Linguistics is a scientific study of language .语言学是对语言进行的科学研究。
General linguistics is the study of language as a whole.普通语言学是对语言从整体上进行的研究
the major branches of linguistics:语言学内部主要分支
Phonetics：the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication..(语音学)对语言交流中语音的研究
Phonology the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. (音位学)如何组合在一起并在交流中形传达意义
.Morphology:the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (词法学、形态学)如何排列以及组合起来构成词语
Syntax:the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (句法学)如何在组成语法上可接受的句子
Semantics(语义学) the study of meaning in abstraction语言是用来传达意义的。
Pragmatics(语用学) the study of meaning in context of use用来研究上下文的意义
跨学科分支
Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.社会语言学是语言和社会之间关系的研究Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.心理语言学是语言与心灵的关系的研究
Applied linguistics is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.应用语言学是外国和第二语言教学的研究
Some important distinctions in linguistic s语言学中一些基本区分
1. Descriptive or Prescriptive
A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.描述性是在描述和分析人们对语言的实际运用，规定性是在为语言“正确和规范的”使用确立规则。
2. Synchronic and Diachronic
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study。共时性对语言在历史的某一时间点的描述，历时性对语言随着时间的变化而变化的描述
3. Speech and Writin g.
4. Langue and Parole
This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.瑞士语言学家索绪尔于20实际早期提出，语言是一个话语社团所有成员共有的抽象的语言系统，言语是语言在实际运用中的实现。5. Competenceand and Performance
Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).语言能力定为理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识，语言运用在语言交流中的具体实现。
6Modern linguistics and traditional grammar现代语言学与传统语法
Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. 语言学是描述性的而传统语法是规定。
Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.现代语言学家认为口头语是最基本的，而不是书面语。Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. 现在语言学不同于传统语法还在于它不强行将语言放进一个拉丁语为基础的框架内.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是有任意性，用于人类交流的语音标志系统。
语言的本质特征
1 Language is a system,i.e,elements of language are combined according to certain rules.语言是一个系统，即语言的元素相结合，按照一定的规则
2 Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系，从这个意义上说语言是任意的。
3 Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.语言是有声，因为所有语言的主要媒介都是声音
4 Language is human-specific,i.e.,it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.语言是人类特有的，它与其他生物的交际系统不同
Design features of language 语言的结构，识别特征
Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.识别的特征指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征
1 arbitrariness ----It means that there is no logical convention between meaning and sounds.任意性-意味意义和语言之间的没有什么逻辑的联系
2 productivity or Creativity ---language is productivity or creativity in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.能产性-语言是能产的或具有创造性的，它使得者可以建构或和解释的新的符号
3 duality --language is system,which consists of two sets of structures.双重性-- 语言系统，它由两种结构组成套the lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words the higher level ----words which are meaningful.
4Displacement---- Language can be use to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker。移位性-语言能够指远离说话人所在场合的情境
5 Cultural transmission while human capacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. 文化传承性--而人类的语言能力具有遗传的基础，任何语言系统的细节都要靠传教和学习。
Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology
Phonetics the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages..语音学是对语言的媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中所有的语音
Three branches of phonetics语音学三个分支
Articulatory [ɑ:'tikjuleit?ri] phonetics---发音语音学（历史最悠久）
Auditory .['?:dit?ri] phonetics----听觉语音学
Acoustic [?'ku:stik] phonetics---声学语音学
three important cavities Organs of speech三个重要区域发音器官
Pharyngeal [f?rind?i:?l] cavity ---- the throat [θr?ut];咽腔，喉咙
The oral cavity ---- the mouth;口腔，嘴巴
Nasal ['ne?z?l] cavity ---- the nose.鼻腔，鼻子
Lips, teeth, teeth ridge[rid?] (alveolus)齿龈, hard palate硬腭, soft palate (velum)软腭, uvula['ju:vjul?]小舌, tip of tongue
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).国际音标
Orthographic {?:θ?ɡr?fik}representation of speech sounds语音的正字法表征
Broad transcription【tr?n'skr?p??】-- the transcription with letter-symbols only宽式标音是用代表字母的符号标音
Narrow transcription ---the transcription with diacritics.[,dai?'kritik]严式标音是用代表字母的符号和变音共同标音
Voiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.[,?nim'pi:did]清音是当声带完全张开，气流通过声带而不引起振动
Voicing/ voiced: when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration[va?'bre???n] effect浊化是当气流在强行穿过的时候会使他们以不同的速度振动。
Classification of English speech sounds英语语音的分类
Vowels ['va??l] and Consonants['k?ns?n?nt] 元音和辅音
Classification of consonants辅音的分类
---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions[di'men??n]:1The manner of articulation 2 The place of
articulation 英语中的辅音按两种标准划分：1发音方式2发音部位
The manner of articulation
stops/plosives: [p], , [t], [d], [k], [g];闭塞音
fricatives['frik?tiv]: [f], [v], [s], [z], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [h];摩擦音
affricates['?frikit]: [ ], [ ]; 塞擦音
liquids['likwid]: [r];[l]流音
nasals['ne?z?l]: [m], [n], [ ]; 鼻音
glides[ɡlaid] : [w], [j].滑音
The place of articulation
bilabial[bai'leibi?l]: [p],, [m], [w],[b]双唇音
labiodental ['leibi?u'dentl]: [f], [v]; 唇齿音
dental.[dent?l]: [ ], [ ];齿音
alveolar [?l'vi?l?: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r];齿龈音
j]; 腭音
palatal ['p?l?t?l]: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [
velar ['vi:l?]: [k], [g], [ ];软颚音
glottal ['ɡl?tl]: [h]. 喉音
Classification of English vowels英语元音的分类
