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Lecture 2

Lecture 2
Lecture 2

Lecture 2

I. The first wave of translation (the end of 4th century BC to around the 1st century AD)

?Duration:3rd century BC---5th century

?Key words:the Septuagint ;逐字/直译(word-for-word/literal translation);意译/自由译(sense-for-sense/free translation);文学翻译;宗教翻译

?Translators:Livius Andronicus ;Cicero;Horace;Quintilian ;Jerome;St. Augustine

?Major Translation:the Septuagint (285BC—249BC) 《圣经旧约》(七十子希腊文本); a work of collective efforts of 72 Jewish scholars in Egypt.

?Translation of literary works from Greek to Latin;

?Jerome‘s translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin

?1 Greece: the Septuagint (285BC—249BC)圣经旧约(七十子希腊文本); a work of collective efforts of 72 Jewish scholars in Egypt. Religious Translation /style: faithful word for word

?2. Rome

?2.1 Livius Andronicus 里维乌斯·安德罗尼柯(284?-204BC) slave—writer—translator/ earliest translator in Rome

?His first translation: Odyssey/Odissia in意大利萨图尔努斯韵律(Saturnians metre) / less than 50 lines still remained.

?Methods and styles: liberal and adaptation from Greek Sou rces (Cicero‘s comments upon Andronicus‘ translation : hardly poetic. )/ domestication (Roman theological body to replace the Greek one in translating the theological section. P17)Reason: translation purpose: to teach Latin-----the early beginning of the grammar-translation method

?His Other major translation and adaptation : works by the Greek tragedy writers such as 埃斯库罗斯(Aeschylus)、索福克勒斯(Sophocles)以及欧里庇得斯(Euripides)

?2.2 涅维乌斯Naevius ( 270-200BC) Latin poet, dramatist; writings include: historical drama eg.《罗慕路斯》(Romulus)和《克拉斯提狄乌姆》(Clastidium). Translations: Greek plays.

?2. 3 恩尼乌斯Ennius (254?-184BC) the most influential poet among the early Latin poets, the father of Roman literature; famous works : an epic 《编年纪》(Annales) translation: Greek tragedies/adapted and revised for stage use; adaptation skillful. Cicero had a high opinion of it. But Horace criticized.

?2. 4 Other translators: 普劳图斯(Plautus, 前239?-169 )、泰伦斯(Terence, 前190?-159 )、西赛罗(Cicero, 前106 -43 )、卡图鲁斯(Catullus,84?-54?)Horace, Quintilian

?Comments:

?Two paralleled lines in translation: 1. literary translation (Andronicus) : It was the first poem in Latin, and the first model for literature translation. His translation introduced two literary styles (poetry and drama) from Greece to Rome, and later to European countries ; Enrich the Latin language 2. religious translation: a vivid and good example of word-for –word translation for later translation theory, esp. Bible translation. Due to the great contributions done by the Roman translators, Eric Jacobson says that Translating is a Roman invention (from Susan Bassnett ) , because their translation had great influence upon Cicero and Horace (first century BC) , who were the first theorists to distinguish between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their comments on translation practice influenced the following generations of translation up to the twentieth century.

?3. Cicero: Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, and writer. Born to a wealthy family, he quickly established a brilliant career in law and plunged into politics, then rife with factionalism党派之争and conspiracy. Cicero was elected consul in 63 BC;. His extant works include 58 orations and more than 900 letters, as well as many poems, philosophical and political treatises, and books of rhetoric. He is remembered as the greatest Roman orator and the innovator of what became known as Ciceronian rhetoric, which remained the foremost rhetorical model for many centuries. As a translator, his translation principles can be found in The Best Kind of Orator/De optimo genere oratorum《论优秀的演说家》and 《论善与恶之定义》(De finibus bonorum et malorum,45-44BC). In Orator, he made two major points; that word-for-word translation is not suitable; and that translators should seek in their own language expressions that reproduce as much as possible the cogency of the original.

Cicero thus commented upon his methods in translating Aeschines and Demosthenes‘ speeched

And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and forms, or as one might say, the ?figures‘ of thought, but in la nguage which conforms to our usage. And in so doing, I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language.

我不是作为解释者,而是作为演说家来进行翻译的,保留相同的思想和形式,或者如人所说的,保留思维的?影子/形象‘,但要以符合我们语言的用法为准。在这样做的过程中,我认为没有必要字对字的翻译,而是保留住语言的总体风格和力量。

?Also, he says

?If I render word for word, the result will sound uncouth, and if compelled by necessity I alter anything in the order or wording, I shall seem to have departed from the function of a translator.

