Chapter 1 Introduction
语言学的定义：
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?
→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.
What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:
①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.
②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.
③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.
The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)
问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?
→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds
→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning
→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.
→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences
→semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning
→pragmatics（语用学）→the context of language use
Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.
Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychology Applied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.
Some important distinctions in linguistics:
①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）
②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）
③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）
④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure——Course in General Linguistics）
⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）
⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）
问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?
①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.
②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.
③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.
问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?
In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.
Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.
Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.
问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?
From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.
Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.
语言的定义：
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Design features of language（7个识别特征）
①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）
②productivity 能产性，创造性
Secondary units（底层结构sounds）
③duality 双层性
Primary units （上层结构units of meaning）
④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）
⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性
⑥interchangeability 互换性
⑦convention 约定性
Functions of language：
三大主要功能：
The descriptive function
The expressive function
The social function
Roman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）
①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能
②addressee→conative 意动功能
③context→referential所指功能
④message→poetic 诗学功能
⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能
⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能
Other functions:
①phatic function 问候功能
②informative f. 信息功能
③interrogative f. 询问功能
④expressive f. 表达功能
⑤evocative f. 感染功能
⑥directive f. 指令功能
⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能
M.A.K. Halliday
①ideational
②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）
③textual
问题：
How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?
The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.
The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors. Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.
Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.
问题：
What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?
①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）
②productivity 能产性，创造性
Secondary units（底层结构sounds）
③duality 双层性
Primary units （上层结构units of meaning）
④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）
⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性
⑥interchangeability 互换性
⑦convention 约定性
Chapter 2 Phonology
Phonetics: （语音学）
①the study of the phonic medium of language
②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.
Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）
Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）
Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves→acoustic phonetics （声学语音学）
③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.
Organs of speech:
⒈three important areas
①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat
②the oral cavity→the mouth
③the nasal cavity→the nose
⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocal cords
⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)
/teeth/lips
International Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）
①diacritics 附加符号
②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only
③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols together
with the diacritics
Classification of English speech sounds
①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: V owels/consonants
②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms of manner of articulation
In terms of place of articulation
③In terms of manner of articulation:
Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides
④In terms of place of articulation:
Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal
⑤
bilabial Labio-dental dental alveolar palatal velar glottal stops VL p t k
VD b d g
fricatives VL f θs ?h VD v ez ?
affricates VL (t?) t?
VD (d?) d?
nasals VD m n ?
liquids VD l/r
glides VD w j
Classification of English vowels
⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音
The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back
The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-close vowels/semi-open
vowels/open vowels
The shape of the lips: unrounded/rounded
The length of the vowels: tense/lax
front central back close i: u:
i u Semi-close e ?:
??: Semi-open
open ? ??
a a:
⒉diphthongs 双元音
/ei /
/ai /
/au /
/?u /
/?i /
/i? /
/ε?/
/ u? /
Phonology 音韵学，语音体系
Difference of phonology and phonetics:
①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.
②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and
how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.
Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.
Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. Phonemic contrast（音位对立）
Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）
Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标
Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language. Phonological Analysis（音位分析）
Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.
Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系
Free variants: 音位的自由变体
The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.
Some rules in phonology
①sequential rules: 序列规则
If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.
If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:
The first phoneme must be / s /
The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /
The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /
②assimilation rule:同化规则
③deletion rule：省略规则
Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）
①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)
单音节词
多音节词
英语单词都有重读
音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。
句子里读重音的词：
Nouns/main verbs/adjectives/adverbs/numerals/demonstrative pronouns
②tone（词汇层面）
English is not a tone language
Chinese is a typical tone language:
Level/the second rise/the third fall-rise/the fourth fall
③intonation（句子层面）
English has four basic types of intonation:
The falling tone/the rising tone/the fall-rise tone/the rise-fall tone
问题：
What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?
Speech and writing
Speech
Because from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.
Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.
