Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论
1 什么是语言学what is linguistics?
1.1 定义 definition
Linguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.
1.2 语言学的研究范畴 the scope of linguistics
a. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.
把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics
called phonetics.语音学
How speech sounds are produced and classified.
c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.
how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology音位学/ 音系学交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式
d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of
study called morphology.形态学
how morphemes are combined to form words.
这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。
e. The combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The
study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies, syntax. 句法学
how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.
f. The study of meanin
g. semantics 语义学 (in abstraction)
g. the study of meaning is conducted in context of use. pragmatics 语用学
h. the study of language with reference to society. sociolinguistics.社会语言学
i. the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind. psycholinguistics 心里语言学
j. the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. applied linguistics
1.3 语言学研究中的一些基本概念 some important distinctions in linguistics.
1.3.1 规定性和描述性 prescriptive vs. descriptive
if a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use;
如果一种语言学的研究是对人们实际使用中的语言进行的描述和分析——描述性的descriptive
if it aims at to lay down rules for “correct” behaviour to tell people what they should say and what they should not say
如果某种研究的目的是在对所谓“正确的”行为制定一些规则——规定性的prescriptive
现代语言学通常是描述性的，与“语法”的语言研究是大相径庭的
1.3.2 共时性和历时性 synchronic vs. diachronic
the description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study;
the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
现代语言学中，共时性研究比历时性研究更受人青睐。
1.3.3 口头语和书面语 speech and writing
Speech and writing are two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.
In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.
1.3.4 语言和言语 langue and parole (both from French words)
瑞士语言学家F. de索绪尔
langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the member of a speech community.
语言，某一特定的语言社区中的所有成员所共有的那种抽象的语言系统；
parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
言语，在语言实际应用中的具体体现。
语言——习惯和规则；言语——对这些习惯和规则的遵守和实际应用
言语不过是一些乱七八糟的语言材料，很难对此作系统的研究；
语言学家们的任务是从言语中把语言提取出来，发现指导语言实际应用的规则，并使之成为语言学研
究的主题。
1.3.5 语言能力和语言运用 competence and performance
美国语言学家-乔姆斯基（和语言，言语类似的概念）
competence, the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language
能力是一个理想的语言使用者所具有的有关其所使用语言规则的知识；
performance, the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
运用则指这种知识在语言交际过程中的实际运用。
索绪尔对语言的研究采取的是社会学的观点，语言是社会习惯的产物；
乔姆斯基则从心理学的角度来审视语言现象，能力是每个说话者个体的心里特征。
2 什么是语言？ what is language?
2.1 语言的定义definitions of language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
语言是用于人类交际目的的一套任意的有声符号系统。
(1) language is a system (2) language is arbitrary (3) language is vocal (4) language is human specific
2.2 语言的甄别性特征 design features
甄别性特征（识别性特征）—人类语言和其他动物的交际系统区别开来的那些特征，其中五种：
a. 语言的任意性（武断性）arbitrariness
b. 语言的创造性 productivity
c. 语言的双重性 duality
d. 语言的位移性 displacement
e. 语言的文化传递性 cultural transmission
Chapter 2 Phonology音系学
1 语言的声音媒介 the phonic medium of language
口语和书面语是语言作为交际工具所使用的两大主要媒介和物质手段；口语比书面语更为基本；
对于语言学家而言，对声音的研究远远比对书面语的研究重要得多，只关注人类器官发出的声音。
2 语音学 phonetics
2.1 什么是语音学 what is phonetics
phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language;
对语言声音媒介的研究；
主要研究对象是世界上所有的语言中出现过的一切声音
从三个角度来审视语音现象：
(1) 发音语音学articulatory phonetics
（from the speaker’s point of view）how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds (2) 听觉语音学 auditory phonetics
（from the hearer’s point of view）how the sounds are perceived by the hearer
(3) 声学语音学acoustic phonetics
It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds
are transmitted through the air from one person to another
以上三个分支里，建立历史最长，发展最完善的就是发音语音学。
声音语言学家发现证实了一些重要的事实。
2.2 语言的发音器官organs of speech
the articulatory apparatus器官 of a human being :
pharyngeal cavity(the throat); voicing — voiceless
the oral cavity (the mouth);
the nasal cavity (the nose)
2.3 语音的正字标音法—宽式和严式标音法orthographic representation of speech sounds — broad and narrow transcriptions
国际音标International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
人类所发出的语音经常会在特别细微的方面有所不同，国际音标向其使用者提供了一套“变音符号”diacritics的附加符号，作为字母标音方法的补充，以标示紧靠字母本身不能解决的那些微妙的语音差别
the transcription with letter-symbols only —— broad transcription
the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics ——narrow transcription
2.4 英语语音的分类classification of English speech sounds
分为元音vowels和辅音consonants两大类
元音的定义
元音和辅音的区别
2.4.1 英语辅音的分类 classification of English consonants
in terms of manner of articulation （按照发音方法）
stops爆破音; fricatives擦音; affricates塞擦音; liquids流音; nasals鼻音; glides滑音
in terms of place of articulation （按照发音位置）
bilabial双唇音; labiodental唇齿音; dental齿音; alveolar齿龈音; palatal鄂音; velar软腭音; glottal喉音
2.4.2 英语的元音分类classification of English vowels
a. the individual vowels / monophthongs
the position of the tongue in the mouth（按照口中舌头的位置）
front; central and back
the openness of the mouth （按照口张开的程度）
close vowels闭元音, semi-close vowels半闭元音, semi-open vowels半开元音, and open vowels开元音
the shape of the lips （按照唇齿形状）
rounded or not rounded
the length of the vowels （按照声音的长度）
long vowels ; short vowels
b. diphthongs 双元音
3音位学 phonology
3.1 音位学和语音学phonology and phonetics
语音学研究的具有一般的性质，它所感兴趣的人类语音中所涉及的：
所有语音现象；发音方法，相互之间的区别，分别具有什么样的语音特征，如何进行分类等；
音位学所感兴趣的是某一特定的语言中的语音系统，旨在揭示：
一种语言中的语音形成组合的方式，以及它们是如何在语言交际活动中被用来传到意义的。
3.2 音素、音位和音位变体phone, phoneme, allophone
phone, the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.
音素，我们在用一种语言讲话时所使用的声音。音素是一个语音单位或切分成分。
phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.