?假如我逐字翻译,结果将会十分糟糕,要是没有办法必须更改一下语句顺序或选词,那我仿佛早已经背离译者应发挥的功能了。

?From On the orator

?And

?Yet it will not be necessary to render the Greek term by means of a Latin word that is a calque仿造,仿造词语,直译语of it, as is the custom of translators who do not know how to express themselves, when we already have a more common word that says the same thing. You could even do what I usually do: where the Greeks have one word I use more than one if I can‘t tran slate otherwise, but that does not mean that I should not have the right to use a Greek word whenever Latin is unable to offer an equivalent.

?from On the Limits of Good and Evil

?Comments upon Cicero

?翻译思想涉及到了几个重要的基本理论问题:直译与意译;形式与内容;译本的创造性;读者反应;译者的主体性等。翻译方法:推崇自由翻译,即译者根据自己的目的,摆脱原文语言表层的约束。只要保留住原文感人的力量,就算达到了翻译的目的。在他看来,翻译不是简单的语言转换,而是丰富民族文化、语言、文学的工具。可以说西塞罗翻译思想直接开启了西方翻译的文艺学派的先河,强调译者的主体性,翻译的创造性以及译本的文学特征。

?谭载喜认为, 西塞罗提出的所谓―解释员‖式翻译与―演说家‖式翻译,即―直译‖与―意译‖两种基本的译法,确定了后世探讨翻译的方向,影响到了贺拉斯、昆体良、哲罗姆、路德、泰特勒、施莱尔马赫、列维、加切奇拉泽等人。的确如此,从此作为一条发展的主线,翻译的文艺学派开始了他们在西方翻译思想史中绵延不绝的发展,直至今天,仍然具有强大的生命力。他们与另一条主线,即翻译的语言学派形成了对峙,并在相互的激励和启发下不断创新进步。P 20-21

?4.Horace: Latin lyric poet and satirist. The son of a former slave, he was educated in Rome. He fought in Brutus?s army in the upheaval after Julius Caesar‘s murder but gained the favour of Octavian (later Augustus) and achieved virtually the status of poet laureate. His early works include books of Satires and Epodes, but his fame rests chiefly on his books of lyrical Odes and verse Epistles, including the treatise Ars Poetica, which sets down rules for the composition of poetry. The Odes and Epistles, frequently on themes of love, friendship, and philosophy, significantly influenced Western poetry from the Renaissance through the 19th century. In translation, he was deeply influenced by Cicero and advocated the sense-for-sense translation.

?He thus says in Ars Poetica《诗艺》

?It is a hard task to treat what is common in a way of your own; and you are doing more rightly in breaking the tale of Troy into acts than in giving the world a new story of your own telling. You may acquire private rights in common ground, provided you will neither linger in the one hackneyed and easy round; nor trouble to render word for word with the faithfulness of a translator; nor by your mode of imitating take the ―leap into the pit‖ out of which very shame, if not the law of your work, will forbid you to stir hand or foot to escape; (Robinson, 2006:15)

?以自己的方式处理日常的东西是一件十分困难的任务;将特洛伊故事分解成众多行动,你这样做比重新讲述一个故事更对。你也许会在共识方面获得私人权利,条件是你既不在陈腐、简单的方面纠缠太久,也不要费事以一个忠实的译者逐字翻译;也不要按自己的模仿方式因为羞辱而采纳―跳进陷阱‖的策略,如果不是出自你作品的规定,羞辱将会让你手脚不安而逃掉。

?His household words:

?Do not worry about rendering word for word, faithful translator, but r ender sense for sense. ―不要费事以一个忠实的译者逐字翻译。‖

?from Poetic Art

?5. Quintilian: Latin teacher and writer. Quintilian was probably educated and trained in oratory in Rome. From about 68 to 88 he taught rhetoric, becoming Rome's leading teacher, and was an eminent advocate in the law courts. His translation ideas can be found in De Institutio oratoria《演说术原理》, a practical survey of rhetoric in 12 books and a major contribution to educational theory and literary criticism. His dual emphasis on intellectual and moral training appealed to humanists of the 15th–16th centuries and through them influenced the modern view of education as all-around character training to equip a student for life.

