语言学概论
https://www.doczj.com/doc/8c9175011.html,nguage—a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication
2.Nature of language
Arbitrary. Systematic. Vocal. Symbolic. human specific for communication
3.Design features of language
①Productivity/creativity. produce or understand indefinite sentences by using
finite set of rules
②Duality. Sounds and meaning system
③Arbitrariness: no connection between words and meanings.
④Displacement. overcome barriers caused by space and time
⑤Transferability. Spoken and read, transfer into each other.
⑥Cultural transmission：Language and culture are closely connected.
Languages are parts of culture，reflect culture and pass on from generation to generation by learning
4.Function of language
①informative function(最重要)
②phatic function—maintain social relationship
③recording function
④performative function带来行为效果
⑤physiological/emotive/expressive function
⑥recreation function(pleasure function)
5.some basic distinctions in linguistic（前三个是老师重点讲的）
⑴langue and parole(语言和言语)
﹡Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a
speech community
Parole refers to particular realization of langue
﹡Langue is the social, conventional side of language
Parle is individualized speech
﹡Langue is relatively stable and systematic, whereas
Parole is more variable and may change according to contextual factors
﹡Langue and Parole together constitute language
⑵synchronic and diachronic(共识语言学和历识语言学)
﹡Language can be studied at a given point in time or over time
﹡when we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic
study(synchronic linguistics)[state of language at any point in history]
﹡when we study language developments through time diachronic
study(diachronic/linguistics)[differences of two or more than two languages
over time]
⑶competence and performance(能力和表现)
﹡competence—the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as
a system of abstract formal relations
①what he knows
②the ideal language users knowledge of that language system
③stable
﹡performance—their actual linguistic behavior，the actual use of this
knowledge
①what he does
②the actual realization of the language user’s knowledge
③variable
﹡The language user’s performance is not a true reflection of his competence
⑷prescriptive and descriptive
Prescriptive grammars tell what should be in the language.
Descriptive grammars tell what is in the language.
⑸speech and writing
In the past, spoken language is primary, but not the written, and the spoken
language in some sense dependent upon the standard written language.
However, language is primarily vocal.
6.Scope of phonetics ①articulatory phonetics 发音语言学
（简答题）②acoustic phonetics声学语言学
③auditory phonetics听觉语言学
7.Constant分类
⑴place of articulation
①bilabial双唇音②labiodental 唇齿音③interdental /dental齿间音
④alveolar齿龈音⑤palatal腭音⑥velar软腭音
⑦uvula小舌音⑧glottal声门音
⑵manner of articulation
①stops/plosives爆破音②fricatives摩擦音③affricates塞擦音
④nasals鼻音⑤liquids流音⑥glides滑音
8.Phonemes 音素（定义题）
定义：the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units 9.Minimal pairs and sets (定义或者分析题)
﹡Minimal pairs: two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs
﹡Minimal sets: more than two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the words are called minimal sets
https://www.doczj.com/doc/8c9175011.html,plementary distribution互补分布（分析题—见原来那张练习）
When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution
11.Pitch音高
Intonation语调---pitch differences that extend over phonetic units larger than the syllables
Tone声调--- pitch variations
12.Morpheme: A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that carries grammatical
and/or semantic meaning. 可分为free morpheme and bound morpheme.
free morpheme：some morphemes like car, talk, friend, can stand alone as words.
(定义题) 又可分为lexical morpheme and functional morpheme
bound morpheme(affixes): the morphemes which can not stand alone, but
function only as parts of words.
（定义题）又可分为derivational morpheme and inflectional morpheme
13.Word formation (简答题)
①Compounding合成词
②Derivation派生词
③Conversion词形不变，词性变化
④abbreviation(clipping 和initials＆acronyms)缩略词
⑤blending混合词
⑥back formation逆构词(减词缀)
⑦neologism创造新词
⑧borrowing外来词
14.IC Analysis(Immediate Constituents Analysis) （定义题）
The segmentation of the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cuttings until its ultimate constituents is obtained.
15.Sentence types
⑴structural approach
①simple sentence
②coordinate or compound sentence
③complex sentence
⑵functional approach
①declarative sentence
②interrogative sentence
③imperative sentence
④exclamatory sentence
16.Leech’s seven type of meanings
⑴conceptual meaning概念意义
⑵associative meaning联想意义connotative meaning内涵意义
Social meaning
Affective meaning
Reflected meaning词义间联系
Collocative meaning
⑶thematic meaning主位意义
17.Semantic field
The organization of related lexemes into a system which shows their relationship to one another
18.Synonymy ＆Antonymy
﹡synonymy--words or expressions with the same or similar meaning
﹡antonymy --the relationship of oppositeness of meaning
分类① complementary antonyms
②gradable antonyms
③relational opposites
19.Intersentential semantic relations (前两条重点)
⑴entailment蕴含关系
Something that logically follows what is asserted in the utterance
⑵presupposition前提
What is assumed by the speaker and/or assumed by him or her to be known to the hearer before he or she makes the utterance
⑶implicature含义，言外之意
In communicative practice, the speaker may use an utterance to imply further information. He or she may imply what he or she dose not literally means. Such information is called implication
20.Speech Act Theory---Sentences are not always uttered just to say things, but
rather, they are used to do things
21.Speech Act
①locutionary act ②illocutionary act ③perlocutionary act
22.The cooperative principle and the Politeness Principle
⑴The cooperative principle
①the maxim of quality ②the maxim of quantity
③the maxim of relevance ④the maxim of manner
⑵The Politeness Principle
①tact maxim得体②generosity maxim慷慨
③approbation maxim赞誉④modesty maxim谦虚
⑤agreement maxim一致⑥sympathy maxim同情
23. Dialect--any regional, social or ethnic variety of a language.
分类：①regional dialect—the language variety used in a geographical religion.