1. the part of the tongue that is raised---front, center or back
2. the opening of the mouth----close, semi-close, semi-open, open
3. the shape of the lips---rounded, unrounded
4. the length of the sound---tense, lax (紧，松)
Monophthongs ['m?n?ufθ??]or pure/single vowels元音
Diphthongs['d?f,θ?:? or gliding vowels双元音
front vowels central vowels back vowels
Close闭
Semi-close: 半闭
Semi-open:半开
Open:开
Phonology
Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.
Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds. Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.
What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language?
What sounds vary in what ways in what context?
What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?
Phonetics & phonology
Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.
Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
Phone, phoneme, allophone
Phone: the different versions of the abstract unit – phoneme
Phoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a language, placed in slash marks
Allophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme
Phone
A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ b t ] & [ b t ], [sp t] & [sp t]. Phoneme
A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [p t], [t p] and [sp t].
Allophone
Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.
Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.
Phonemic contrast----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g.
/b/ and /p/ in [ b t ] and [p t].
Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g.
dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].
Minimal pair
Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g.
beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.
Some rules of phonology
Sequential rules
Assimilation rule
Deletion ru le
Sequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.
If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.
If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.
a) the first phoneme must be /s/,
b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/,
c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.
* [ ] never occurs in initial position in English and standard Chinese,but it does occur in some dialects, e.g. in Cantones e: “牛肉，我，俄语……”
Assimilation rule----assimilates one sound to another b y “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in is pronounced differently when in different phonetic contexts:
indiscreet alveolar [ n]
inconceivable velar [ ]
input bilabial [ ]
Assimilation in Mandarin
好啊hao wa
海啊hai ya
看啊kan na
唱啊chang
跳啊tiao wa
……
Deletion rule---- it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, e.g. design, paradigm, there is no
[g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.
Syllable (what is syllable?)
Ancient Greek: a unit of speech soun d consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant.
Dictionary: word or part of a word which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel.
The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK, the CODA, e.g. [m n].
The peak is the essential part. It is usually formed by a vowel. But [l], [n] and [m] might also function as peaks a s in “ apple, hidden, communism”.
Suprasegmental features----the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme):
Stress: word stress and sentence stress
Word stress
The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of sp eech of a word:
verb: im port; in crea s e; re bel; re cord …
noun: import; increase; rebel; record …
Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements: compound: blackbird; greenhouse; hotdo g…
noun phrase: black bird; green house; hot dog…
The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns: modifier: dining-room; readingroom; sleepingbag…
doer: sleeping b aby; swimming fish; flying plane…
Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.
Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.
He is driving my car.
My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.
Tone
Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.
ma 妈(level)
ma 麻(the second rise)
ma 马(the third rise)
ma 骂(the fourth fall)
Intonation
When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively kno wn as intonation.
English has three types of intonation that are m ost frequently used:
falling tone (matter of fact statement)
rising tone (doubts or question)
the fall-rise tone (implied message)
For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.”
Grammatical functions of intonations
----Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English.
a) It may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction.
b) It may impose different structures on the sentence by dividing it into different int onation units, e.g. “John didn’t come because of Marry”
Within one intonation unit, it means: John came, but it had nothing to do with Marry.
With two intonation units, it means: Marry was the reason why John didn’t come.
Exercises: Think of the utterance in different intonations:
“Those who bought quickly made a profit.”
c) It can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing nucleus on it, e.g.
Jack came yesterday by train.
d) Its attitudinal functions.
Falling tone ---- matter-of-fact statement,
downright assertion, commands.
Rising tone ----politeness, encouragement,
pleading.