问题：
What is voicing and how is it caused?
Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.
Chapter 3 Morphology 词法形态学
1 定义和知识点：
①the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure
②the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
③it is essentially synchronic, primarily concerned with the forms of words through the use of morpheme construct.
④it overlaps with the other sub-branches as a word is a sound unit that has meaning and syntactic function.
⑤four facets:
Sounds (phonology)
Constructions (syntax)
Meanings (semantics)
Forms of words
2 词性分类
①open class words:名、动、形、副are the content words of a language
②closed class words: 连、介、冠、代are small and stable since few new words are
added
3 词素有关
? Morpheme: 词素
构成单词的最小意义单位，包括声音和意义，abstract units(任意性)
? Morph: 形素
the sound of a morpheme 声音
? Allomorphs: 语素变体
The variant forms of a morpheme
4 分类morphemes
①Free morpheme(自由词素): A morpheme which can be a word by itself
②bound morpheme(粘着词素)：A morpheme that must be attached to another one
③lexical morphemes/ derivational morphemes(派生词素,包括前后缀): They are used to derive new words, also known as derivational morphemes
④inflectional morphemes(屈折词素)：词类不发生变化
5 单词定义：Word
A word is a unit of expression which is intuitively recognized by native speakers in both spoken and written language.
A word is a basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules.
A word is a lexeme(词位). A lexeme is a word in an abstract sense.
A word can be defined as a grammatical unit.
6 单词结构：Structure
Root: the root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. Roots belong to lexical category.
Stem: it is the form of the word to which both inflectional and derivational morphemes can be added.
Base: 词基
Affixes: they are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All of them are bound morphemes and don’t belong to a lexical category.
7 单词合成：Word formation
①morphological rules→productive morphological rules
②derivation
③compounds 几点注意：
When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be like this: n. + n. / adj. + adj.
When the two words fall into different categories: n. + adj. / v. + n. （不总是这样）The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.
8 单词合成过程：
①compounding
②affixation or derivation
Blends 混合词
Abbreviation 缩略语
③shortening acronyms 按音节拼读首字母的单词
Initials 按字母拼读的单词
Clippings 缩写词
④backformation 逆构词法
9 要点
Grammatical morphemes are grammatical in nature, functioning as grammatical markers or show syntactic relations.
They consist of both inflectional morphemes and some free ones like in, and, do, they, while, where, but and that, which are traditionally known as functional words.
Chapter 4 Syntax 句法
1 定义
It is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
2 四大派别
①traditional syntax 传统学派
②structural syntax 结构主义学派（索绪尔）
③transformational syntax 生成学派（乔姆斯基）（本书重点学习）
④functional syntax 功能学派（哈里德）
3 范畴Categories
Noun (N)
Verb (V)
Major lexical categories
Adjective (A)
Preposition (P)
Word-level categories
Determiner (Det) 限定词/成分
Degree words (Deg) 程度词
Minor lexical categories Qualifier (Qual) 修饰语
Auxiliary (Aux) 助词
Conjunction (Con) 连词
Syntactic categories句法范畴的定义：
①The fact that words in all human languages can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes.
②注：The word-level categories are the most central categories to the syntactic study.
Major lexical categories(主要词汇范畴) play a very important role in sentence formation and they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built.
Minor lexical categories (次要词汇范畴)
Meaning 意义
Three criteria to determine a word’s category inflection 屈折变化
Distribution 分布
? It is misleading to assume that a word’s category can be told straightforward from its meaning:
①nouns do not concretely reveal their entities.
②some words tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.
③words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories.
Phrases are syntactic units that are built around a certain word category.
↓
The phrase is built around the word category.
↓
The word category determines the category of phrase.