?He says,

?The object of such exercise is evident; for the Greek authors excel in copiousness of matter, and have introduced a vast deal of art into the study of eloquence; and, in translating them, we may use the very best words, for all that we use may be our own. As to [verbal] figures, by which language is principally ornamented, we may be under the necessity of inventing a great number and variety of them, because the Roman tongue differs greatly from that of the Greeks. (Robinson, 2006:20)

?这类实践的目标显而易见;因为希腊作者在描写事物的丰富性方面见长,曾将大量的艺术引入修辞研究领域;因而,在翻译他们的作品时,我们要用最最出色的词汇,因为我们使用的所有的语句都是我们自己的。对于那些言语意义,语言主要起到修饰的作用,我们必须创造大量不同的意义,因为罗马人的语言与希腊人的截然不同。

?But the conversion of Latin writing into other words will also be of great service to us. About the utility of turning poetry into prose, I suppose that no one has any doubt; and this is the only kind of exercise that Sulpicius is said to have used; for its sublimity may elevate our style, and the boldness of the expressions adopted by poetic license does not preclude the orator‘s efforts to express the same thoughts in the exactness of prose. He may even add to those thoughts oratorical vigour, supply what has been omitted, and give compactness to that which is diffuse, since I would not have our paraphrase to be a mere interpretation, but an effort to vie with and rival our original in the expression of the same thoughts.

?但是拉丁语写作转换成其他语词也对我们大有帮助。关于将诗歌转换成散文的功用,我想没人怀疑过;据说这是萨丕斯乌斯曾经使用的唯一的实践方式;因为它的崇高会提升我们的风格,诗歌的自由采用的大胆的表达方式并不排斥演说家以散文的精确表达同样的思想。他也许甚至给这些思想增加了演说的活力,提供了曾被忽略的东西,使原先松散的东西有了密度,因为我不会使我们的释译成为简单的阐释,而是努力跟原作竞争比赛,来表达同样的思想。

?I therefore differ in opinion from those who disapprove of paraphrasing Latin orations, on the pretext that, as the best words and phrases have been already used, whatever we express in another form, must of necessity be expressed worse. But for this allegation there is no sufficient ground; for we must not despair of the possibility of finding something better than what has been said; nor has nature made language so meager and poor that we cannot speak well on any subject except in one way; unless we suppose, indeed, that the gestures of the actor can give a variety of turns to the same words, but that the power of eloquence is so much inferior that when a thing has been once said, nothing can be said after it to the same purpose.

?因此,我与那些不同意释译拉丁语演说的人观点不一,理由如下,那些已经使用的最优美的词语和短语,无论我们用怎样的形式表达,都难免效果表达的糟糕。但是这个指控并没有充足的理由;因为我们千万不能失去希望,寻找比现有表达更好的表达方式的可能;自然也没有让语言如此贫瘠,以致我们都无法用另一种方式很好地表达某个对象;除非我们确实认为,演员的举止能赋予同样的词语各色不同的微妙意义,但是雄辩的力量是如此无关紧要,当说出某事时,没有什么东西可以用来表达同样的意图。

?

?

?But let it be granted that what we conceive is neither better than our original nor equal to it; yet it must be allowed, at the same time, that there is a possibility of coming near to it.

?但是让我们假定,我们构思的既不比原作高超也无法与它平起平坐;可是同时必须允许接近原作的可能性存在。

?

?If a thought could be expressed well only in one way, it would be but right to suppose that the path of excellence has been shut against us by some of our predecessors; but in reality there are still innumerable modes of saying a thing, and many roads leading to the same point.

?如果思想只能用一种方式表达的完美,那么通向完美的道路就被我们的先辈关闭了,这样想是不错的;但现实生活中还有无数表达事物的方式,通向同一目标的道路有多条。

?Comments

?昆体良意识到了希腊语和拉丁语之间在词汇、修辞等方面的差异。但他并不认为这种差异是无法传译的。在他看来,无论语言、文化间多么不同,表达同一思想、观点、情感等等的途径是多样的,虽然无法获得原作的同样效果,但是可以通过种种手段接近原作。昆体良简直就是语言共性论的先驱,也给翻译的可译性提供了理论上的支持。另外,他的主要观点就是提出了翻译要与原作进行竞争。(Robinson, 2006:20)他认为,翻译也是创作,而且应该比原作更好,应该超越原作。

?罗马帝国早期这三位人物对翻译的观点一脉相承,都在原则上提倡自由翻译,创造性翻译,坚决反对拘泥于原文字句的直译,可以说开了翻译的文艺派的先河,为后世树立了可以效仿的榜样。尤其是昆体良的与原作竞争的翻译思想,更是将这派的立场推倒了一个极端,深深影响了后来者的论述。当然,我们不能孤立的看待他们的翻译主张,要保持一个清醒的历史意识,看到这些主张的背后其实有着丰富的文化含义。如果从文化交流的角度审视,可能对这种现象的产生原因有着更深刻地认识。另外不可否认的是,这样一种翻译的态度以及实践大大丰富了译入语文学和文化,尽管译本并不―忠实‖。

II. The second wave of translation (around the 1st century AD to 5th century AD) 罗马帝国的后期至中世纪初期

?1. Background: in the year 313m Constantine, who believed that God had helped him in winning the battle between the rivals and him, issued the Edict of Milan. Since then ,Christianity began to gain favor from the Roman empire. In 392 AD, emperor Theordosius made Christianity the official religion of the empire. It began to spread to the whole country.