Note: these can only be very general indications. The specific attitudinal meaning of an intonation pattern must be interpreted within a context.
Summary:
Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.
These features are distinctive features.
Stress
Stress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over others in a word.
Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress.
If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a secondary stress.
In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In English, word stress is unpredictable.
Intonation
When we speak, we c hange the pitch of our voice to express ideas.
Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.
The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.
In English,there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.
Tone
Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.
The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones.
Chinese is a typic al tone language.
Discovering phonemes
Contrastive distribution – phonemes
If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.
Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs and minimal sets.
A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound in the same position.
Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one segment in the same position.
The ove rwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented by the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.
Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English. However, these sounds are distinctive in ter ms of phonetic features. Therefore, they are separate phonemes.
Complementary distribution – allophones
Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be in complementary distribution.
If segments are in complementary dist r ibution and share a number of features, they are allophones of the same phoneme. Free variation
If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are s aid to be in free variation.
Distinctive and non-distinctive features
Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features do not, non-distinctive features.
Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.
本章重点：Phonology is a major branch of linguistics. It is the study of the sound systems of languages and of the general properties of sound systems.
The differences between phonetics and phonology
Phonetics is regarded as the linguistic study to identify and describe the characteristics of all the speech sounds that occur in all human languages, whereas phonology is the description of the sound systems and patterns of individual languages. Phonetics provides the means for phonological description. And in a sense, phonology is really the application of phonetics to the process of communication in a particular language or languages. Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds; phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.
Speaker’s mind---------mouth---------- ear-------- listener’s mind
Phonology phonetics
Phonetics Phonology
Sounds of language functioning of sounds as part of a language
Parole, speech act language, language system
Universal language-specific
Concrete abstract
Phone [ ] phoneme / /
Although both are related to the study of sounds, phonetics studies the production, transmission, and reception of sounds while phonology focuses on the linguistic patterns of speech sounds and how they are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
A phone is A phoneme is
One of many possible sounds in the languages of the world A distinctive unit in the sound system of a particular language The smallest identifiable unit found in a stream of speech A minimal unit that serves to distinguish between meanings of words
Pronounced in a defined way Pronounced in one or more ways, depending on the number of allophones
Represented between brackets by convention Represented between slashed by convention
Example: , [l] Example: /b/, /l/
A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. The different phones representing a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called its allophones (音位变体)
The definitions of phone, phoneme, allophone, minimal pair and free variation, theories on phoneme, phonemic contrast and complementary distribution, feature on phonetic similarity and distinction; assimilation rule, deletion rule, suprasegmetnal features (syllables, stress, tone, intonation, pitch, etc.)
How do you find a phoneme?
You know something is a phoneme if it is a distinctive sound in the language
How do you find the sounds distinctive?
If you find a minimal pair, you know the sounds are distinctive
What is minimal pair?
If you have two words which are exactly identical with respect to sounds except for one sound, and the different sounds are at the same position, and the two words have different meanings, then you have a minimal pair. Phonetics-----the study of speech sounds
Phonology-----the study of sounds systems
Phoneme vs. phone/ allophone
/ phoneme/ ----------------------abstract
Actual sound
/t/ ---------------------phoneme
Phone
Two phones never occur in the same environment -------complementary distribution
Two phones can occur in the same environment-------free variation
Although we generalize some rules for word stress, it should be born in mind that sometimes the exceptions may
well make one give up the ideal of rules.
Exercises from our school:
1. Complementary distribution
2. what is articulatory phonetics, explain the primacy of speech over writing,
3. divide the following words into morphemes. For each morpheme, identify the type (lexical or grammatical, free or bound, prefix or suffix, inflectional or derivational), where applicable.
1) restate
2) strongest
4. what is illustrated with the following pronunciations?
1) cap [kap] can
2) tent, tenth
answer: 1) restate={re}+{state}
{re}=grammatical, bound, prefix,derivational
{state}=lexical, free
3) strongest={strong}+{SUP}
{strong}=lexical, free
{SUP}=grammatical, bound, suffix, inflectional
1) nasalization 2) dentalization
they are examples of regressive assimilation (逆同化) Page 60 by Hu
5. the phrase French literature teacher constitutes a case of lexical ambiguity
6. syntax is made up of one morpheme.
7. artificial satellite is a case of loanblending. (P102 by Hu)
8. a single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, so they are identical
9. derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning
FFFFT
10. for each of the following words transcribe phonetically and account for the allomorphs of the past tense morpheme: waited, waved, waded, wiped
11. illustrate assimilation with two examples.