音位学关心的是能够区别意义的语音现象。
音位学中最基本的单位叫音位phoneme，这是一种具有意义甄别价值的单位，也是一个抽象单位。
音位不是一个具体的声音，而是一些语音区别特征的集合。
在实际的会话中，音位总是以某个音素的形式得以体现出来的。
[在不同的语言环境中,] 能够代表同一个音位的不同音素叫做该音位的音位变体allophone。
音位也可以另外定义为，[在某一特定的语言中,] 语音相似却不相互构成对比的一组声音。
一个音位的选择不是随便或偶然的，它是由规则制约的。
音位是语言系统中最小的切分成分，还可以进一步分析——区别性特征
区别性特征是与某种特定语言相联系的。
3.3 音位对立，互补分布和最小对立对 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
语音上相似的声音可能会有两种相连的方式。
如果它们是两个不同的音位，就会构成对比；
如果是同一个音位的音位变体话，那么它们在意义上就不构成对比。
These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
来自相同音位的音位变体就具有互补分布的特点
语言学家面对一种陌生语言的时候，首先找出传达意义的声音是什么，也就是要找出形成那种语言的所特有的声音系统的音位是什么。确定某种语言音位的一个根本方法就是寻找最小对立对。minimal pairs
e.g．pill-bill bill-kill kill-dill dill-gill 可以确定 /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/ 是英语中的音位
3.4 几条音位规则 some rules in phonology
3.4.1 序列规则 sequential rules 3.4.2 同化规则 assimilation rules 3.4.3 省略规则deletion rule
3.5 超切分特征——重音，声调，语调 Suprasegmental features — stress, tone, intonation
音位——具有区别意义作用的语音切分部分。
但是在两个或者更多的音位切分序列层面上同样可以找到一些识别性特征。
这些发生在切分层面以上的音位特征叫超切分特征。suprasegmental features
3.5.1 stress 3.5.2 tone 3.5.3 intonation
Chapter 3 Morphology形态学
1 定义definition
Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规律。
形态学可以进一步被划分为两个更小的分支：
屈折形态学inflectional morphology和词汇形态学（派生形态学）lexical or derivational morphology
前者研究——单词的屈折变化；后者研究——构词法
2 词素morpheme
2.1 词素：语言中最小的意义单位
Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language
正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。
2.2 词素的类型types of morphemes
2.2.1 自由词素 free morphemes
free morphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used by themselves.
bound morphemes, cannot be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form
words that can be used independently.
2.2.2. 黏着词素 bound morphemes
bound morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.
root, a root is often seen as a part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning;
it must by combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
affixes, affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.
inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or
grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.
derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.
Such a way of word-formation is called derivation派生法
and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative派生词.
the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem词干
A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
[according to its position] in the new word, affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes 前缀会对词根的意思有所修改，但却不致改变原来单词的词类the part of speech。
后缀修改原有的单词的意义，很多情况下会使原有单词的词类the part of speech发生变化。
2.2.3 形态学原则 morphological rules
3 复合法 compounding
同派生法一样，复合法也是英语中相当普遍和及其重要的一种构词法。
3.1 复合词的类型 types of compound words
3.2 复合词的特征 features of compounds
Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学
Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.
句法学是语言的一个分支，它研究的是语言的句子结构。
句子是根据词的特定排列顺序所构成的，顺序排列恰当的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子，
合乎语法的句子是按照一套句法规则而构成的。
在本章：
a. a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentences.
句法学概述：它是一套规则系统，用来指导构成合乎语法的句子。
b. examine the composition of sentences in terms of category and structure, as well as the structural
constituency and syntactic categories of smaller structural units.
再从范畴和结构以及作为更小单位的结构成分和句法类型句子的构成进行分析。
c.名词词组和动词之间的语法关系grammatical relations；
d.说话者内在的internalized以短语结构规则phrase structure rules ，X-标杆理论X-bar theory
以及移位规则movement rules为核心的组合规则系统。
e. conclude by introducing the current principles-and-parameters paradigm in syntactic exploration of Universal Grammar.
当今句法研究中的普遍语法原则及参数理论。
1 句法是规则系统 syntax as a system of rules
a. 句法学由一套抽象的规则组成，这些规则能够使词相互结合构成合乎语法的句子。
b. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of
internalized knowledge of a language speaker know as linguistic competence.
句法规则在所有人类语言中都普遍存在，这些规则包括讲某种语言的人内在的语言知识体系，这种语言知识体系被
称作语言能力。
c. 任何语言的句法规则都是有限的。
2 句子结构 sentence structure
2.1 句子的基本结构 the basic components of a sentence
a. A sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.
b. The referring expression被指示对象 is grammatically called subject.
2.2 句子的类型 types of sentences
three types: simple sentence; coordinate sentence / compound sentence; complex sentence
2.2.1 简单句
clause 子句，简单句中只含有一个子句，有一个主语一个谓语，该句子单独构成句子。
finite clause 定式子句，含有一个主语和一个限定动词同时在结构上能够独立存在的句子。
2.2.2 并列句
2.2.3 复合句
embedded clause从属子句, 被合并的句子或者居于从属地位的句子 the incorporated, or subordinate, clause matrix clause主句, 包纳从属子句的句子。
subordinator从属连词
2.3 句子的线性排列与层次结构 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences
linearly structure and hierarchically structure
2.3.1 句子的线性次序排列 the linear word order of a sentence
2.3.2 句子的层次结构 the hierarchical structure of a sentence
e.g. The student // likes / the new linguistics professor.
2.3.3 句子的结构树形图 tree diagrams of sentence structure
branching nodes分叉点
3 句法类型 syntactic categories
Words and phrases are organized according to syntactic categories句法类型 they belong to.
Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (lexical category词类) or
a phrase (phrasal category词组类) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in
a sentence.