?2 .Translation of the B ible: the Septuagint; the Vulgate edition, ―通俗拉丁文本《圣经》‖(Editio vulgate)

?2.3 Translators and theories:

?2.3.1 Philo Judaeus, Alexandrian Jewish philosopher.

?His writings have had an enormous influence on both Jewish and Christian thought, and particularly upon the Alexandrian theologians Clement and Origen. Philo was the first important thinker to attempt to reconcile biblical religion with Greek philosophy: he constructed the first influential systnesis of Judaic theology and Greek philosophy –?faith‘ and ?reason‘. In so doing he developed an all egorical interpretation of Scripture that enabled him to find many of the doctrines of Greek philosophy in the Torah (the Pentateuch). An eclectic and a mystic, Philo emphasized the total transcendence and perfection of God, and in order to account for creation and the relation between the infinite God and the finite world, he used the concept of the Logos. Logos is the intermediary through which God's will acts and is thus the creative power that orders the world. Along with the Logos, Philo posited a whole realm of beings or potencies that bridge the gap between the Creator and his creation. Only fragments of Philo's works remain, but numerous quotations from his writings are found in early Christian literature.

?The spirit of Plato emerges clearly in Philo's general acceptance of notions such as the theory of Ideas, and the belief that the body is a tomb or prison, that life for man should be a process of purification from the material, that cosmic matter preceded the formation of the cosmos, and that the existence of God can be inferred from the structure and operations of the universe. The influence of stoicism emerges in his doctrines of man's ―unqualified‖ free will, of the need to live in accord with nature, of the need to live free from passion, and o f the ―indifference‖ of what is beyond one's power.

?In his interpretation of Scripture, Philo seems to have adhered to its "spiritual" rather than to its literal truth. Thus the literal idea of a 6-day creation is rejected, and the story of Adam's rib is written off as mythical. Less acceptable to modern taste, perhaps, was his pervasive use of allegorical interpretation.

?He says in The Creation of the Septuagint

?…taking the sacred books, stretched them out towards heaven with the hands that held them, asking of God that they might not fail in their purpose. And He assented to their prayers, to the end that the greater part, or even the whole, of the human race might be profited and led to a better lifer by continuing to observe such wise and truly admirable ordinances.

?Sitting here in seclusion with none present save the elements of nature, earth, water, air, heaven, the genesis of which was to be the first theme of their sacred revelation, for the laws begin with the story of the world‘s creation, they became as it were possessed, and , under inspiration, wrote, not each several scribe something different, but the same word for word, as though dictated to each by an invisible prompter. …(they are spoken not as translators but as prophets and priests of t he mysteries, whose sincerity and singleness of thought has enabled them to go hand in hand with the purest of spirits, the spirit of Moses

?译本的神圣来自上帝的感召. ―译者就会象着了魔似的,在神的感召下,几个人译出的结果不是互有差别,而是一字一句都相同,好比听写一样.‘

?总结

?菲洛最早对―七十子‖作出了评述, 认为只通过语言,不通过上帝,就不能翻译圣经.

?重词或者形的翻译线路.

?两千年以前,菲洛的理论被人奉为<圣经>的翻译标准. 如, 奥古也强调圣经的翻译必须经过上帝的感召,翻译的基本单位是词.并且最推崇希腊文本.

?2.3.2 St. Jerome杰罗姆( 347-419) Church Father and biblical translator. Born into a wealthy Christian family in Dalmatia, he was educated there and in Rome. From 377 to 379 Jerome was in Antioch, where he studied biblical texts and translated the works of Origen and Eusebius. He lived in Rome (382–85), but theological controversy and opposition to his ascetic views led him to depart for the Holy Land, and he settled in Bethlehem, where he lived until his death. Traditionally regarded as the most learned of the Latin Fathers, he wrote numerous biblical commentaries and theological tracts on Pelagianism培拉季教义(主张―无原罪,自由意志‖) and other heresies. In 406 he completed his translation of the Bible into Latin, including his own translation of the Old Testament from Hebrew; Jerome's Latin Bible is known as the Vulgate.