4 要点
生成学派认为句子由短语构成。
短语→单词→词素→音节→
短语层面
任何短语都有2个层面
单词层面
5 the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories:
NP: noun phrase
VP: verb phrase
AP: adjective phrase
PP: prepositional phrase
6 the elements of phrases that are formed of more than one word:
①head/termed head 中心语/中心成分: The word around which a phrase is formed
②specifiers 标志语/标志成分：The words on the left side of the heads
③complements 补语/补足语/补足成分：The words on the right side of the heads
7 phrase structure rule 短语结构规则
定义：A special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that makes up a phrase.
The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, PP
NP→(Det) N (PP) …
VP→(Qual) V (NP) …
AP→(Deg) A (PP) …
PP→(Deg) P (NP) …
XP rule
公式一：XP →(specifier) X (complement)
X’ Theory （X 标杆理论）
①X’ : The intermediate level formed by the head and the complement between word level and phrase level.
②X’ Theory: (specifier) X’ (word)
X’=X (complement)
Coordination rule (并列规则)
Coordinate structures (并列结构)
Coordination (并列，并列关系)
Four important properties of coordination：
①there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.
②a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.
③coordinated categories must be of the same type.
④the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.
公式二：X→X * Con X （其中“*”代表无限的意思）
8 Phrase elements
Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles.
①semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head.
②syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.
In English specifiers occur at the left boundary of their respective phrases. Complements are themselves phrase and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.
Complements are attached to the right of the head in English.
Subcategorization (次范畴化)：中心成分决定补充成分这种现象。
中心成分决定补充成分时，决定着是否需要补充成分，需要什么样的补充成分，以及补充成分的位置问题。
The XP Rule (revised)
公式三：XP→(specifier) X (complement*)
Complementizers (Cs): 补语化成分
Words which introduce the sentence complement
Complement clause: 补语从句
The sentence introduced by the complementizer
Complement phrase(CP):补语短语
Matrix clause 主句
Modifiers 修饰成分，修饰语
The Expanded XP rule:
公式四：XP→(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)
9 sentences
The S rule: S→NP VP
4种
短语
1种（句子为屈折短语）
10 transformations （转换规则）
Yes-no question
Syntactic movement wh-question
Passive voice
Transformation/Inversion（倒置）定义: a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.
Inversion（倒置）：
Move Infl to the left of the subject NP
All Ss occur within larger CPs, whether they are embedded or not.
Inversion (revised):
Move Infl to C
If we assume that there can be only one element in each position in a tree structure, complementizers and auxiliaries are mutually exclusive.
Trace: 用“e”表示
Head movement 中心语移位：The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another
Inversion→一般疑问句+显性助词
Do insertion:
Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position
11 Two levels of syntactic structure
Deep structure (D-structure):
The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties
Surface structure (S-structure):
The structure corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results
from appropriate tansformations
★The organization of the syntactic component of the grammar
The XP Rule
↓
Deep structure (subcategorization restricts choice of complements)
↓
Transformations
↓
Surface structure
12 Wh Movement:
Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence
Wh Movement (revised)：
Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP
13 Move αand constraints on transformations
?there is a general rule for all the movement rules. This general rule is referred to as Moveα,where “alpha” is a cover term for any element that can be moved from one place to another.
?only certain categories are targeted by movement rules, and there are limits on how far elements can be moved.
①inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position.
②no element may be removed from a coordinate structure.
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学
1语义学定义：
Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.
2The naming theory(ancient Greek scholar Plato)
A→B
The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. Limitations:
This theory seems applicable to nouns only.
Abstract notions can not be defined by this theory.
3The conceptualist view(概念论)
There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.
Semantic triangle/triangle of significance (Ogden and Richards) 1923年提出
Thought/reference
Symbol/form ……………………………...referent
4Contextualism 语境论（J. R. Firth——British linguist）
Malinowski (Polish anthropologist)
Wittgenstein (German philosopher)
The contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.
Two kinds of context:
The situational context
The linguistic context/co-text
The main components of a particular spatiotemporal situation:
The place
The time
The speaker
The hearer
The actions
The various objects and events
The linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.