3.1 词类 lexical categories
3.2 词组类 phrasal categories
4 语法关系 grammatical relations
grammatical relations, Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents.
subject of……相对于……的主语；direct object of ……相对于……直接宾语
structural subject, structural object 结构主语，结构宾语
logical subject, logical object 逻辑主语，逻辑宾语
5 组合规则 combinational rules
5.1 短语结构规则 phrase structure rules
S→NP VP phrase structure rule or rewrite rule
5.2 短语结构规则的循环性 the recursive-ness of phrase structure rules
这些规则由于他们具有的循环特征recursive properties，可以生成无数个长度无限的句子来。
5.3 X-标杆理论X-bar theory
head 核心词 XP必须包含X，X分别表示：N，V，A，P； XP→……X……
Det-specifier指示语, N-the head核心词, S-the complement补语
” double bar但标杆’single bar双标杆
X-bar theory
6 句法位移和位移规则syntactic movement and movement rules
短语结构规则解释了句法类型如何构成以及句子是怎样生成的。然而有些句法现象短语结构规则却无法描述。例如，涉及位移的句子。
syntactic movement 句法位移，受转换规则的这些规则支配的；
transformational rules转换规则，转换规则的运用改变句子的句法表达方式。
6.1 名词词组位移与WH位移NP-movement and WH-movement
句法位移主要有两种：
postponing后移preposing 前移
6.2 其他类型的位移other types of movement
一般疑问句(general question)引起句法位移：
AUX-movement组动词位移
6.3 深层结构与表层结构 D-structure and S-structure
在正式的语言研究中，前移和后移的表现形式通称为：
D-structure and S-structure 深层结构，表层结构
语法结构规则+词汇
↓
深层结构
↓
位移规则
↓
表层结构
6.4 移动α一条普遍规则 Moveα— a general movement rule
如同X-标杆规则可以将各种短语结构规则高度概括起来一样，句法位移也有一条普遍规则来解释句法成分位移现象：Move αor Move Alpha
7 普遍语法理论 toward a theory of Universal Grammar / UG
principles-and-parameters theory 原则及参数理论
general principles综合原则
7.1 普遍语法原则 general principles of Universal Grammar
Case Condition 格条件
Adjacency Condition毗邻条件
7.2 普遍语法参数 the parameters of Universal Grammar
同英语类似的语言，毗邻参数值Adjacency Parameter设定为[+strict adjacency]“正绝对毗邻值”，而类似法语的语言，毗邻参数值则设定为[-strict adjacency]“负绝对毗邻值。
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学
1 什么是语义学 what is semantics?
Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. 对语言意义的研究
2 语义研究的几种主要理论 some views concerning the study of meaning
2.1 命名论 the name theory
只适用于名词，而且有一些指的是现实世界中并不存在的事物，还有一些名词不指具体事物，而指抽象概念。
2.2 意念论 the conceptualist view
语言形式与其事物之间的关系不是直接的，而是间接的。语义三角。
2.3 语境论contextualism
意义源于语境，存在于语境。语境有两种：情景语境和上下文。
2.4 行为主义论 behaviorism
这种理论和语境论比较接近，和人们对心里学的兴趣有关。
3 词汇意义lexical meaning
在讨论语义时，既要考虑词汇意义，又要考虑句子意义。先从词汇意义入手；在讨论词与词的意义关系之前的概念：
3.1 意义和所指 sense and reference
Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
意义，是词汇内在的、抽象的、游离于语境之外的意义，是词汇所有特征的集合。这个意义正是词典编纂者感兴趣的。
Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
所指，是词汇所指称的客观世界中的事物，所指讨论的是语言形式和非语言世界之间的关系。
3.2 主要意义关系 major sense relations
3.2.1同义关系 synonymy
synonyms同义词：
方言~（dialectal synonyms）；语体~（stylistic synonyms）；
情感意义或评价意义不同的~（stylistic that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning）；
用于不同搭配的~（collocational synonyms）；语义上有一定差别的~（semantically different synonyms）
3.2.2多义关系 polysemy
polysemy 多义词
从历史上看，一词多义可以看做是词义的发展和变化。
3.2.3 同音/同形异议关系 homonymy
homophones 同音异议词
homographs同形异议词
complete homonymys 完全同音同形异议词（多义词的各种意义之间有联系，而完全同音同形异议词出于巧合）
3.2.4 上下义关系 hyponymy
superordinate上义词
hyponyms下义词
co-hyponyms 并列下义词，具有同一个上义词的下义词叫做并列下义词。
3.2.5反义关系 antonymy
antonyms 反义词
可分等级的~（gradable antonyms）；互补性~（complementary antonyms）；关系~（relational antonyms）4 句子间的语义关系sense relations between sentences
两个句子：同义，对立，蕴含，预设，自相矛盾，语义变体
5 意义分析 analysis of meaning
5.1 语义成分分析法——一种词义分析法 componential analysis — a way to analyze lexical meaning
e.g. man = +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE
5.2 述谓结构分析——一种句义分析法 predication analysis — a way to analyze sentence meaning
句义包含两个方面：语法意义和语义意义
句子的语法意义，它的语法性，即语法合理性。
句子在语义上是否有意义是受被称为选择限制的规则支配的，即对词项间的相互搭配规则进行限制。
selectional restrictions
predication analysis 述谓分析——句子分成主语，谓语predicate和修饰语attribute；
句子语义分析中的基本单位叫做述谓结构predication，它是句子意义的抽象化。
述谓结构由论元arguments和谓词predicate构成。
Chapter 6 Pragmatics语用学
1 什么是语用学 what is pragmatics?
1.1 定义definition
Pragmatics, it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
语用学研究语言使用者是如何运用语句进行成功交际的。
1.2 语用学和语义学 pragmatics vs. semantics
语用学和语义学的根本区别在于是否考虑语境。不考虑语境，语义研究属于传统的语义学范围；考虑语境，语义研究就成了语用学的研究范围。
1.3 语境context
context, it is generally considered as constituted组成 by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
1.4 句子意义和话语意义 sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning
句子意义是抽象的，是不依赖语境的；而话语意义是具体的，是依赖与语境的。
话语意义基于句子意义，是句子意义在特定交际情境或者语境中的具体体现。
2 语言行为理论speech act theory
约翰-奥斯汀，从哲学意义上，对语言交际的本质进行解释，目的在于回答“用语言干什么”：
表述句constatives，施为句performatives
后来奥斯汀放弃了上述区分，他认为表述可是一种可以通过语言来实施的行为，建立另一种模式，
说话人可以同时完成三种行为：
言内行为（表达字面意义的行为）locutionary act
言外行为（表达说话人意图）illocutionary act ——哲学家们最感兴趣的，舍尔对其进行分5类：阐述类representatives；指令类directives；承诺类commissives；表达类expressives；宣告类declarations
e.g. 指令类，让……做……
言后行为（由话语所带来的结果或变化）perlocutionary act
3 会话原则 principle of conversation
参与会话的人首先得愿意合作，这条基本原则叫做合作原则Cooperative Principle。
这条基本原则包括4种准则maxims：
数量准则the maxim of quantity；质量准则the maxim of quality；
关联准则the maxim of relation；方式准则the maxim of manner
对于任何一种合作原则的违法，都使语言变得间接——会话含义conversational implicatures
Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学 historical linguistics
Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics studies language change语言变化.