?Jerome"s fame as a translator rests precisely on his scriptural translations. In insisting in this regard on "the accurate transmission of the meaning of the text rather than the budding orator"s freely ranging imagination", he introduced "the first major shift in western translation theory" (Robinson 1997a: 23). Jerome maintained the major terms of source text and target text, original meaning and translated meaning, the concepts of literal and dynamic translation ("word for word" and "sense for sense"), and joined these together through his "new ascetic regimen" (Robinson 1997a: 23). An explicit consequence was an emphasis on interpreting the original meaning "correctly in order to reproduce it properly". "Correctness" and "accuracy", the repressed terms of Ciceronian discourse which were previously only the concern of "faithful translators" but not budding rhetoricians, entered the discourse formation with a sacred necessity.

?公元395年,在写给执政官帕马齐乌斯(Pammachius)的一封信中,哲罗姆亮出了自己有关翻译方法的见解:

?Now I not only admit but freely announce that in translating from the Greek-except of course in the case of the Holy Scripture, where even the syntax contains a mystery- I render not word-for-word, but sense-for-sense. (St Jerome 395CE/Robinson, 2006:25)

?现在我不仅承认而且自由宣告,在翻译希腊文本时-当然《圣经》除外,因为甚至《圣经》里的句子也包含某种神秘-我不是采用逐字对译的方法,而是采用意译。

?总结来看,哲罗姆对待翻译的看法和主张主要包括:

?[1]翻译不能始终字当句对,而必须采取灵活的原则;

?[2]应该区别对待―文学翻译‖和―宗教翻译‖;

?[3]正确的翻译必须依靠正确的理解。(PP26-27)

?

?上面第二条实际上将待译文本类型与翻译方法结合了起来,这与《七十子希腊文本》的翻译过程体现的思想何等相似。这个传统后来并没有消失,而是在现代语言学(以索绪尔为标志)翻译理论那里找到了最强有力的回应。

?2.3.3 St. Augustine奥古斯丁Best Known As Influential Christian thinker

?Born in Africa as the eldest son of Saint Monica, he was educated in Africa and baptized in Milan. His works—including The Confessions, which is often called the first Western autobiography —are still read around the world.

?As a young man he became interested in philosophy, with little interest in Christianity until a religious experience in his early thirties. By 396 he had become bishop of Hippo, and his sermons and

writings gained fame, notably his Confessions and the treatise City of God. His notions of God's grace, free will and Original Sin had a great influence on Christian theology

?In Roman Catholicism and the Anglican Communion, he is a saint and pre-eminent Doctor of the Church, and the patron of the Augustinian religious order. Many Protestants, especially Calvinists, consider him to be one of the theological fathers of Reformation teaching on salvation and grace. In Orthodox Churches, he is considered Blessed or even a saint by some while others are of the opinion that he is a heretic, primarily for his statements concerning what became known as the filioque clause 和子

?(注:希腊原本中在论及圣灵―从父‖而出之后的部分,并没有包括―和子‖(filioque)这个子句在内:

我信圣灵,

赐生命的主,

从父(和子)出来,

与父、子同受敬拜同受尊荣,

和子句‖虽只涉及圣灵论问题,然而本质上关乎圣父、圣子和圣灵之关系的重新理解,即牵涉到三一神学的整体框架。据此可见,基督教三一神学的早期建构实则早已存在视野上的多元,后来的分裂只是这种多元性的合乎历史的走向而已。)

?His translation principles mainly from《论基督教义》(De doctrina christiana/On the Christian Doctrine)和一封给哲罗姆的信。

?Knowledge of foreign languages is necessary because translations of the same text tend to differ from each other, as I said before.

?外国语言的知识是必要的,因为同一原文的译文也不会一样,我上面谈到过。

?

?