5 Behaviorism 行为主义论（American Bloomfield）
This theory is linked with psychological interest.
刺激反应理论：
Jill Jack
S------------------r………..s-------------------R
6 lexical meaning
Sense and reference
Sense 定义:
It is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. (Dictionary compilers are interested in) 每个单词都有它的意义（sense）
Reference 定义：
It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
不是所有单词都有语义（reference）
Major sense relations:
?synonymy 同义关系synonyms
①dialectal synonyms 方言同义词（British English and American English）
Girl------lass/lassie (Scottish dialect)
Liquor-------whiskey (Irish dialect)
B A
Autumn fall
Lift elevator
Luggage baggage
Lorry truck
Petrol gasoline
Flat apartment
Windscreen windshield
Torch flashlight
②stylistic synonyms
Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality
E.g. old man/daddy/dad/father/male parent
Start/begin/commence
Kid/child/offspring
Kick the bucket/pop off/die/pass away/decease
③synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluation meaning
Collaborator / accomplice
④collocational synonyms 短语同义词
Accuse…of/charge…with/rebuke…for
Rotten tomatoes/addled eggs/rancid bacon/sour milk
⑤semantically different synonyms语义上不同的同义词
Amaze/astound
Drift/float
?polysemy 一词多义
?homonymy 同音异义
①identical in sound(homophones): Rain/reign night/knight piece/peace leak/leek
②identical in spelling(homographs): Bow/bow tear/tear lead/lead
③identical in both sound and spelling(complete homonyms): Fast/fast scale/scale
?hyponymy 下义关系
①It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
②superordinate 上坐标词
③hyponyms 下义词
④co-hyponyms 共同下义词
E.g. Flower: rose/tulip/carnation/lily/morning glory
Animal: dog/cat/tiger/lion/wolf/elephant/fox/bear
Furniture: bed/table/desk/dresser/wardrobe/settee
?antonymy 反义关系
①gradable antonyms 等级反义词
②complementary antonyms 互补反义词（不能共存，非此即彼）
③relational opposites 反向反义关系（相反的两个极端但可共存）
7 sense relations between sentences
①X is synonymous with Y.(X真，Y真；X假，Y假)
②X is inconsistent with Y.(X 真，Y假；X假，Y真)
③X entails Y.(X真，Y一定真；X假，Y可真可假)
④X presupposes Y.(X真，Y一定真；X假，Y仍为真)
⑤X is a contradiction. (X永远假)
⑥X is semantically anomalous.语义破格句
8 analysis of meaning
?componential analysis----a way to analyze lexical meaning(成分分析) Semantic features语义特征：
The word “man” comprises the features of +HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE
?predication analysis----a way to analyze sentence meaning(述谓结构分析)
The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up the meanings of all its constituent words.
There are two aspects to sentence meaning
Grammatical meaning: grammatical well-formedness
The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.
Semantic meaning:
Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions(选择限制).(constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.) 注意同生成学派次范畴化进行对比
Predication analysis:
proposed by the British linguist G. Leech.
Predication: it is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
A predication consists of argument(s)(变元) and predicate(谓词)
E.g. TOM(SMOKE)
KID, APPLE(LIKE)
(BE HOT)
(SNOW)
Argument(s)(变元)定义：
It is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with a nominal element in a sentence.
Predicate(谓词)定义：
It is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.
Classification of the predication according to the number of arguments contained in a predication:
①two-place predication
②one-place predication
③no-place predication
Chapter 6 Pragmatics语用学
Origin 起源：
1938, American philosopher Charles Morris
Foundation of the Theory of Signs
Semiotics:符号学a science of signs
3 branches: syntax/semantics/pragmatics
√Pragmatics 定义：
It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, it can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.
