweet ―sweet but bitter‖;

?Sino-U.S.relations ―relation between China and the U.S.‖

?3. Verb compounds(P.39)

?Verb compounds fall into two main groups according to their method of formation:

?(a) Those formed by back-formation: Back-formation is a ―reversal‖ of derivation, for example, house-keep is formed by deleting –ing and –er from housekeeping and housekeeper, which entered the language much earlier.

?Other examples are:

?to vacuum clean (form vacuum cleaner);

?to babysit (from babysitting and babysitter);

?to windowshop (from window-shopping).

?(b) Those formed by conversion. In this case, the verb compounds are converted from noun compounds;

?e.g. to nickname

?to honeymoon

?to outline

?to machine-gun

?to snowball, etc.

?These verb compounds are very often used in colloquial speech.

?The differences between compounds and free phrases

?When two words are put together, they may form either a compound (e.g. greenhouse) or a free phrase (a green house). The two differ in the following aspects:

?(1) Semantics a compound occurs as an inseparable semantic unit that differs in meaning from a free phrase.

?The meaning of a free phrase is almost always the sum of the meanings of its parts. For instance, ―a green house‖ is ―a house which is green‖.

?But the meaning of a compound is not always the sum total of the meanings of its components. For example, ―greenhouse‖ refers to ―a building in which the temperature and humidity can be regulated for the cultivation of delicate or out-of season plants‖.

?More examples are:

?dog days: the hottest days of the year

?blue blood: the quality of being a nobleman by birth.

?doghouse: a scientifc research capsule mounted on a satelite

?(2) Phonology

?Phonologically, many compounds have a so-called compound accent, i.e. a stress on the first element (`__ __), as`blacklist, `blackbird; compound accent is different from phrase accent, which has a secondary stress on the first element and the main stress on the second element (\ __ `__), as in \black `bird.

?(3) Orthography Compounds can be written in the following three ways:

?(a) solid: airtight

?(b) hyphenated: knee-high

?(c) open: air raid

?It is difficult to decide which form should be used as criterion; for sometimes the same compound may appear in three different forms, e.g. flowerpot, flower-pot, flower pot. The general tendency is for compounds to be written ―solid‖ as soon as they have gained permanent status; but a free phrase is always written open.

Exercises

?1.例6

?2.translate the following into English:

?步步为营的策略//欠条//逐行扫描//按收入交付所得税制度/西部大开发战略//一语中的的评论/公私合营企业//一位并非十分用功的学生//一项令人万分激动但缺乏可行性的方案//一份反应冷淡的倡议//密布全境的水利网//提高学习的方法//不惜代价寻求和平的人士

Blending (P.44-49)

?Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms. e.g. newscast (news+broad cast), brunch (br eakfast+l unch), etc.

?Blending is a process of both compounding and abbreviation. Like acronyms, new blends are freely ?produced in contemporary English. Structurally blends may be divided into four types:

?A. The first part of the first word+the last part of the second word. This is most productive type:

?e.g. bo at+ho tel=botel n. ship serving as hotel.

?smo ke+fog=smo g n. fog intensified by smoke.

?stag nation+in flation=stagflation n. persistent inflation with high unemployment.

?Chinglish/vegelate/motel

?B. The first part of the first word+the first part of the second word:

?e.g. com munication+sat ellite=comsat n. communications services involving an artificial satellite.

?sci ence+fi ction=sci-fi n. of, relating to, or being science fiction.

?Misper/pop-cult/telex/lit-crit/hi-tech

?C. Whole form of the first word+last part of the second word:

?e.g. air+ho tel=airtel n. hotel located at or close to an airport.

?slim+gym nastics=slimnastics n. exercises designed to reduce one‘s weight.

?Lasercomp/sky-lab

?D. First part of the first word+whole form of the second word:

?e.g. medi cal+care=medicare n. a government program of medical care esp. for the aged.

?Mocamp/autolift/teleeducation

Back-formation

?Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.

?e.g. typewrite was formed from the noun typewriter by removing the supposed derivation suffix -er, and the verb edit formed from editor by dropping the suffix -or. Back-formation is therefore a process of shortening, too. The majority of back-formed words are verbs.

Shortening (P.52-56)

?1. The process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.

?e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone, gym from gymnastics and taxi from taxicab.