?The real sense, which many translators try to express according to their personal judgment and ability, is not firmly established when it is not established in the original language, since a translator very often misses the real sense when he is not very learned. That is why you should try to learn the languages from which the scriptures were translated into Latin, or you should at least stick to the work of such translators who have rendered their own original word for word. Such literal translations are insufficient, of course, but they can serve to show whether or not the translations of those who want to translate more according to the sense than according to the way the words are phrased are correct. For often not just individual words are translated, but also syntactical features that are simply not acceptable in Latin usage, if one wants to preserve the traditional style used by Latin writers up to now. Such a literal translation is often not exactly a hindrance to understanding, but it does irritate those readers who enjoy the content more when its verbal expression has managed to preserve a certain purity. (from De doctrina christiana)真正的意义,很多译者尝试根据自己的个人判断和能力表达出来,如果在原语中没有建立起来,是不会牢固地建立起的,因为译者如果不是十分博学,他会经常把握不住它。这就是为什么你必须尽力学习那些语言,圣经经文从这些语言译成拉丁语,或者你应该至少遵循那些逐字翻译的译者的作品。这类直译当然是不够的,但这类译文可以向人们展示那些根据意思而不是根据字词构成方式的人翻译得是否正确。因为经常情况是翻译并不仅仅翻译单个字词,如果人们想保留现今那些拉丁作家使用的传统风格,还要翻译那些在拉丁语言用法中不被接受的句法特征。这类直译经常不全是理解的障碍,但这类译文的确激怒一些读者,如果语言表达成功地保存了某种纯净,他们欣赏内容更多些。

?When one of our brothers, a bishop, had introduced the use of your translation in the church of which he is the pastor, the congregation hit upon a passage in the prophet Jonah which you translated in a

very different way from the way it had established itself in the mind and memory of all, and the way it had been sung for such a long time. Great unrest arose among the people, especially since the vituperative manner. As a result the bishop-it happened in the town of Onea-saw himself forced to rely on the Jews who lived in the city to clear up the matter. But they replied, either out of ignorance or out of malice, that the Hebrew manuscripts contained exactly what was also to be found in the Greek and Latin manuscripts. And then what? To escape from great danger the man was forced to correct himself, as if he had made a mistake, since he did not want to lose all the people in his church. (from the ―Letter to Saint Jerome)

?我们的一位兄弟,一位主教,曾将你翻译中的用法介绍到他任牧师的教堂,结果会众恰巧读到先知约拿那一章的一段话,你用不同的方法翻译,与他们所有人的心灵和记忆中根深蒂固的印象大不一样,而他们以这样的方式唱了很长时间了。人群中掀起一阵极大的不安,特别是你的译文表现出了不敬神的态度。结果,这位主教—同样的事情发生在欧尼市镇—被迫求救于市镇里的犹太人来解决此事。

?在给哲罗姆的信中,可以清楚地看到,当时的宗教翻译文本在目的语言文化中所能起到的巨大作用和发挥的功能。字词的改变牵动的不是忠实原文的问题,而是谁更有资格阐释圣经经文,谁的经文更具有权威性这个原则问题。翻译因此不是简单的字词的转换,与言外因素有着密切的关联。

?总的来看,奥古斯丁的翻译思想主要贡献在于,他对翻译过程中牵涉的语言问题有深入的看法。他认为:译者只有具备以下条件才能算做合格。首先是要通晓两种语言;其次是熟悉并―同情‖所译题材;最后是要具有一定的校勘能力。另外奥古斯定还注意到翻译中应该注意三种风格:朴素、典雅、庄严。三种风格的取舍主要取决于读者的要求。翻译中必须考虑―所指‖、―能指‖和译者―判断‖的三角关系。这一理论是对亚里士多德―符号‖理论的进一步发展。有关翻译单位的问题,他认为翻译的基本单位是词。另外《圣经》的翻译必须依靠上帝的感召。他的这种提法在早期《圣经·旧约》的希腊文本的翻译中便有所体现,可以说形成了一条线索,这条线索与基督教在西方世界力量的发展,内部各种不同教派教义的冲突、力量的消长,有着不可分割的联系。

?6.小结:

?奥古斯丁辞世不久,庞大的罗马帝国在危机四伏中轰然倒塌。公元476年罗马帝国灭亡,标志着一个时代的结束,西方翻译史上第一次翻译活动高潮也就此告一段落。这一高潮有这么几个特点:

?1、形成了两个各具特色的翻译实践传统:以《圣经》为代表的宗教文本的翻译传统;以罗马翻译希腊文学作品为代表的世俗文本翻译传统。希腊时期《七十子希腊文本》的出现,拉开了西方世界延续几千年的《圣经》翻译的序幕。而在罗马帝国时期,对希腊辉煌文化、文学遗产的借鉴、学习和翻译则成了主流,在帝国早期尤其如此。到了帝国后期,《圣经》的翻译又蓬勃发达起来,主要原因是基督教在获得帝国官方的许可后,赢得了突飞猛进的发展机遇,其重要性与日俱增。主体文化的需求调节着翻译的―众生相‖。