Two major traditions in the study of pragmatics:
①the Anglo-American tradition:
Lay much emphasis on the study of specific language phenomena
②the European continental tradition:
It does not identify pragmatics with a specific unit of analysis, but takes pragmatics to be a general cognitive, social, and cultural perspectives at the use of language.
√Pragmatics VS. Semantics
What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.
Five concepts: 五个概念整理
√?context:
First noted by British linguist John Firth in the 1930s
It is essential to the pragmatic study of language
It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
Various components of shared knowledge have been identified.
Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.
Various components of shared knowledge:
Knowledge of the language they use
Knowledge of what has been said before(属于linguistic context)
Knowledge about the world in general
Knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place
Knowledge about each other
√?sentence meaning:
和?进行比较
The meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. (abstract/decontextualized)
?sentence
A sentence is a grammatical concept.
√?utterance meaning:
Concrete/context-dependent
?utterance
An utterance can be grammatically a complete sentence or incomplete sentence. 注：the meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning.
Speech act theory 言语行为理论
理论基础：when we are speaking, we are performing actions(doing something)
It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50s of the 20th century.
It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication.
It aims to answer the question “what do we do when using language?”Constatives: 述事话语(表述句)定义
They are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. Performatives: 行事话语(施为句)定义
They are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.
√New model: three acts American philosopher-linguist John Searle
①locutionary act(言内行为)
The act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology The act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses
②illocutionary act(言外行为)语言学家最感兴趣
The act of expressing the speaker’s intention
The act of performed in saying something
③perlocutionary act(言后行为)主要与听话人有关
The act performed by or resulting from saying something
It is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.
It is the act performed by saying something.
√Searle’s classification of speech acts
Specific acts that fall into the five type share the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.
①representatives/assertives(阐述类): stating or describing, saying what the speaker
believes to be true
②directives(指令类): trying to get the hearer to do something
③commissives(承诺类)：committing the speaker himself to some future course of
action.
④expressives(表达类)：expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state
⑤declarations(宣告类)：bringing about immediate changes by saying something.