12. describe the initial sounds of the following words: toe, chin, thank, goat, moon
13. what are the terms used to describe the word-formation processes of the following words? Vaseline, carelessness, football, car-phone, AIDS
Answers: 10. /id/ (/d/ would merge with another alveolar plosive if not separated by a vowel)
/d/ (voiced /v/ is followed by voiced /d/)
/t/ ( voiceless /p/ is followed by voiceless /t/)
11. assimilation is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighbouring sounds
12. voiceless alveolar stop, voiceless palato-alveolar stop, voiceless dental fricative, voiced velar stop, voiced bilabial nasal.
13. invention, derivation, compounding, clipping and compounding, acronym
14. the phonology or pronunciation of a specific regional dialect is called_____
15. ___________is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds
16. phones which never occur in the same phonetic environment are said to be in_____
17. A bound grammatical morpheme is called_____
18. the word formation process, _______is exemplified by the word ―brunch‖
19. the IPA chart contains a set of _____ for the purpose of transcribing the minute difference between variations of the same sound
Accent, acoustic phonetics, complementary distribution, inflectional morpheme, blending, diacritics
20. compare the two terms: morpheme and allomorph, distinctive features and semantic features
A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. It is just because of its distinctive features that a phoneme is capable of distinguishing meaning. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. On the analogy of distinctive features in phonology, some linguists suggest that there are semantic features. The meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
21. give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds: [l], [v], [e], [u:]
[l] voiced alveolar lateral; [v] voiced labiodental fricative; [e] central front lax ungrounded vowel; [u:] high back
tense rounded vowel
22. Is stress a phonological property? Why?
Stress is one of suprasegmental features which are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Word stress plays the meaning-distinctive role.
23. Affricates consist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation
24. the assimilation rule doesn‘t account for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations
25. prefixes not only modify the meaning of a stem but also change the part of speech of the original word
T F F
26. in what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?
A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes
27. what kind of evidence could be used to argue that action and package each contain two morphemes: {act}+ {ion} and {pack}+ {age}?
(hint: a morpheme can appear independently in other words.)
Answers: {act} occurs in act, actor, active, react
{ion} occurs in construction, projection,, inflection, rejection
{pack} occurs in pack, packs, packed, packing, packer
{age} occurs in wreckage, baggage, breakage
28. a(n)_____ is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity
29. in the production of _____sounds, such as [p], the upper and the lower lips are brought together to create obstruction.
30. ______is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighbouring sound.
31. all syllables must have a ____ but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda. ( 核心，节首辅音，结尾音节) （page 69 by Hu）
Root, bilabial, assimilation, nucleus
32. compare phonology and phonetics.
33. account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:
coast ghost, boast most
the words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter. Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the initial segment, /b/ being bilabial, /m/ being nasal.
34. what are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why
What are three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study of speech sounds.
Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ
What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?
Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions
Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds
What is a minimal pair and what is a minimal set? Why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language? Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.
What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?
Supplementary Exercises
Chapter 2：Phonology
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.
2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.
3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.
4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.
5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.
6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.
7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.
8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the
mouth and the chest.
9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.
10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.
11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.
12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.
13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.
14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.
15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.
16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.
17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.
18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.
19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.
20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:
21. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.
22. A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.
23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.
24. Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.
25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.
26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.
27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.
28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular lan?guage are called s ____ rules.
29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.
30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.
31. P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.
32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.
33. T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.
34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.
III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
35. Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.
A. mouth
B. lips
C. tongue
D. vocal cords
36.The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.
A. voiceless
B. voiced
C. vowel
D. consonantal
37.__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.
A. /z/
B. /d/
C. /k/
D./b/
38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by ―copying‖a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.
A. identical
B. same
C. exactly alike
D. similar
39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.
A. in phonemic contrast
B. in complementary distribution
C. the allophones
D. minimal pair
40. The sound /f/ is _________________.
A. voiced palatal affricate
B. voiced alveolar stop
C. voiceless velar fricative
D. voiceless labiodental fricative
41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.
A. back
B. central
C. front
D. middle
42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.
A. phonetic components
B. immediate constituents
C. suprasegmental features
D. semantic features
43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
A. phone
B. sound
C. allophone
D. phoneme
44. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.
A. phones
B. sounds
C. phonemes
D. allophones
IV. Define the terms below:
45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone
48. international phonetic alphabet
49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics
52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pair
V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex?amples for illustration if necessary:
57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?
58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?
59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?
60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.
61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?
Suggested answers to supplementary exercises
IV. Define the terms below:
45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic
transcription.
49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages
51. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear?er.
52. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.
53. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.
54. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.
55. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
56. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex?amples for illustration if necessary: 57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?
1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.
2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.
3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.
58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?
1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.
2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.
3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.
4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.
59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?
They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.