②social dialect—is used to describe differences in speech associated with
various social groups or classes. It could be further
distinguished by gender, age, ethnic group, religion and class.
③temporal dialect ④standard dialect
24.register语域
the functional variety of language that is defined according to its use in context
﹡Halliday’s register theory –register is determined by 3 factors
①field of discourse 话语范围
②mode of discourse 话语方式
③tenor of discourse 话语意旨
25. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
⑴linguistic determinism语言决定论
﹡The language we use to some extent determines the way in which we view
and think about the world around us
﹡2 versions(strong determinism and weak determinism)
⑵linguistic relativity语言相关论
﹡Distinctions encoded in one language are unique to that language alone, and
there is no limit to the structural diversity of languages
26. Language planning
A deliberate attempt, usually at the level of the state or government administration,
to affect language use in order to prevent or solve some problems of communication
27. Status planning
It changes the function of a language or a variety of a language and the rights of those who use it.
28. Development of first language acquisition (4 stages)
①the babbling stage
②the one-word stage
③the two-word stage
⑤the telegraph to infinity stage
29. Language testing: the discrete point test, the communicative test
the integrative test ---cloze dictation, oral cloze test,
question & answer, paraphrase recognition According to the purpose, tests fall into the achievement test, the proficiency test, the aptitude test, the diagnosis test.
All tests fall into the subject test & the objective test.
1、How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language. It is a scientific studies because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses, thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2、The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett) (1) Arbitrariness ----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. ----- No natural and inevitable link between the sound and the meaning Exception: Onomatopoeic words and Some compound words. (2) Productivity/creativity We can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurring Exception: and bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing. (3) Duality
Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学 1.What is pragmatics? 什么是语用学？ Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used. 语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。 由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。 2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学 Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。 3.Context 语境 Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。 4.Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。 5.Speech act theory 言语行为理论 Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. 言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。 According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.
英语语言学练习题 Ⅰ. Matching Match each of the following terms in Column A with one of the appropriate definitions in Column B. Column A 1.displacement https://www.doczj.com/doc/8c9175011.html,ngue 3.suprasegmental feature 4.deep structure 5.predication analysis 6.idiolect 7.pidgin 8.mistakes 9.interlanguage 10.motivation 11.arbitrariness https://www.doczj.com/doc/8c9175011.html,petence 13.broad transcription 14.morphology 15.category 16.errors https://www.doczj.com/doc/8c9175011.html,ponential analysis 18.context 19.blending 20.culture 21.learning strategies 22.selectional restrictions 23.phrase structure rules 24.culture diffusion Column B A.Learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. 9 B.Learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive, having a strong impact on his efforts n learning a second language. 21 C.The rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. 23 D.Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B. 24 E. A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. 6 F. A special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. 7 G.The kind of analysis which involves the breaking down of predications into their constituents- ---- arguments and predicates. 5 H.They refer to constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 22 I.The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 4 J.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. 3 K.The study of the internal structure of words, and the rules that govern the rule of word formation. 14 L.The abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 2 https://www.doczj.com/doc/8c9175011.html,nguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. It is one of the distinctive features of human language. 1 N.Learner’s conscious, goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. 10 O.The total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. 20 P.The common knowledge shared by both the speaker and hearer. 18
语言学教程笔记 第一章语言学导论 语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。 1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核 心特征。例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。 任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。（2）句法层面上的任意性。 （3） 任意性和规约性。 2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成， 每层都有自身的组合规则。话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是 相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产 性。 3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性 和递归性。利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。 4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的 物体、时间或观点。因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而 后者位置距我们非常之远。语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。移位性赋予人 们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化 的语境中。他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。 5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。 6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的 角色是可以随意更换的。 元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？
一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it
第一章 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures https://www.doczj.com/doc/8c9175011.html,nguage 1.1Why study language?为什么学习语言 A tool for communication交流的工具 An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知. 1.2What is language?什么是语言 1.2.1different senses of language 语言的不同意义 1. what a person says( concrete act of speech) a person’s consistent way of speaking or writing a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language an abstract system 2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”: a. human speech 人类的言语 b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力 c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声 音及这些声音互相结合的系统 d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达 3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交 流的一种方式. Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言 是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文 化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类 区别于动物. 1.2.2definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. What is communication? A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener). A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary? Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is
英语语言学 一、名词解释 第一课 l.Synchronic 共时性：Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “poinL in timeA A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind? 2>Langue 语言：The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community? 3>Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. ^Arbitrariness 任意性：One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 1.Phoneme 音位：Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning? The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 2
Chapter 5 Semantics ?Semantics----the study of language meaning. ?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. ?Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. ?Meaning is central to the study of communication. ?Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist) ? 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. ? 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent, peripheral ? 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression ? 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer towards what is referred to ? 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ?Taboos ? 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it ?(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less stable, more culture-specific ) 7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order ?What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning ?Naming theory (Plato) ?The conceptualist view ?Contextualism (Bloomfield) ?Behaviorism Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things. The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things ?Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…
英语语言学一、名词解释 第一课 共时性 : Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical“point\A kind”inoftimedescription. which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. 语言 : The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. 任意性 : One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 音位 : Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 音位变体 : The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. pair 最小对立体 : When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 第三课 形态学 : Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed . morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are ca lled morphemes 曲折词素 : Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. 第四课 语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. categories 句法范畴 : Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories. structure 深层结构 : Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ s subcategorizationrties,iscalledprope deep structure or D- structure. structure 表层结构 : Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure. 第五课 指称 : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 同音异义 : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 上下义关系 : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 第六课 语用学 : Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 话语 : a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. meaning 话语意义 : Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. act 言外行为 : An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker it is the’acts performedintention; in saying something.