?2、第一次初步涉及到翻译的一些基本理论问题,如翻译的方法—直译和意译;翻译类型—宗教翻译和文学翻译;作品的风格;读者的考虑;译者的创造性等等。尤其是对待翻译的定义。在罗马时期,翻译也是一种文学创作形式。罗马对希腊文学遗产的翻译丰富了他们自己的文学,给他们带来了新的文类,如戏剧和史诗。丰富了拉丁语言。希腊文化经由罗马人的传承,直接影响了西方文化的方方面面,构成了西方文明的两大源头,即两希传统(希伯来和希腊)。若没有罗马人大量的翻译作为联系的纽带,以希腊、罗马为代表的古典文化便不可能对西方文化发生这么大的、持久性的影响。

?3、罗马时期有关翻译的言论开启了西方翻译思想史上的两大线索:以早期西塞罗、贺拉斯、昆体良为代表的翻译的文艺学派,强调翻译的艺术特征和创造性,主张译者应该摆脱词句的镣

铐,跳出优美的舞蹈。而帝国后期的奥古斯丁则代表了另一条重要的发展线索,即翻译的语言学派。当然,这里的语言学其实是古典语文学(philology)。强调在翻译过程中对语言问题的重视,力主忠实源文。因此从古罗马开始,西方翻译思想史上就开始了直译和意译,形式对内容,文学对语言的争论,一直延续到今天仍然具有现实的意义和价值。

?4、出现了西方翻译史上反复争论的几大翻译模式:哲罗姆模式、贺拉斯模式。前者的特征是按照待译文本类型,灵活选取翻译方法,译文忠实源作;后者则是突出自由译,坚决摈弃直译、死译。这两种根本相异的翻译模式在西方翻译思想史的各个时期都有突出的表现,形成了自己的演进轨迹。

《西方翻简史》第一章问题讨论

?1. 西方翻译理论体系有两条清晰可见的主要路线:一条是文艺翻译理论线,另一条是语言学翻译理论线。试论这二条线的长短。

?2. 文艺学派与语言学派之争的焦点。

?3. 二战以来,西方翻译理论如何看待文艺学派与语言学派的观点?

?4. 你认为,翻译究竟是科学还是艺术?

英国诗人乔叟生平简介

英国诗人乔叟生平简介 杰弗里乔叟是英国中世纪最为伟大的文学家,也是一名诗人。下面是为你收集整理的英国诗人杰弗里乔叟生平介绍,希望对你有帮助! 杰弗里乔叟是在一三四三年出生在英国的伟大诗人。他是英国文学史上的开山鼻祖,在他的带领下,英国文学开启了文明的旅程。杰弗里乔叟不仅是一位高高在上的诗人,他还有多个服务人民的职业,比如外交家和侍臣。 杰弗里乔叟的名字乔叟在英文中是鞋匠的意思,从他的名字不难看出,杰弗里乔叟的祖上是做鞋匠起家的。而在他父亲这一辈,开始从事酒庄生意,因此家里的条件十分优渥。在杰弗里乔叟十三岁的时候,被父亲送进皇宫做英国国王爱德华的儿子的侍从。两年后,因为参加英国与法国的战争不幸被俘虏,好在第二年被国王赎回宫中继续做侍从。在杰弗里乔叟二十三岁的时候迎娶了王后的一位室寝女官。结过婚的杰弗里乔叟不断地代表爱德华三世国王前往各个欧洲大陆进行会见。在这过程中,他遇到了影响他文学观地两个人;;薄伽丘和皮特拉克。 在杰弗里乔叟早期的时候创作的文学作品带有浓重的意大利和法国文学的韵味。因为初期的他还只是会模仿创造,没有找到属于自己的文学风格。所以在在他的那本《特罗勒斯和克莱西德》就是参照

法国骑士为原型,模仿法国的动物寓言,将书中的人物性格刻画地风趣幽默。一直到他遇见薄伽丘和皮特拉克,他的作品开始发生了改变。杰弗里乔叟开始不再一味利用寓言讲述故事,他开始刻画生活。将现实生活中的种种人物刻画进了自己的作品中,开始了他现实主义作品的道路。 乔叟的代表作杰弗里乔叟是英国在中世纪时候最伟大的文学家。他一生热爱读书,模仿优秀的文学作品。在杰弗里乔叟漫长的一生中,写下了无数的作品,其中《坎特伯雷故事集》、《公爵夫人之书》和《声誉之宫》都是乔叟的代表作。 乔叟的代表作之《坎特伯雷故事集》,这本书是杰弗里乔叟成熟时期创作的作品。这本书无论是从作品涉及的内容角度还是作品的表达技巧上面都是能够显现乔叟的巅峰作品。在这本书中,杰弗里乔叟创造了英雄双韵体,这让后来的英国诗人广泛地学习运用在后世的作品中。 《公爵夫人的书》作为另一个杰弗里乔叟的代表作品的原因是因为这是杰弗里乔叟的第一本创作的作品。他里面充满着法文文学作品和意大利文学作品的影子。因为这些都是早期的杰弗里乔叟模仿的对象。 从乔叟的代表作品中可以看出他个人风格的变化和演变历程。在成熟时期的乔叟不仅是开创了属于自己的独特风格作品,还更是用这种特有的风格开启了伊丽莎白时期的文学高峰。受到乔叟的作品影响最大的就是著名的戏剧作家莎士比亚。莎士比亚的作品就是他深刻研