1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.
2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence ―He is driving my car.‖for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.
3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.
61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?
A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.
Chapter 3 Morphology
Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是对词
的内部结构以及构词规则的研究
Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs开放类是语言中的实词，我们可以添加新词到这些词中，例如名词，形容词，动词，副词
Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction[k?n'd???k??n], articles, preposition[,prep?'zi ??n] and pronouns.封闭性词类是语法性或功能性的词，例如连词，冠词，介词，代词
Morpheme['m?:fi:m] --the minimal unit of meaning. 词数是最小的一席单位.
Prefix['pri:fiks] ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g.un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.前缀是只出现在其他词素之前
Suffix['s?f?ks] ---- morphemes that occur only after others, e.g. -ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.后缀只出现其他词素之后
Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.自由词素是能单独使用的词素
Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, 粘着语素是可能会一个语素出现至少一个，他们不能单独出现Derivational[di'riv???n] morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.派生词是改变词素的类别或语类
Inflectional[?n'flek??n] morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning,粘着词素是很大程度是语法标记，表示时态，数，格等的概念，他们被附加到词或词素上，但不会改变自己的句法范畴，Derivational morphemes----affix (suffix, infix, prefix) + root
Inflectional morphemes Noun+ -’s, -s [possessive所有格; plural['plu?r?l]复数] Verb+ -s, -ing, -ed, -en [present singular单数形式; present participle['pɑ:t?,s?p?l分词; past tense过去式, past participle] Adj+ -er, -est [comparative [k?m'p?r?tiv]比较; superlative[s?'p?:l?t?v]最高级的]
Morphological rules
The rules that govern the formation of words, e.g. the ―un- + ----‖ rule.
unfair unthinkable unacceptable…
Compounding is another way to form new words, e.g.
landlady rainbow undertake…
Compounds
Noun compounds
daybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V)
callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N)
Verb compounds
brainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)
Adjective compounds
maneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved)
dutyfree (N+adj.)
Preposition compounds
into (P+P)
throughout (P+P)
Some points about compounds
When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black…
When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-strong, pickpocket…
Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house…
The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.
Formation of new words
1. Inflection: it is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such
as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.
2. Derivation
Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.
Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation. Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.
Some English suffixes also change the word stress.
3. Compounding
Compounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morphemes.
The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from the three classes – nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the three classes.
In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.
The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.
4. Conversion (invention)
Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.
Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.
5. Clipping (abbreviations) front, back, front and back
Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.
Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.
Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form.
6. Blending
Blending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfast and lunch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook for junior middle school students –―plike‖ (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).
7. Back-formation
Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix –sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.
8.Acronyms
Acronyms are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.
Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.
This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and scientific terminology.
9.Eponyms
Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.
10. Coinage
Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.
This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola.
11. Borrowing: English in its development has managed to widen its vocabulary by Borrowing words from other languages . Greek, Latin, French, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process, such as ―atom, electricity‖ from Greek, ―cancer, tumour‖ from Latin, ―violin, pizza‖ from Italian.
12. Onomatopoeia: it is a way of creating words by imitating the sounds of the outside world.
Supplementary Exercises Chapter 3：Morphology
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.
3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.
4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.
5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.
6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.
7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.
9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.
10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.
II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:
11. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.
12. The affix ―-ish‖ in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.
13. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes.
15. D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.
16. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.
17. C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.
18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m___________ rules.
19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d_______________ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.
20. A s______ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational affix can be added.
III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
21. The morpheme ―vision‖ in the common word ―television‖ is a(n) ______.
A. bound morpheme
B. bound form
C. inflectional morpheme
D. free morpheme
22. The compound word ―bookstore‖is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.
A. is the sum total of the meaning of its components
B. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemes
C. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.
D. None of the above.
23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.
A. the first element
B. the second element
C. either the first or the second element
D. both the first and the second elements.
24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
A. Free morphemes
B. Bound morphemes
C. Bound words
D. Words
25. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
A. Syntax
B.Grammar
C. Morphology
D. Morpheme
26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.
A. lexical
B. morphemic
C. grammatical
D. semantic
27. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.
A. have to be used independently
B. can not be combined with other morphemes
C. can either be free or bound
D. have to be combined with other morphemes.
28. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.
A. Prefixes
B. Suffixes
C. Roots
D. Affixes
29. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.
A. Words
B. Morphemes
C. Phonemes
D. Sentences
30. ―-s‖ in the word ―books‖ is _______.
A. a derivative affix
B. a stem
C. an inflectional affix
D. a root
IV. Define the following terms:
31. morphology 32. inflectional morphology
33. derivational morphology 34. morpheme
35. free morpheme 36. bound morpheme
37. root 38. affix
39. prefix 40. suffix
41. derivation 42. Compounding
V. Answer the following questions:
43. What are the main features of the English compounds?
44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.