Historical linguistics are concerned with the historical development历史变迁 of language and the processes involved in language change. Historical linguistics look into the nature of language change and causes that led to language change. They also explore methods and techniques with which they can reconstruct linguistic history重建语言史 and establish the relationship between languages that belong to the same language family 语系.
1 对语言进行历史研究的目的和意义 the purpose and significance of the historical study of language
历时语言学diachronic linguistics
diachronic 历时synchronic 共时
2 语言变化的本质 the nature of language change
Old English, Middle English and Modern English
3 英语的历史发展 the historical development of English
3.1 英语历史发展的主要阶段 major periods in the history of English
3.1.1 古英语 Old English
3.1.2 中古英语 Middle English
3.1.3 现代英语 Modern English
3.2 英语语言系统的变化linguistic change of English
3.2.1 语音系统的变化 sound change
3.2.1.1 元音方面的变化 vowel sound change
Great vowel shift 主要元音转移
3.2.1.2 语音的丧失 sound loss
apocope语音脱落
3.2.1.3 语音的增加sound addition
epenthesis 插入音
3.2.1.3 语音的位移 sound movement
metathesis语音变位
3.2.2 形态的变化morphological change
3.2.2.1 词缀的丧失 affix loss
3.2.2.2 词缀的添加 affix addition
3.2.3 句法的变化 syntactic change
3.2.3.1 规则的丧失 rule loss
3.2.3.2 规则的添加 rule addition
3.2.3.3 规则方面的变化 rule change
3.2.4 词汇的变化 lexical change
3.2.
4.1 词汇的丧失lexical loss
3.2.
4.2 词汇的添加 lexical addition
borrowing外借，借词word formation构词法
除了借词之外，构词法还有：
复合法compounding，派生法derivation，首字母缩略法acronym formation，混合法blending，
缩写法abbreviation，略写法clipping，逆向构词法back-formation和创新词coinage
3.2.5 语义的变化 semantic change
semantic broadening or narrowing
semantic shift语义演变
3.2.5.1 语义的广义化semantic broadening
3.2.5.2 语义的侠义化semantic narrowing
3.2.5.3 语义的演变semantic shift
4 语系 language family
historical and comparative linguistics 历史或比较语言学
genetic relationships语系关系 language families 语系ancestral languages 母语
Indo-European language family
4.1 语系的划分 classifying genetically related languages
sisters姊妹cousins兄弟family tree 谱系树protolanguage 原始语
comparative reconstruction 比较重建法 proto 原始形式cognates同源词
4种最重要语系：
the Indo-European Family, the Sino-Tibetan Family,the Anstronesian Family, and the Afroasiatic Family.
4.2 印欧语系the Indo-European Family
the Indo-European Family or Indo-European is the first and most widely investigated language family of the world.
Grimm’s major contribution——sound shift 音替变
重建了印欧语系来源的语法——印欧古型proto-Indo-European
5 语言变化的原因 the causes of language change
Sound changes may result from physiological, assimilative processes. 语音方面的变化是生理上的同化过程的结果。
Other grammatical changes may be explained as analogic change. 类推变化
Rule simplification and elaboration may arise to maintain intelligibility and unambiguity, rule generalization, external borrowing( from other languages), or internal borrowing (within the language )may also result in grammatical changes.
Lexical items may be lost for no communicative need, or added for the necessity to express new concepts or name new objects.
Many of these changes are realized by children acquiring the language through grammatical restructuring 语言重建and the imperfect learning 语言不完整的模仿of the adult language varieties.
5.1 语音的同化 sound assimilation
5.2 规则的简化与统一 rule simplification and regularization
5.3 内部借用 internal borrowing
5.4 规则的细化 elaboration
5.5 社会因素 sociological triggers
5.6 文化传播 cultural transmission
5.7 儿童对成人语法的习得 children’s approximation toward the adult grammar
Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学
Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.
language variation language use regional ethnic social groups
situational use standard language lingua franca pidgin creole diglossia bilingualism 1 语言变异 language variation
1.1 言语社区 speech community
social groups speech community A speech community
1.2 言语变体 speech variety
speech variety
standard language vernacular language dialect pidgin creole
regional dialects sociolects social dialects registers
1.3 地域变异 regional variation
language planning
1.4 社会变异 social variation
1.5 文体变异 stylistic variation
1.6 个人言语变异 idiolectal variation
idiolect personal dialect
2 标准语与非标准语 standard and nonstandard language
cross-cultural communication lingua franca pidgin creole
2.1 标准语与非标准语 standard and nonstandard language
nonstandard vernacular languages national or official language
2.2 通用语lingua francas
2.3 皮软语pidgins
2.4 克里奥尔语 creoles
3 双言与双语现象 diglossia and bilingualism
diglossia bilingualism
3.1 双言现象diglossia
high variety or H-variety
low variety or L-variety
3.2 双语现象bilingualism
4 少数民族方言 ethnic dialect
4.1 黑人英语，少数民族方言的个案研究black English, a case study of ethnic dialect
black English
e.g. Is it a Mr. Johson in the office? don’ know nothing ain’t……no don’t nobody never don’t nowhere
4.2 黑人英语的社会环境 the social environment of black English
5 社会方言social dialect
5.1 教育变体 education varieties
5.2 年龄变体 age varieties
5.3 性别变体 gender varieties
governor governess master tress career woman man lady doctor woman athlete
5.4 语域变体 register varieties
speech situations
situational dialects
judge defendant
5.5 称谓语 address terms
5.6 俚语 slang
come part, clue in to, became upset, made aware of, apace out, wired with, disheartened, sympathetic, hard hats,
construction workers, young women, is going down the tubes, will be wasted, gross you out, disgust you, cut the headlights on, turn on the headlights.