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。 《语言学概论》研究始于20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。 对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。 本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第6学期和第7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。 二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。 本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。 本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓 励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。 本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。 四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。 五、学时与学分: 学时：72学时 学分：4学分 六、教学内容： 第一章绪论 本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。 7．语言学的核心内容。 8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。
一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction 1.1 What is linguistics? Scientific study of language.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;
②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well; ③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound; Language is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;
高中课本知识分布 必修一 1.共有三个单元 2.各单元知识点 第一单元：一般现在时，现在进行时，be going to 第二单元：一般过去时，过去进行时，现在完成时 第三单元：被动语态，情态动词 3.全书单词数量为：204个 词组数量为：44个 必修二 1. 共有三个单元 2. 各单元知识点 第四单元：一般将来时will和be going to的区别，真实条件句和虚拟条件句，让步状语从句 第五单元：原因、结果、目的状语从句 第六单元：表示时间、地点、动作的介词，定语从句，冠词 3. 全书单词数量为：229个 词组数量为：23个 必修三 1. 共有三个单元 2. 各单元知识点 第七单元：关系副词，介词+which引导的定语从句，形容词的比较级 第八单元：限制性和非限制性定语从句，静态动词和动态动词 第九单元：现在完成进行时态，现在完成时态和现在完成进行时态 3. 全书单词数量为：262个 词组数量为：40个 必修四 1. 共有三个单元 2. 各单元知识点 第十单元：不定代词和动词不定式 第十一单元：被动语态，动名词作主语，宾语，表语，定语 第十二单元：跟动名词或不定式作宾语的动词，现在分词作副词，作表语，定语，宾语补足语 3. 全书单词数量为：330个词组数量为：24个 高一共计单词1025，词组131 必修五 1. 共有三个单元 2. 各单元知识点 第十三单元：过去分词在句中可作形容词或副词用，修饰名词，在句中作定语，宾语补足
语或表语 第十四单元：情态动词表示推测 第十五单元：虚拟语气 3. 全书单词数量为：313个 词组数量为：25个 选修六 1. 共有三个单元 2. 各单元知识点 第十六单元：过去完成时 第十七单元：过去完成进行时1 第十八单元：过去完成进行时2 3. 全书单词数量为：245个 词组数量为：31个 选修七 1. 共有三个单元 2. 各单元知识点 第十九单元：名词性从句 第二十单元：将来完成时和将来进行时 第二十一单元：混合虚拟条件句和情态动词 3. 全书单词数量为：340个 词组数量为：13个 选修八 1. 共有三个单元 2. 各单元知识点 第二十二单元：被动态和表示报道的表达 第二十三单元：强调句和各种完成时的形态（将来完成时，现在完成时，过去完成时，现在完成进行时，现在分词的完成时及情态动词加完成时的用法） 第二十四单元：劝说的表达 3. 全书单词数量为：375个 词组数量为：61个 高二共计单词1273，词组130个 高中共计单词2298，词组261 北师大版高中英语语法总结（必修一—选修八） 必修一 一、present simple and present continuous 一般现在是和现在进行时 1，present simple: 反复进行的，经常性的动作（惯例习惯） Eg, He watches soap operas. 及状态I live in Budapest. 一般现在时常和下列时间状语连用：always, usually, from, time to time, twice a week, rarely,
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学 知识点： 1.*Definition: pragmatics; context 2.*sentence meaning vs utterance meaning 3.*Austin’s model of speech act theory 4.Searle’s classification of speech acts 5.*Grice’s Cooperative Principle 考核目标： 识记：*Definition: pragmatics; context 领会：Searle’s classification of speech acts 综合应用：sentence meaning vs utterance meaning；Austin’s model of speech act theory；Grice’s Cooperative Principle 一、定义 1. Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatic can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.语用学研究的是语言使用者是如何使用句子成功进行交际的。语用学也可以看作是一中意义研究。(它不是孤立地去研究语义，而是把语义置于使用语境中去研究的一门学科。) 2. Context 语境：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。一般认为他是由言者和听者的共享知识所构成的。 二、知识点 6.1.2 pragmatics vs. semantics语用学与语义学 二十世纪初，Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics 一书的出版标志着现代语言学研究的开始，同时也为现代语言学奠定了基础调，即语言应该作为一个独立的，内在的系统来加以研究。 语用学和语义学既有相关性又有相异性。两者都是对意义的研究。传统语义学把语义看成是抽象的，内在的，是语言本身的特性，不受语境的影响。因此传统语义学只研究语义的内在特征，不把语义研究置于语境中来考察。语用学研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解。语用学家认为不把意义放在语境中来考虑就不可能对语义进行充分的描述，因此在研究语义时是否考虑语境便成了传统语义学和语用学的根本区别所在。 Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分 Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.