Suggested answers to supplementary exercises Chapter 3 Morphology
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
l.T 2.F 3.T 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T
II. II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:
11. Morpheme 12. grammatical 13. Bound 14. derivative 15.Derivative
16. suffix 17. Compounding 18. morphological 19. derivation 20. stem
III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
2l.D 22.D 23.B 24.B 25.C 26. C 27. D 28. A 29. B 30. C
IV. Define the following terms:
31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections
33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.
34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.
35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with oth?er morphemes.
36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used indepen?dently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself al?though it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create
a word.
39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the begin?ning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.
40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.
41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.
42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.
V. Anwser the following questions:
43. What are the main features of the English compounds?
Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calcu?lable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.
44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.
Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, ―book-‖ in the word ―bookish‖.
Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as ―-ish‖in ―bookish‖. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as ―gene-‖in the word ―generate‖. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as ―-s‖ in the word ―books‖ to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as ―mis-‖ in the word ―misinform‖. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as ―dis- ‖ in the word ―dislike‖, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as ―-less‖ in the word ―friendless
Chapter 4 Syntax
What is syntax?
----a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
The term syntax is from the ancient Greek word syntaxis, which literally means ―arrangement‖or ―setting out together‖.
Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or without appropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning within the sentence.
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that analyzes the structure of sentences.
What is a sentence?
Syntax is the analysis of sentence structure. A sentence is a sequence of words arranged in a certain order in accordance with grammatical rules.
A sequence can be either well-formed or ill-formed. Native speakers of a language know intuitively what strings of words are grammatical and what are ungrammatical.
Types of sentences
Simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
Coordinate (Compound) sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions, such as ―and‖, ―but‖, ―or‖…
Complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other
Embedded clause?à matrix clause
Knowledge of sentence structure
Structural ambiguity
Structural ambiguity is one or more string(s) of words has/have more than one meaning. For example, the sentence Tom said he would come yesterday can be interpreted in different ways.
Word order
Different arrangements of the same words have different meanings. For example, with the words Tom, love and Mary, we may say Tom loves Mary or Mary loves Tom.
Grammatical relations
Native speakers know what element relates to what other element directly or indirectly. For example, in The boats are not big enough and We don‘t have enough boats, the word enough is related to different words in the two sentences.
Recursion
The same rule can be used repeatedly to create infinite sentences. For example, I know that you are happy. He knows that I know that you are happy. She knows that he knows that I know that you are happy.
Sentence relatedness
Sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related.
Syntactic categories
A syntactic category is a class of words or phrases that can substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality. For example, consider the following sentences:
The child found the knife.
A policeman found the knife.
The man who just left here found the knife.
He found the knife.
All the italicized parts belong to the same syntactic category called noun phrase (NP). The noun phrases in these sentences function as subject. The knife, also a noun phrase, functions as object.
Traditional grammar
In traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence of words which are classified into parts of speech.
Sentences are analyzed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects, objects, verbs (predicates), predicatives, …
Compulsory elements of a sentence: subject, verb, object, complement, adverbial…
Nouns: number, case, gender…
Verbs: tense, aspect, voice…
Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and superlative degrees
Agreement in number/person/gender
Parsing: trying to make detailed analysis in structure
Structural grammar
Structural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditional grammar. It deals with the inter-relationships of different grammatical units. In the concern of structural grammar, words are not just independent grammatical units, but are inter-related to one another.
Form class
Form class is a wider concept than part of speech in traditional grammar.
Linguistic units which can appear in the same slot are said to be in the same form class. For example, a(n), the, my, that, every, etc. can be placed before nouns in English sentences. These words fall into one form class.
These linguistic units are observed to have the same distribution.
Immediate constituent (IC) analysis
Structural grammar is characterized by a top-down process of analysis.
A sentence is seen as a constituent structure. All the components of the sentences are its constituents.
A sentence can be cut into sections. Each section is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cut into constituents. This on-going cutting is termed immediate constituent analysis.
Examples:
Old men and women: old | men and women, old || men | and women
The ||| little || girl | speaks || French.
In this way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but also vertically. In other words, IC analysis can account for the linearity and the hierarchy of sentence structure.
I will suggest | that this || in itself reflects ||| a particular ideology |||| about gender ||||| that deserves to be re-examined.
Two advantages of IC analysis:
It can analyze some ambiguities.
It shows linearity and hierarchy of one sentence.
Transformational-generative (TG) grammar
Background and the goal of TG grammar
Chomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.