5.7 禁忌语linguistic taboo
5.8 委婉语Euphemism
euphemism
euphemismos
Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics心里语言学 psycholinguistics
psycholinguistics
acquire, produce and comprehend mind or brain
localized and organized
hemispheric organization
linguistic lateralization
language centers
critical period
language and thought
1 语言的生理基础 the biological foundations of language
1.1 盖奇案例the case of Phineas Gage
1.2人的大脑 t he human brain
neurons cerebral cortex hemispheres
1.3 大脑左右半球的侧化 brain lateralization
lateralization
left hemisphere right hemisphere
2 语言侧化 linguistic lateralization
linguistic lateralization
2.1 左半球的语言优势 left hemispheric dominance for language
2.2 两耳分听实验 dichotic listening research
dichotic listening
right ear advantage
3 语言中枢the language centers
Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, and the angular gyrus.
3.1 布罗卡区Broca’s area
Broca’s area
3.2 韦尼克区Wernicke’s area
Wernicke’s area
3.3 角形脑回 the angular gyrus
angular gyrus
3.4 语言的感知、理解与表达 language perception, comprehension and production
4 语言习得关键期the critical period for language acquisition
critical period
4.1 关键期建设 the critical period hypothesis
cerebral plasticity
4.2 吉尼案例与语言机制退化the case of Genie and the degeneration of language faculty with age
5 语言与思维 language and thought
5.1 有关语言与思维的一些早期观点 early views on language and thought
the Sapir Whorf hypothesis
5.2 萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设 the Sapir Whorf hypothesis
linguistic determinism
linguistic relativism
5.3 对萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设的批判arguments against the Sapir Whorf hypothesis
5.3.1 词与意义words and meaning
5.3.2 语法结构grammatical structure
5.3.3 翻译 translation
5.3.4 第二语言习得 second language acquisition
5.3.5 语言与世界观language and world views
5.4 对语言与思维关系的再认识 understanding the relation of language and thought
5.4.1 语言的主要功能 major functions of language
5.4.2 语言与思维的发展和融合the development and blending of language and thought
5.4.3 无言而思 thinking without language
5.4.4 语言——表达思维之约定俗称的编码系统 language as a conventional coding system to express thought
5.4.5 语言影响思维的方式 the ways in which language affects thought
influences
Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 语言习得
language development in humans
1 第一语言习得 first language acquisition
1.1 语言习得的生物基础 the biological basis of language acquisition
biological or nativist
1.2 语言习得即语法规则的习得 language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rules
general principles
1.3 语言输入与交流的作用the role of input and interaction
caretaker speech babytalk motherese or parentese
1.4 语言教学的作用 the role of instruction
conscious instruction
1.5 纠错与强化的作用 the role of correction and reinforcement
behaviorist learning theory
1.6 模仿的作用the role of imitation
2 第一语言习得的发展阶段stages of first language acquisition
babbling stages
one-word, two-word and multiword stages
2.1 前语言阶段 the prelinguistic stage
2.2 独词句阶段 the one-word stage
holophrastic sentences
overextension or underextension
2.3 双词句阶段 the two-word stage
2.4 多词句阶段 the multiword stage
telegraphic speech
3 语法体系的发展 the development of the grammatical system
3.1 语音的发展 the development of phonology
3.2 句法的发展 the development of syntax
3.3 词形的发展 the development of morphology
3.4 词汇与语义的发展 the development of vocabulary and semantics
4 第二语言习得second language acquisition
4.1 习得与学习acquisition vs. learning
acquisition learning
4.2 转移与干扰transfer and interference
transfer interference Contrastive Analysis
4.3 错误分析与第二语言的自然发展轨道Error Analysis and the natural route of SLA development
universal route Error Analysis
4.4 语际语与语言僵化现象 inter-language and fossilization
interim knowledge inter-language fossilized
4.5 语言输入的作用 the role of input
4.6 正规教学的作用 the role of formal instruction
4.7 学习者的个人因素 individual learner factors
4.7.1 第二语言习得的最佳年龄the optimum age for second language acquisition
4.7.2 学习第二语言的动机motivation
instrumental motivation integrative motivation
4.7.3 语言文化深入acculturation
acculturation
4.7.4 学习者的个性 personality
谈英语专业自考毕业论文写作 摘要：本文拟从指导教师角度出发，主要就论文写作指导具体方法和操作方面入手探讨解决自考生毕业论文写作问题。英语专业自考生在完成毕业论文时存在很多问题，比如选题不当、阅读量不够、英语写作能力欠缺、论文格式不规范、参考文献使用不当等等，本文强调指导教师的作用，强调大量阅读；尝试采用目录式提纲形式撰写毕业论文提纲；写千字短文三方面着手解决写作问题并提出建议和策论。 关键词：英语写作；自考毕业论文；写作指导 为完善高等教育体系，鼓励自学成才，造就和选拔德才兼备的专门人才，提高全民族的思想道德、科学文化素质，适应社会主义现代化建设的需要，国家特制定高等教育自学考试作为全日制普通高校的必要补充。1988年国务院发布的《高等教育自学考试暂行条例》(国发[1988]15号)第五条明确规定：高等教育自学考试的专科(基础科)、本科等学历层次，与普通高等学校的学历层次水平的要求应相一致。那么，大学本科毕业生毕业前夕不仅要修完学校规定的课程，而且还要撰写毕业论文。通过毕业论文写作，既是对学生在大学期间所学理论知识与实践技能进行的全面考核，又是对大学生进行初步学术研究基本功的训练，培养锻炼他们独立分析和综合运用的能力，同时优良的毕业论文还是本科生申请学士学位的前提和依据。我国高等教育部门对高校毕业论文的要求、学士学位的申请条件等均有明确的规定条例。但是诸多因素使得自学考试大学生毕业论文写作问题突出，英语专业自考生毕业论文存在的问题尤其明显。 一、自考毕业论文暴露出的主要问题 (一)选题定位不准 主要表现在：列过提纲之后变动选题；还有同学在动笔写了部分初稿之后变换题目，甚至有些题目跨越性较大，这些都表明选题前期准备工作做得不充分。 (二)阅读量不够广泛 论文的写作过程一般分为五个阶段：选题、收集资料并分析整理资料、构思、编写提纲和撰写初稿(不断修改、定稿)。既然论文选题有自主性，那么在确定之前，学生应该有针对性地进行前期的广泛浏览阅读各种文献资料，在阅读过程中初步确定自己感兴趣的或认为有意义的内容。曾经访谈英语专业的学生，他们承认除了课堂使用的教材外，课下较少有阅读本专业的相关理论书籍或期刊等文本资料。 (三)英语写作能力欠缺 写论文难，用英文撰写论文更加有难度，有其特殊性。自考生总体的写作基