高一英语一知识点总结 导读：我根据大家的需要整理了一份关于《高一英语一知识点总结》的内容，具体内容：英语知识点一直是高中英语教学的一个难点。下面是我为大家带来的高一英语一知识点总结，相信对你会有帮助的。(一)1. fond of "喜爱，爱好"... 英语知识点一直是高中英语教学的一个难点。下面是我为大家带来的高一英语一知识点总结，相信对你会有帮助的。 (一) 1. fond of "喜爱，爱好" 接名词、代词或动词的-ing形式。例如： Hes fond of swimming. 他喜欢游泳。 Are you fond of fresh vegetables. 你喜欢新鲜蔬菜吗? He is fond of his research work. 他喜爱他的研究工作。 2. hunt for = look for寻找 I have found the book I was hunting for.我找到了那本我在找的书。 hunt for a job 找工作 3. in order to, so as to 这两个词组都可引导不定式作目的状语, in order to可放于句首, so as to则不能, 其否定形式为in order not to / so as not to. 如: He went to Beijing in order / so as to attend an important meeting. In order to be noticed, he shouted and waved to us.为了让我们注意他, 他朝我们又是叫喊又是挥手。
Chapter 1 Language语言 1.Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2.Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language. 3.arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. 4.symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention. 5.discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. 6.displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users. 7.duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure. 8.culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance. 9.interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 1.★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language. First, language is a system. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense. The third feature of language is symbolic nature. 2.★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1) Productivity. 2) Discreteness. 3) Displacement 4) Arbitrariness. 5) Cultural transmission 6) Duality of structure. 7) Interchangeability. 3.Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other. 4.★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1) Instrumental function. 工具功能 2) Regulatory function. 调节功能 3) Representational function. 表现功能 4) Interactional function. 互动功能 5) Personal function. 自指性功能 6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h] 7) Imaginative function. 想象功能 II.Adult language has three functional components as following: 1) Interpersonal components. 人际 2) Ideational components.概念 3) Textual components.语篇
《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断
高一人教版英语知识点归纳分享 人教版高一英语知识点总结1 重点短语 1. be fond of爱好 2. treat…as…把……看作为…… 3. make friends with 与……交朋友 4. argue with sb. about / oversth. 与某人争论某事 5. hunt for寻找 6. in order to为了 7. share…with与……分享 8. bring in引进;赚钱 9. a great / good many许多… _. have difficulty (in) doing做……有困难 _. end up with以……结束 _. e_cept for除……之外 _. come about发生 _. make(a)fire生火 _. make yourself at home别拘束 _. the majority of大多数 _. drop sb. a line给某人写短信 _. for the first time第一次 _. at all根本;竟然 _. have a (good) knowledge of…精通…… ☆交际用语☆ 1. i think… i like / love / hate... i enjoy... my interests are...
2. did you have a good flight? you must be very tired. just make yourself at home. i beg your pardon? can you tell me how to pronounce...? get it. 人教版高一英语知识点总结2 核心单词 persuade vt.说服;劝服;使相信(同convince) 常用结构: persuade sb. of sth. 使某人相信某事 persuade sb. to do sth. 说服某人做某事 persuade sb. into doing sth. 说服某人做某事 persuade sb. out of doing sth. 说服某人不要做某事 persuade sb. that-clause 使某人相信…… 联想拓展 talk sb. into/out of doing sth.=reason sb. into/out of doing sth. 说服某人做/不做某事 trick sb. into/out of doing sth. 诱使某人做/不做某事 urge sb. into/out of doing sth. 怂恿某人做/不做某事 易混辨析 advise/persuade advise 强调劝告,建议的动作,不注重结果;而persuade强调已经说服 ,重在结果.用法上:advise可跟v.-ing形式作宾语,也可以接that-clause (that sb. should do),而persuade则不能.
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
★Haliday—child language. Macrofunctions: ideational, interpersonal, textual. ★what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study? Phonetics----the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall. Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction. Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words. The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society. Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. Chapter2 Phonology ★three branches of phonetics:①Articulatory —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. ②Auditory-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal. ③Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer. ★Organs of Speech : Pharyngeal cavity–咽腔Oral cavity–口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal cavity–鼻腔 ★Broad transcription: The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. (leaf /l/) ★Narrow transcription: The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.(dark /l/~) ★Phonetics and Phonology区别: are concerned with the same aspect of language- the speech sounds. ①Phonetics: it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; phonetic features they possess; how they can be classified, etc. ②Phonology: it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. ★rules in Phonology:①Sequential rules: Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. ②Assimilation rules: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by’ copying ’a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. ③Deletion rule: It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented. ★Suprasegmental超切分特征: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.(intonation: when pitch, stress and sound lenth are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation. //tone: Tone are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Tone is a suprasegmental feature.) Chapter3 Morphology ★open class words: new words can be added to these classes regularly. Such as nouns, verbs,