?Clippings may be divided into four main types:

?A. Back clippings:

?The deletion may occur at end of the word. This is the most common type of clipping. e.g. ad (=advertisement), auto (=automobile), dorm, exam, in (inch), min/max(imum)etc.

?B. Front clippings:

?The deletion occurs at the beginning of the word. e.g. chute (=parachute), plane (=airplane), scope (=telescope; microscope), quake (earthquake).

?C. Front and back clippings (not a common type of clipping):

?The deletion occurs at both ends of a word. e.g. flu (=influenza), fridge (=refrigerator), etc.

?D. Phrase clippings:

?This involves the shortening of a phrase. e.g. perm(=permanent wave), pop(=popular music or record), pub (=public house), zoo (zoological garden) etc.

Acronymy----Initialisms and Acronyms

?A. Initialisms

?Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; an intialism is pronounced letter by letter.

?e.g. BBC (for B ritish B roadcasting C orporation) is pronounced /`bi:bi:`si:/; VIP (for a v ery i mportant p erson) is likewise pronounced /vi:ai`pi:/.

?There are three types of initialisms:

?1. The letters represent full words. This is main type. e.g. CIA=the C entral I ntelligence A gency of the U.S. ISBN=I nternational S tandard B ook N umber.

?WTO, SME(Small & Medium Enterprises), AI(artificial intelligence)

?2. ―The letters represent elements in a compound or just part of a word‖ (Quirk et al 1972). e.g. ID=Id entification (card).

?3. A letter represents the complete form of the first (or the first two) word, while the second word (or the third word) is in the full form. e.g. H-bomb=hydrogen bomb. B-school, N-war, R & D fees

?B. Acronyms

?Acronyms are the words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than sequences

of letters. e.g NATO=the N orth A tlantic T reaty O rganization is pronounced /`neit?u/, not /`en`ei`ti:`?u/.

?UNESCO/ju`nesk?u/ the U nited N ations E ducational, S cientific and C ultural O rganization.

?V AR(value-added reseller)增值再销产品;soho(small office, home office)

?Both initialisms and acronyms have become extremely popular since World War II, especially within the past few years.

Chapter 3 Motivation

?Motivation deals with the connection between name and sense.

?I. Onomatopoeic motivation

?Onomatopoeic motivation means defining the principle of motivation by sound.

?According to Stephen Ullmann, onomatopoeic formation can be divided into primary onomatopoeia and secondary onomatopoeia.

?1. Primary onomatopoeia

?Primary onomatopoeia means the imitation of sound by sound. Here the sound is truly an "echo to the sense":

?Terms like crack(劈啪声-破裂), growl(咆哮声), hum(嗡嗡声), roar(轰鸣声), squeak(吱吱声), squeal(尖叫声), whizz (嗖嗖声)and a great many others fall into the category.

?2, Secondary onomatopoeia

?Secondary onomatopoeia means that certain sounds and sound-sequences are associated with certain senses in an expressive relationship. In this form, the sounds evoke, not an acoustic experience, but a movement (dither, dodder, quiver(抖动), slink(潜逃), slither(连走带跑地滑), slouch(下垂), squirm(蠕动), wriggle), or some physical or moral quality, usually unfavourable (gloom忧郁, grumpy暴躁的, mawkish令人作呕的, slimy泥泞的, sloppy草率的, sloth懒惰的wry歪曲的).

?More Examples:

?the sounds / sn / may express three types of experiences: "breath-noise" (sniff, snuff, snore, snort), "quick separation or movement"(snip, snap, snatch ), and "creeping" (snake, snail, sneak, snoop).

?Final groups have similar functions:

?-are suggests ―big light or noise‖ as in blare巨响, flare, glare, stare;

?-ump suggests ―protuberance‖ or point as in bump, clump土块, dump垃圾场, lump肿块, mump(s)腮, plump (adjective)丰满的, yump跃起, stump 树桩and ―heavy fall‖ as in dump倒垃圾, trump出王牌, lump使成块状, plump (verb)使丰满, slump暴跌, thump重击.

?II. Semantic motivation

?Semantic motivation means that motivation is based on semantic factors, and it is a kind of mental association.

?1. Metaphor

?Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another, as in "He has a heart of stone. ", "The curtain of night has fallen. "

?西方隐喻研究源远流长先后经历了:修辞学研究―、―语义学研究‖和―多学科研究‖三个时期。20世纪70年代后隐喻成为众多学科(哲学、符号学、认知心理学、语用学、语义学、阐释学等)的研究热点(Metaphomania).