浙江省自学考试英语高中起点本科毕业论文格式要求一、格式论文至少依次包括封面、目录、英文摘要Abstract与关键词Key words、中文摘要与关键词、英文提纲Outline、中文提纲、英文引言Introduction、正文、结语Conclusion和文献目录Works Cited等十部分。二、封面具体样式参见论文样本页A封面格式可到外国语学院网站下载。三、标题居中。如果有副标题用冒号把英文主、副标题隔开例如Children’s Punctuation: An Analysis of Err ors in Period Placement 中文副标题须在主标题后另起一行前面加破折号例如儿童标点符号使用研究——句号误用分析 2 四、英文摘要与关键词英文摘要以Abstract为标题标题左顶格字体为Times New Roman 小四号黑正体与摘要内容部分以冒号隔开。摘要内容部分长度为150词以内字体为Times New Roman 小四号正体从第二行开始到结束均为左顶格。关键词部分另起一行以Key words为标题关键词标题左顶格字体为Times New Roman 小四号黑正体与所列关键词以冒号隔开关键词以2至4个为宜字体为Times New Roman 小四号正体除少数专有名词外一律小写关键词之间以分号隔开。五、中文摘要与关键词中文摘要以摘要为标题标题左顶格字体为宋体小四号黑正体与摘要内容部分以冒号隔开。摘要内容部分长度为200字以内字体为宋体小四号正体从第二行开始到结束均为左顶格。关键词部分另起一行以关键词为标题关键词标题左顶格字体为宋体小四号黑正体与所列关3 键词以冒号隔开关键词字体为宋体小四号正体关键词之间以分号隔开。六、英文提纲英文提纲部分以所写论文英文题目为标题标题字体为Times New Roman三号黑正体居中。提纲内容字体为Times New Roman 小四号正体主要纲目左对齐以大写罗马数字标出序号或以阿拉伯数字标出序号次要纲目则依次以大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字和小写英文字母标出序号或均以阿拉伯数字标出序号如以1.1 1.2 1.1.1 1.1.2 ……的形式标出各数字或字母后均为一句点空出一格后再打该项内容的第一个字母。处于同一等级的纲目其上下行左边必须对齐。同等重要的纲目必须是两个以上即有Ⅰ就应有Ⅱ有A就应有B依次类推。提纲纲目或全部以词组形式写或全部以句子形式写不可词组与句子混用。具体样式参见《MLA科研论文写作规范》38页至40页注意观察次要纲目如何依次向右 4 适当缩进。七、中文提纲中文提纲部分以所写论文中文题目为标题标题字体为宋体三号黑正体居中提纲内容部分字体为宋体小四号正体。提纲纲目对齐、缩进和序号标注与英文提纲相一致。八、小标题正文部分章节标题或小标题单独占一行一级小标题以罗马数字为序字体为Times New Roman 小四号黑正体其余小标题为Times New Roman 小四号正体所有小标题均左对齐。正文部分的所有章节标题及其序号必须与提纲中的章节标题及其序号相一致。九、例句例句在两例以上时拟按顺序用123等对所有的例句统一编号。每例另起一行空5个英文字母回行时与上文例句对齐。十、注释分脚注、尾注和夹注三种。 1脚注 5 对标题的注释或对全篇文章的说明以脚注的形式处理注号用而不用阿拉伯数字列在当页正文下。字体采用默认值。 2尾注正文内容如有需作出特别说明或解释之处以尾注的形式处理即在正文需要注释之处的右上方按顺序加注数码1、2、3、…在正文之后文献目录之前另起一页用Times New Roman小四号黑正体居中标明“Notes”不同注释条目之间要空一行注释条目根据相关内容在正文中出现的顺序用阿拉伯数字1.、2.、3.等编号。 3夹注对论文中的直接引用或间接引用部分所依据的文献以夹注的形式标出。夹注可以采用以下几种形式作者姓氏未在引文中出现 Medieval Europe was a place both of “raids pillages slavery and extortion” and of “traveling merchants monetary 6 exchange towns if not cities and active markets in gain” Townsend and Waugh 10-16. Others hold the opposite point of view e.g. Jakobson 9Waugh 34 Modern Literary studies have their origin in classic studies Graff et al. 19-35. Modern Literary studies have their origin in classic studies Clinchy Graff Goldberger and Tarule 15-20. 作者有三个以上则在第一位作者的姓氏后写上et al.以示其余姓氏的省略或列上全部姓氏夹注中的形式应与参考文献中的形式保持一致作者姓氏在引文中出现Graff defines his recent book Professing Literature as “a history of academic literary studies in the United States” 10. 7 如在引文中提及整个文献及作者姓氏不必夹注但参考文献中要注明相关出版信息Slade’s revision of Form and Style incorporates changes made in the 1995 edition of the MLA Handbook. 集体作者如果组织名称太长第一次提及时可采用全称后加注缩略 The annual report revealed substantial progress in fundraising American Museum of Natural History 12 hereafter AMNH. 以后直接用缩略形式做夹注 The report surveys the major problems in fundraising AMNH 15. 引用多
英语（二）复习题 一、语法和词汇 1、被动语态 ①We shall put off the meeting till Friday. The meeting will be put off till Friday. ②Not until 1989 was he set free. ③I’m glad to be allowed to visit your school. ④He was robbed of wallet last night. 2、形容词和副词的比较级和最高级的变化规则、不规则变化 ①程度相等：He is as busy as before. ②程度不相等：It is not so (as) cold today as yesterday. ③……许多：far, a lot, a great deal, a little, a bit, much. ④越…越…：The more, the better. ⑤最高级：The Y angtze is the longest river in China. 3、介词 ①at表示某一时间点，地点（小）arrive at airport ②in表示某一时间段，地点（大）arrive in HK ③on表示某一天，星期几，在…之上，arrive on Friday ④between（两个之间）与among（三个以上之间） ⑤for所朝向的目标，leave for HK（去香港） ⑥from…to…，从…到…，from9AM to 5 PM ⑦by后面不加冠词/完成时的标志，by air, by bus By the time I got there, the film had already begun. I have been teaching for 10 years/since 1990. 4、情态公司 ①can. Two eyes. can see more than one. They cannot have gone out because the light’s on. Y ou can go now. ②may. May I ask you a question?/He may have seen the movie. ③must. We must leave now./ She must have made a mistake. ④ouht. Y ou ought to take his advice. When I got there, the film had already begun, I ought to have got there earlier. ⑤need. Y ou needn’t tell him. ⑥dare. How dare they do such a thing? ⑦should. He should learn how to drive./ He should have been there earlier. 5、定语似句 ①关系代词：Which, who, whom, whose, that的用法 ②关系副词：when, why, how That is the reason why I am not taking your advice. ③介词+which/whom(仅有的两个) The girl to whom you speak is my sister. ④非限制性定语从句：I have three types of pens in my box, each of them writes smoothly. 