Adequacy of observation
Adequacy of description
Adequacy of explanation
Writing a TG grammar means working out two sets of rules – phrase structure rules and transformation rules – which are followed by speakers of the language.
TG grammar must account for all and only grammatical sentences.
Syntactic categories
Noun Phrase (NP)
Verb Phrase (VP)
Sentence (S)
Determiner (Det)
Adjective (Adj)
Pronoun (Pro)
Verb (V)
Auxiliary Verb (Aux)
Prepositional Phrase (PP)
Adverb (Adv)
Phrase structure (PS) rules
S → NP VP
(Det) (Adj) N
NP →{
Pro
VP → (Aux) V (NP) (PP)
PP → P NP
Tree diagrams (omit)
Recursion and the infiniteness of language
S contains NP and VP and that S may be a constituent of NP and VP. NP and VP can be mutually inclusive. If phrasal categories appear on both sides of the arrow in phrase structure rules, the rules are recursive. Recursive rules can be applied again and again, and the phrase structure can grow endlessly.
Sub-categorization of the lexicon.
The process of putting words of the same lexical category into smaller classes according to their syntactic characteristics is called sub-categorization.
Transformational rules (T-rules)
Particle movement T-rule
John turned the machine off. John turned off the machine.
Replacement T-rule
John beat Tom. He beat Tom.
The house needs repairing (to be repaired).
Insertion T-rule
A fish is swimming in the pond. There is a fish swimming in the pond.
Deletion T-rule
They came in and (they) sat down.
Copying T-rule
He is coming, isn‘t he?
He has finished his homework, hasn‘t he?
Reflexivization T-rule
I wash me (myself).
TG grammar accounts for the mental process of our speaking.
Systematic-functional grammar
Background and the goal of systemic-functional grammar
M. A. K. Halliday
Language is a system of meaning potential and a network of meaning as choices.
Meaning determines form, not vice versa. Meaning is realized through forms.
The goal of systemic-functional grammar is to see how function and meaning are realized through forms.
The three meta-functions of language
Ideational function
Interpersonal function
Textual function
The transitivity system of language
Elements
Process
Participants
Circumstances
Categorization of reality
Doing – material process
Processes involving physical actions: walking, running, throwing, kicking, wrapping, etc.
Actor, goal and circumstance
Being – relational process
Processes representing a relation being set up between two separate entities.
Be (identifying), have (attributive)
Carrier/possessor and attribute/possessed
Sensing – mental process
Processes of sensing, including feeling, thinking, perceiving, imagining, wanting, liking, etc.
Senser and phenomenon
Less central types of linguistic process
Verbal processes – saying something
Sayer and receiver
Behavioural processes – active conscious processes
Behaver and range
Existential processes – existence of an entity
Existent
Mood and modality
Mood expresses the speaker‘s attitude and serves for interpersonal function. It is a syntactic constituent made up of the subject and the finite.
Modality is the degree of certainty or frequency expressed by the grammatical forms of finite. It can be categorized by modalization and modulation.
Theme and rheme
Theme is the given information, while rheme is the new information.
Examples:
John | is my friend.
He | should have replied to my letter.
Transformational Generative Grammar (TG)
Norm. Chomsky, the most influential linguist in 20th century, some important works:
(1957) Syntactic Structure;
(1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax;
(1981) Lectures on Government and Binding;
(1986) Barriers
(1993) A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory;
(1995) The Minimalist Program;
(1998) The Minimalist Inquiry……
Criteria on good grammar
Observational adequacy
Descriptive adequacy
Explanatory adequacy
The ultimate goal for any theory is to explain.
TG differs from traditional grammar in that it not only aims at language description, but also its explanation.
Chomsky is much more interested in the similarities (language universals) between languages rather than their differences.
Linguists should attempt to find a grammatical framework which will be suitable for all languages;
Linguists should concentrate on the elements and constructions that are available to all languages rather than on elements that actually occur in all languages.
There are likely to be universal constraints on the ways linguistic elements are combined
Chomsky proposed that the grammars of all human languages share a common framework (Universal Grammar).
Categories
Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)
Word-level categories
Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.
Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj.