?―认为隐喻属于比喻语言,这是传统观点;认为隐喻属于普通语言,这种观点是对传统观点的挑战。‖(林书武,1997)

?―Language is vitally metaphorical.‖(语言本质上是隐喻性的。)(P.B. Shelley)

?―Thought is metaphorical.‖(思维是隐喻性的。)(Richards)

?―We cannot get through three sentences of ordinary fluid discourse without it.‖(没有隐喻,我们不

可能流利地说上三句话。)(Richards)

?因此,按照Fowler(福勒)的观点,词一旦脱离它原来说所属的范畴,而用于新的语境,隐喻便出现了。即是说,几乎所有的词不表示一种具体意义(physical meaning)时,就可以表现出隐喻性。

?Main Forms of Metaphor

?1.借喻:本体与比喻词均不出现,直接由喻体代本体。

?He is a dog./Life is a short summer./The world is a atage.

?In research of one‘s root ---root =ancester

?The foundation of the national economy --foundation =base of a building

?The high/low tide of the movement ---tide =waves of the sea

?以上说明,隐喻的基本趋势之一就是用意义具体的词项来说明抽象的经验。

?2.潜喻:与借喻正好相反,只出现本体,而不出现喻体与比喻词。其手法是运用描述喻体的词项直接描述本体,从而把比喻潜藏在词项中。

?The golden age金色年华=treasured as gold

?To polish an article琢磨一篇文章=treated as jade

?To cultivate talents培养人才=treated as plants

?A cloudy face一副阴沉沉的面孔=a face as cloudy as the sky

?He broke her heart. =regard her heart as fragile as glass

?In Chinese,出口、入口、门口、窗口、刀口;

?湖心、圆心、街心、问题的骨节眼儿,把手、扶手、表面

?缩喻:主题+ prep. +喻体或喻体+ Prep. +主体构成(压缩成)一个名词短语。

?A bar of chocolate一条(木棒)巧克力

?A blade of grass一片(刀片)草叶

?A block of ice一块(木块)冰

?a ray of hope一线(光线)希望

?An ounce of resolution一丁点儿(盎司)决心

?A cloud of dust一片(云)尘埃

?A drop of pride一点(水滴)自豪(感)

?另外常常利用一些形象鲜明生动的名词作为喻体:

?A forest of chimneys烟囱林立

?A sea of people人山人海

?a rain of bullets枪林弹雨

?A chain of mountains连绵不断的山脉

?a mountain of man伟人,巨人

?英汉喻体对比

?1.喻体的相似性

?由于人类具备―共有非文化知识‖(shared non-cultural knowledge),英汉喻体又是具有相似性:?耳鼓—ear-drum; laughingstock—笑柄

?广播—broadcast;

?To catch/grasp=understand汉语不也常说,抓住意思;掌握理论;透过现象把握本质吗?

?2.喻体的差异性

?文化的三个层次:底层的心理文化、中间的社会制度文化、表层的物质文化。

词汇学复习重点

词汇学复习重点 1. jargon------ Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business. 2. translation loans------ Translation loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language. 3. Renaissance------ It is a European movement of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics. 4. Allomorph------ one of the variants of the same morpheme 5. inflectional affix------ an affix that indicates grammatical relationships 6. acronyms------ the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations special noun phrases and technical terms 7. back-formation------ the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes 8. polygsemy------ Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time. 9. morpheme------ It is a minimal meaningful unit of a language, or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 10. grammatical meaning------ that part of the meaning of the word indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms. 11. homonym------ Homonyms are words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. 12. reference------what a linguistic form refers to in the real word. It is the relationship between language and the world 13. semantic field------ Semantic field is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as a system of interrelated lexical networks. 14. motivation------ the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. 15. conceptual meaning------ the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning. 16. amelioration------ or elevation, a process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. 17. transfer------ a process whereby words which were used to designate one thing have changed to mean something else.