6、倒装句 ①否定词在句首：Not until he told me the news, did I know he was killed lastnight. ②only 在句首：Only after class was he allowed to go. ③so, nor, neither 在句首：The first one wasn’t good enough and neither wasthe second. ④虚拟语气中：Had they not working so hard, they wouldn’t have succeeded. Had we made up our mind, we might have succeeded. If I were you, I would consider it. 7、虚拟语气：表示建议、命令、重要性等句子中使用，如suggest/insist/order/propose/require+should+动词原形，should常被省略，这些词的名词、形容词形式也一样，如They suggest that he not smoke here. Their suggestion was we all join the party. It’s important that we do it. 8、强调句：It+is/was（仅此两种）+that/who（人）/which （有时） 9、as的用法（下册P21-26） 10、一致原则、就近原则（下册P73-75） 11、虚所语气（续）（下册P233-P236） 二、英汉互译 1、我们拥有大量的自然资源 We have plenty of natural resources. 2、Parents, teachers in schools, work associates and communicators in or using the mass media are all capable of arousing our potential interests. For example, the degree to which and the ways in which a school encourages participation in games, sports and cultural pursuits are likely to contribute to the shaping of leisure attitudes on the part of the students. Schools usually set as their educational objective the attainment of a balanced development of the porson.The jore seriously this is sought, the more likely positive attitude towards leisure as well as academic word will be encouraged. (P162) 3、他在纠正学生错误时总是采取积极的态度 He always takes positive attitude to correct the students’mistakes. 4、他的肤色与他是否是个律师无关 His color of skin is not relevant to whether his is a good lawyer or not. 5、Some concentrated study each day is better than many study hours one day and nothing the next. As you work out your individual schedule, attempt to include a minimum of two study hours every day. This will not only keep the study habit alive but also keep you up to date on your class assignments and projects.(P175) 6、他同现代生活不合板。He is out of step wit modern life. 7、Self-dsteem is what people think about themselves-whether or not they feel valued-and when family members have self-respect, pride, and belief in themselves, this high self-esteem makes it possible to tope with the everyday problems of growing up.(P225) 8、每个人都应关心自己国家的未来。 Everybody should be concerned about the future of his own country. 9、What we dream at, night isn’t as important to how we feel in the morning as the number of people who appear in our dreams. The more people, the better we feel. Our sleep influences our mood. Our mood, in turn, affects our performance. And throughout the day, our levels of mood and performance remain cosely linked. (P308) 10、广义上说，任何人做的工作都对社会有益。 In a broad sense, the work that anyone does is of social value. 11、在商业社会里信息对每个人都有用。 Information is of great value to everyone in the business world. 12、门被档住了，有什么东西档在那儿。 The door was blocked, there was something in the way. 13、他们昨天来看你时，你在干什么？ What were you doing when they came to see you yesterday. 14、他通过努力工作赢得了许多人的尊敬。 He earned many people respect by working hard. 15、没有你的帮助，我们举取是如此巨大的成功。 Without your help, we wouldn’t have so great a success. 三、其他练习 1、I would rather stay at home than go out. 2、oneself education 3、I go upstairs instead of taking the life. 4、I couldn’t help laughing 5、I spend 10 yuan on the bood. 6、Spend some time/have trouble/be busy(in)(doing)sth. 7、apply for 申请application，申请表格 apply to 应用applicant 申请人 8、I remember being paid 我记得已经收了钱。 9、I remember to pay. 我记得要去给钱的。（但并未给） Reading comprehension(阅读理解) Passage 1. Meals should be a sort of treat, not a nutritional(营养的)treatment, for your child For now, stop being an amateur nutritionist. Give her the sort of food she really enjoys. And give her only very small portions. Don’t scold her if she doesn’t 1
Should children be given pocket money? With the sharp increase in the average family income, parents tend to give their children a handsome sum of allowance. Undoubtedly, with such a big sum of money, children can enjoy a more colorful life; however, we have to admit that pocket money also produces some negative effects on the grow th of children. As a result there has been always a fierce argument over giving allowance to children. From some parents' point of view, giving children some pocket money has numerous pros. Above everything else, it helps raise a money savvy child because children will understand the value of money and learn how to use the money responsibly. Secondly, children learn to set goals and plan for the future. Thirdly, pocket money helps children develop a correct sense of responsibility and learn to make decision on one's own. By giving children an allowance you are giving them the responsibility to spend their own money the way they want. On the other hand, some teachers and parents are opposed to giving children allowance. To start with, children are likely to foster a money-oriented mentality. The obsession with the idea of making more money corrupts children's mind. Secondly, Children may primp and compare their allowance with their peers, thus leading to some psychological effects. Besides, The money may be used in an improper way such as playing games, gambling or even drug-taking. It is quite natural that people retain diverse attitudes towards pocket money. 