The criteria on which categories are determined
Meaning
Inflection
Distribution
Chapter one Introduction 1.1什么是语言学 1.1.1定义 语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 1.1.2The scope of linguistics语言学分支必考P2 普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学） The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学） The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学） 1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考P3 （1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写 If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language
实用标准文案 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general) 2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics. (language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ) https://www.doczj.com/doc/8018551774.html,nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say. 6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory 7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time 3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语） These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing) https://www.doczj.com/doc/8018551774.html,ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate. 9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure ) https://www.doczj.com/doc/8018551774.html,petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language 11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky) traditional grammar and modern linguistics 1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive 2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer. 3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework. Functions of language. 精彩文档
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案 Chapter 1 Introduction 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language. 答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;
新编简明英语语言学教程 Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性
Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence
Chapter 1 Introduction What is linguistics? 什么是语言学 [A] The definition of linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language (对语言进行的科学研究) Process of linguistic study: ① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed; ② Hypotheses are formulated; ③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations; ④ A linguistic theory is constructed. [B] The scope of linguistics General linguistics普通语言学: the study of language as a whole从整体研究 1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified) 2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning) 3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words) 4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences) 5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction 6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of use Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics [C] Some important distinctions in linguistics ① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性 ② Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性） The description of a language at some point in time; The description of a language as it changes through time. ③ Speech and writing 言语与文字 Spoken language is primary, not the written ④ Langue and parole 语言和言语 Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)
第10章认知语言学 10.1 复习笔记 本章要点: 1. Cognitive linguistics 认知语言学 2. Categorization and categories 范畴化与范畴 3. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy 概念隐喻与转喻 4. Iconicity and grammaticalization 象似性与语法化 常考考点： 认知语言学定义；范畴化与范畴定义分类等；概念隐喻与转喻的定义，层次分类；象似性的分类以及语法化等。 本章内容索引： I. Definition of cognitive linguistics II. Categorization and categories
1. Definition of categorization 2. The classical theory 3. The prototype theory 4. Levels of categorization III. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy 1. Conceptual metaphor 2. Conceptual metonymy IV. Iconicity 1. Iconicity of order 2. Iconicity of distance 3. Iconicity of complexity V. Grammaticalization I. Definition of cognitive linguistics (认知语言学定义) 【考点：名词解释】 Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information. 认知语言学是一种研究自然语言的方法，集中研究语言组织，处理与传达信息的作用。 II. Categorization and categories (范畴化与范畴) 1. Definition of categorization and categories (定义)
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction What is linguistics? Scientific study of language. Interpretation: ①try to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language; ②linguistics studies not any particular language but language in general; ③scientific study because based on systematic investigation of linguistic data. The scope of linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic.
Some important distinctions in linguistics
What is language Definitions of language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules; ②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well; ③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound; ④language is human -specific,different from animal communication. Design features of language Proposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal & human communication are five major design features of human language: ①arbitrariness No logical connection between meaning and sounds(except onomatopoetic and compound words) ②productivity It makes to possible to construction and interpretation of new signal by its users. ③duality
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第1-3章练习题参考答案 Chapter 1 Introduction P13 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language？ 答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages; (5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language; (6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use. 3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? 答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g rammar in several basic ways. Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. 4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why? 答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. 5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any langu age is always “invented” by its users to reco rd speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax 1. What is syntax? Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 2. What is phrase structure rule? The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP →(Det) N (PP) ... VP →(Qual) V (NP) ... AP →(Deg) A (PP) ... PP →(Deg) P (NP) ... We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P. 3. What is category? How to determine a word's category? Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. 若详细回答，则要加上： Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving. The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Definition : linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is always guided by the three cannons of science:exhaustiveness, consistency and economy. Linguistics Linguistics versus traditional grammar: Scope Microlinguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Macrolinguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Neurolinguistics Stylistics Discourse analysis Computational linguistics Cognitive linguistics Definition: Ding-Dong Theory: human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered. Sing-Song Theory: language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise. Pooh-Pooh Theory: language came from interjections, which express he speaker ’s emotions. Origins Yo-He-Ho Theory: language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work. Ta-Ta Theory : language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongues movements. Bow-Wow Theory: language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature. Design features Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of written language. Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages. Linguistics describes each language on its language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system---elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. Language is arbitrary --- there is no intrinsic connection between the word . pen) and the thing. what we write with).Language is vocal---the primary medium for all languages is sound. Language is used for human communication ---it is human-specific, very different form Arbitrarines s: this refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, English should use the sounds/d?g/ to refer to the animal dog, but Chinese should use “gou ” to refer to te same animal. A dog may be called a pig if the first man happens to name it as a “pig ”. So, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack ” and “bang ” are exceptions, but words these are relatively few compared withe the total number of words in language. Duality: language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Productivity : productivity or creativity refers to man ’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before. Interchangeability : interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease. Displacement: displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Specialization : specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Cultural transmission : language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being brought up in isolations simply doesn ’t acquire language, as is demonstrated by the studies of children brought up by animals without human contact. Animals transmit their cries simply from parent to child, while human baby doesn ’t speak any language at birth. What language a baby is going to speak