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西安各大综合医院名称 名称级别地址 第四军医大学西京医院三甲长乐西路15 号 西安交通大学第一附属医院三甲健康路1 号 西安交通大学第二附属医院三甲西五路36 号 陕西省人民医院三甲友谊西路214 号 西安市中心医院三甲后宰门4 号 西安市第一医院三甲粉巷114 号 西安市第四医院三甲解放路13 号 解放军第323 医院三甲建设西路6 号 解放军第451 医院三甲友谊东路39 号 第四军医大学唐都医院三甲东郊新寺路 武警医院三甲南二环东段 长安医院三甲(相当)经济开发区方景路17 号高新医院三甲(相当)高新技术开发区团结南路西电集团医院三乙丰登路39 号 陕西省友谊医院三乙友谊西路99 号 陕西省纺织医院三乙纺织城纺东街 兵器工业521 医院二甲丈八东路1 号 解放军总后第三职工医院二甲沣镐西路48 号 解放军第518 医院二甲公园南路5 号 陕西省建材医院二甲咸宁东路42 号 铁道部第一工程局西安中心医院二甲南二环东段 陕西省第二人民医院二甲尚勤路 3 号 陕西省交通医院二甲太白路

西安唐城医院二甲太华北路 陕西正和医院二甲西影路66 号 武警学院医院二甲三桥武警路 西安市北方医院二甲长乐中路170 号 西安市东方医院二甲韦十街106 街坊西安航天总院(714 医院)二甲南郊宇航街 陕钢职工医院二甲西影路东段 西安市华山中心医院二甲东郊韩森寨 庆安集团有限公司职工医院二甲大庆路636 号 西安市第五医院二甲(相当)西关正街112 号西安市第二医院二甲(相当)糖房街27 号 西安远东医院二乙大庆西路636 号 西安冶金医院二乙西郊枣园 陕西省新安中心医院二级(相当)南二环东段 民航西安医院二级(相当)沣镐路2 号 西北有色医院二级(相当)雁塔路24 号 西安市工人医院二级(相当)长安县韦曲镇 未央区第二人民医院二级(相当)三桥镇三桥路 西安老年病院二乙(相当)含光路南段 星月医院二级(相当)庙后街 陕西唐华四棉职工医院二级(相当)纺四路191 号 陕西省地矿局职工医院二级(相当)自强西路31 号 西安市第六医院二级(相当)二马路272 号 陕西省博爱医院二级(相当)电子二路 碑林区红十字会医院二级(相当)东羊市 5 号

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.' Lexicology the is into linguistics, inquiring a branch of origins and meanings of words. Morphology different their and the : study of morpheme forms. Semantics the study of word meaning. :Etymology: the study of the origin of words, and of their history and changes in their meaning. Stylistics : the study of the variation in language which is dependent on the situation in which the language is used and also on the effect the writer or speaker wishes to create on the reader or hearer Lexicography : the compiling of dictionaries. Synchronic study one or words at a : the study of word particular point in time. Diachronic study studies which to : an approach lexicology how a word (or words) changes over a period of time.

词汇学一

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英语词汇学总结(细致)

Chapter 1Word-Structure 1. The definition of morpheme 1.1 What is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language?- morpheme What are words composed of? - Words are formed by morphemes. A word is the smallest unit that stands alone to communicate meaning. 1.2 What are the Chinese equivalents对应词of morpheme? 语素词素-形位 2.1 Morphemes may be classified into free and bound. Free morphemes, also called content morphemes, may constitute words by themselves. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. So we may say that free morphemes are free roots. Bound morphemes = Bound root + affixes, known as grammatical morphemes, must appear with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words, e.g. recollection, idealistic, ex-prisoner 2.2 Morphemes may also be classified into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes). Task: (1) Read the following words and find the root in each word. heart, hearten, dishearten, heartless, hearty, heartiness, sweetheart, heartbroken, kind-hearted, whole-heartedly. (2) What is your definition of root? A root is the part of the word-form which remains when all the affixes have been removed. (3) Is a root necessarily a free morpheme? Why? 2.2.1 Two types of roots - Free root In English, many roots are free morphemes, such as black in black, blackboard, blacksmith. - Bound root However, there are quite a number of roots which cannot exist on their own and thus belong to the class of bound morphemes. For example, ceive in receive, conceive, perceive, deceive; mit in permit, commit, submit; tain in retain, contain, maintain; cur in recur, occur, incur, etc. these roots cannot be used to form new words. 2.2.2 Two types of affixes Affix is a collective term for the type of formative (构词成分) that can be used only when added to another morpheme. - Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to express the following meanings: (1) plurality: e.g. -s in chairs, pens; -es in boxes, tomatoes; en in oxen. (2) the genitive case: e.g. ’s in boy’s, children’s. (3) the verbal endings: for example, a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third person singular present tense. b. -ing in words like eating, teaching shows the present participle or gerund. c. -(e)d in words like worked, saved shows the past tense or past participle. (4) the comparative and superlative degrees: e.g. -er in words like smaller, harder; -est in words like smallest, hardest. - Derivational affixes (or derivational morphemes)can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes. ?(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root, e.g: unjust, rewrite. As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech.