4s far as I am concerned, I am in favor of giving children some pocket money. Money is something everyone has to deal with sometime in their life, and how they handle their finances can impact every aspect of their life. It is necessary for parents to teach their children about th e value of money, saving and responsibility. 范文赏析： 1、文章采用了雅思议论文典型的等分式结构（COUNTER-ARGUMENT）。第一段开门见山，引出争论的话题：有没有必要给小孩子零花钱？第二和第三段对争论双方的论点和论据进行了详尽的阐述，最后一段总结，表明作者的立场，文章结构完整，论证全面客观。 2、整篇文章的关键部位均能较好地运用套句，为读者指明文章发展的方向，标黑体的部分为套句。恰当地使用这些佳句，一方面起到SIGNPOST的作用，同时使文章条理清晰，层次感强。 3、文章用词多样化，句式各异。作者对复杂句式把握得恰到好处，善于换用不同的表达方式，用词准
1.现如今，人们对于______这个话题广泛关注。事实上，对于______这个问题也是有利有弊。总的来说人们普遍认为有如下好处： Nowdays,there is widespread concern over (the issue that+句子) 题目. In fact,there are both advantages and disadvantages in 题目议题. Generally speaking,it is widely believed that there are several positive aspects as follows: First, 优点一 And second, 优点二 2.正如依据流行的谚语所说，“事物都有两面性”。___也不例外，换句话说，它也有一些缺点。 Just as a popular saying goes”every cion has two sides”, 讨论议题is no exception,and in other words,it still has negative aspects. To begain with, 缺点一 In addition, 缺点二 3.总的来说，我们要把讨论议题的优点发挥到极致，同时把它的缺点降到最低。只有这样，我们才能真正更好的利用_______ To sum up,we should try to bring the advantages of讨论议题into full play,and reduce the disadvantages to the minimum at the same time. In that fact,we will definitely make a better use of the讨论议题
英语专业自考本科毕业论文选题方向 A 英国文学（英国文学的文化研究、作品分析等）； ?国别文学研究和地域文学研究 ?文学流派研究(如：浪漫主义，现实主义，自然主义，超现实主义，存在主义， 黑色幽默，意识流，女性主义文学等) ?作家研究和文本分析 ?中外比较文学研究 B 美国文学（美国文学的文化研究、作品分析等）； ?国别文学研究和地域文学研究 ?文学流派研究(如：浪漫主义，现实主义，自然主义，超现实主义，存在主义， 黑色幽默，意识流，女性主义文学等) ?作家研究和文本分析 ?中外比较文学研究 C西方文化（英美加澳新等西方国家文化以及与汉文化的比较研究）； ?文化与外语学习 ?中西方文化比较 ?地域文化研究(如：“美国60年代的摇滚学--社会的晴雨表”) D语言学（语言学一般理论的研究）； ?语言学研究(如：语言研究，文字研究，词汇研究，短语和句子研究，语篇研究， 语言与文化等) E教学法（英语教学法、测试学等方面的研究）； ?语言教学研究，教学法研究，教学方法和技巧研究(如：语言研究与语言习惯，测 试与评估研究，课堂教学管理研究，教育技术的使用与开展研究) ?英语学习个体差异研究(如：不同性格的学生的口语能力有何不同？) F翻译学（翻译理论与实践探讨、译本研究以及名家名著翻译作品对比研究等）； ?翻译学理论研究 ?翻译方法个案研究(如：“从海明威的短篇小说《一个干净、的地方》看简洁句的 翻译”) ?中外翻译比较 G 商务英语 ?国际贸易与实务等 ?旅游与旅游管理等 H其它类 ?其他(如：国际关系类论文等)
附：英语专业论文参考选题 （以下选题仅供参考，毕业论文题目的最终确立请与指导教师认真磋商。）1. A Brief Analysis of the Heroine Personality in Jane Eyre 《简爱》的主人翁个性分析 2. A Brief Comment on O’Henry Short Stories 亨利的短篇小说述评 3. A Comment on Hardy’s Fatalism 评哈代的宿命论 4. A Comparison between the Themes of Pilgrimage to the West and Pilgrim’s Progress 《西游记》与《天路历程》主题的比较 5. A Probe into the Feminist Idea of Jane Eyre 《简爱》男女平等思想的探索 6. A Study of Native American Literature 美国本土文学的研究 7. A Study of Student-Centered English Vocabulary Teaching 以学生为中心的英语词汇教学 8. A Study of the Translation of Sports Terms 体育专有名词的翻译 9. A Study of Transitional Words and Expressions 过渡词及表达法的研究 10. About the Breaking of American Dream from the Great Gatsby 从《了不起的盖茨比》看美国梦的破碎 11. About the Quality-oriented Education in English Language Teaching 英语教学中的素质教育 12. About Transform of Parts of Speech in Translation 论翻译中词性的转换 13. Application of English Idioms in Daily Life 英语习语在日常生活中的运用 14. Body Language Difference in Meaning in Cross-cultural Communication 体态语在跨文化交际中的意义差异 15. Characterization in Charles Dickens’ Novels 狄更斯小说中的人物塑造 16. Choice of Correct Words in Translation在翻译中如何准确选词 17. Comment on Bernard Shaw’s Dramatic Art 评肖伯纳的戏剧艺术 18. Comparing First and Second Language Acquisitions 二语习得与母语的比较研究 19. Cross-culture Failures by Chinese learners of English 中国英语学习者跨文化交际中的误区
学号：091502042 如何培养英语学习兴趣 Name 导师 Name -----外国语学院 2011年8月
目录
一、学生应注意培养自己在英语学习方面的兴趣（一）英语学习至关重要 1、英语应用渗透诸多方面 2、英语学习获益无穷 3、英语与我们的生活息息相关 （二）善于发现学习英语的乐趣 1、快快乐乐学习英语 2、影剧、歌曲中欢乐英语 3、使用英语的乐趣 4、英语给我们自信 5、英语怡情 （三）热爱英语、热爱老师 （四）学会学习 二、老师应怎样帮助学生培养学习英语的兴趣 （一）建立融洽师生关系，争做良师益友 （二）在教学环境中培养学生学习兴趣 1、认真备课，胸有成竹 2、了解自己的学生，游刃有余 3、展现语言魅力，妙趣横生 （三）寓教于乐，激发与培养学生学习兴趣 1、教学方法灵活多样，吸引学生注意力，增强学习积极性 2、用英语组织教学，营造良好语言学习氛围 3、教学方法新颖独特，形象生动 （四）增强实践，开展有益课内外活动，丰富学习经历三、结束语 参考文献 摘要
本文的主体是如何培养英语学习兴趣。通过从学与教，即学生自己与教师方面分别阐述。对学生自己来说他们应注意培养自己在英语学习方面的兴趣：首先，英语学习至关重要,对此要有学生明确的意识。其次，善于发现学习英语的乐趣，求学历程不易，活学乐学，趣味无穷。再次学会学习，学习没有捷径，却有很多有效帮助学习的法宝。最后，热爱英语、热爱老师，更是学习的态度问题，产生兴趣本身就是一种热爱。对于教师而言，这些教学活动的指导者应做到如下：建立融洽师生关系，争做良师益友；在教学环境中培养学生学习兴趣；寓教于乐，激发与培养学生兴趣；增强实践，开展有益课内外活动，丰富学生学习经历。总之，兴趣是成功的基础，一旦学生对英语学习产生浓厚兴趣，就会不知不觉热爱英语，并且对英语学习感到乐此不疲。 关键词：英语学习兴趣培养热爱乐学成功 如何培养英语学习兴趣
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
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