《英语词汇学》重要术语中英文对照

《英语词汇学》重要术语 One: 1. Native words 本族词 Words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of Old English are native words. 2. Loan words 借词 Words borrowed from other languages are loan words or borrowed words. 3. Slang words 俚语 Slang words are those words of a vigorous, colourful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary. 4. Function words 功能词 Function words are often short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries that serve grammatically more than anything else. 5. Content words 实义词 Content words are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. 6. Free forms 自由形式 Forms which occur as sentences are free forms. Two: 1. Morphemes 语素 Morphemes are the smallest meaningful linguistic units of English language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. 2. Allomorphs 语素变体 Allomorphs are any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. 3. Free morpheme 自由语素 Free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. 4. Bound morpheme 粘着语素 Bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance and must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound. 5. Root 词根 Root is the basic unchangeable part of a word and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. 6. Affix 词缀 Affix is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. 7. Inflectional affix 屈折词缀 Inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. 8. Derivational affix 派生词缀 Derivational affix is the kind of affixes that has specific lexical meaning hand can derive a word when it is added to another morpheme. 9. Prefixes 前缀 Prefixes are affixes added before words.

Lexicology词汇学练习题目和答案

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Lexicology复习要点 Linguistics:Generally speaking, linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language. To be more exact, linguistics studies the general principles upon which languages are constructed and operate as systems of human communication Language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a specific social action and a carrier of information. Lexicology: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage. 1. Definition of Word: Word: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has given sound and meaning and syntactic function. A word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language (2) a sound unity (3) a unit of meaning (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence 2. Sound and meaning: The symbolic connection between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary. 3. Vocabulary: All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. 4. Classification of words: Words fall into the basic words and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin. By notion, words can be grouped into content words and functional words. content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. they include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity, etc. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. as their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. 5. Development of English vocabulary: Old English (450 ~ 1150):Celtic --- Latin of the Roman Legions --- Anglo-Saxon of the Germantic tribes (now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English) --- religious terms brought by the introduction of Christianity (6th century) --- Scandinavian words of Norwegian and Danish vikings (the 9th century) Middle English: French of Norman (1066) --- English came back (13th century) Modern English:Early Modern English (1500 ~ 1700): Latin and Greek were borrowed in the time of Renaissance Late Modern English (after 1700): absorbing words from all major languages of the world with the growth of colonization. (Mid-seventeenth) --- new words created about science and technology (after World War II)

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《词汇学》名词解释总汇 1.Conversion(转换)is a word-formation whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero derivation. 2.Neologisms(新词用法)are newly coined words or words that are given new meaning to fit new situation because of social, economic, political, cultural, scientific and technological changes in human society. 3.Lexicology(词汇学)is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage. 4.the elevation of meaning(词义的升格)refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. 5.Acronyms(首字母拼音词)words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as words. They differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. 6.Hyponymy(上下义关系)deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. It refers to the relationship which obtains between the genus (general lexical item)and the species(specific lexical items). 7.Analogy(类比)is a process by which words or phrases are created or re-formed according to the existing patterns in the language. 8.Motivation(理据)deals with the connection between name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It is the relationship between the word structure and its meaning. 9.Metaphor(隐喻)is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison. It is a simile without like or as. 10.Antonymy(反义关系)is concerned with semantic opposition. It can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. 11.Suffix(后缀): an affix attached to the end of a base (root or stem) 12. synecdoche(提喻)means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class, a material for a thing, or vice versa, the whole for a part. 13. prefix(前缀): an affix attached to the beginning of a base (root or stem) 14. initialism(首字母连写词): a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; it is pronounced letter by letter. 15.morpheme(词素): the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not dividable or analyzable into smaller forms. 16.the degradation of meaning(词义的降格): is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense. 17.Derivational affixes (派生词缀)Affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes。 18. back-formation(逆成法): is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed suffix. It is also known as a reverse derivation. 19. derivation(派生): the process by which noninfectional affixes are added to roots to form words. 20. compounding(复合): the process of joining together two linguistic forms which can function independently.

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