翻译技巧总结

翻译技巧总结 个人认为,翻译题很重要!考研是个充实自己的过程,只要你还需要英语,就离不开翻译,所以大家应该引起足够重视。 首先个人推荐一本书,XDF唐静老师的《拆分与组合翻译法》,我听过他的课,他的方法很实用,感觉很象下面介绍的第四种方法。 翻译题里考察三方面内容: 1、专有名词(如operational research expert)、习惯用法(如depend on)及多义词的翻译(如school、set的多义) 2、一般性翻译技巧:包括词义选择,词序调整,词性转换和增词法等等 3、具体句型(定从、状从、主从、宾从、表从、同位从、强调结构、并列、比较、倒装、插入、被动、否定等) 其中2、3是大考点,具体内容可在论坛下XDF的翻译笔记来看,在此不赘述。 可看出,应对翻译题的主要武器是翻译技巧,下面正式进入正题(常用方法、被动语态译法、形容词译法、举例详解) 一、常用方法 英汉两种语言在句法、词汇、修辞等方面均存在着很大的差异,因此在进行英汉互译时必然会遇到很多困难,需要有一定的翻译技巧作指导。常用的翻译技巧有增译法、省译法、转换法、拆句法、合并法、正译法、反译法、倒置法、包孕法、插入法、重组法和综合法等。这些技巧不但可以运用于笔译之中,也可以运用于口译过程中,而且应该用得更加熟练。 1增译法:指根据英汉两种语言不同的思维方式、语言习惯和表达方式,在翻译时增添一些词、短句或句子,以便更准确地表达出原文所包含的意义。这种方式多半用在汉译英里。汉语无主句较多,而英语句子一般都要有主语,所以在翻译汉语无主句的时候,除了少数可用英语无主句、被动语态或“There be…”结构来翻译以外,一般都要根据语境补出主语,使句子完整。英汉两种语言在名词、代词、连词、介词和冠词的使用方法上也存在很大差别。英语中代词使用频率较高,凡说到人的器官和归某人所有的或与某人有关的事物时,必须在前面加上物主代词。因此,在汉译英时需要增补物主代词,而在英译汉时又需要根据情况适当地删减。英语词与词、词组与词组以及句子与句子的逻辑关系一般用连词来表示,而汉语则往往通过上下文和语序来表示这种关系。因此,在汉译英时常常需要增补连词。英语句子离不开介词和冠词。另外,在翻译时还要注意增补一些原文中暗含而没有明言的词语和一些概括性、注释性的词语,以确保译文意思的完整。总之,通过增译,一是保证译文语法结构的完整,二是保证译文意思的明确。如: (1) What about calling him right away? 马上给他打个电话,你觉得如何?(增译主语和谓语) (2) If only I could see the realization of the four modernizations. 要是我能看到四个现代化实现该有多好啊!(增译主句) 中国政府历来重视环境保护工作。 The Chinese government has always attached great importance to environmental protection. (省译名词) 3转换法:指翻译过程中为了使译文符合目标语的表述方式、方法和习惯而对原句中的词类、句型和语态等进行转换。具体的说,就是在词性方面,把名词转换为代词、形容词、动词;把动词转换成名词、形容词、副词、介词;把形容词转换成副词和短语。在句子成分方面,把主语变成状语、定语、宾语、表语;把谓语变成主语、定语、表语;把定语变成状语、主语;把宾语变成主语。在句型方面,把并列句变成复合句,把复合句变成并列句,把状语从句变成定语从句。在语态方面,可以把主动语态变为被动语态。如:

初中英语代词用法

代词: 1、代词的分类:英语中代词分为:人称代词、物主代词、反身代词、指示代词、关系代词、 疑问代词、连接代词和不定代词等等。 2 1I often go shopping on Sundays. 购物) / Are they from Brazil?(他们是巴西人吗?) / Where have they gone?(他们上哪 儿去了?)/ That’s it.(就那么回事)/ It’s he!(是他!) 2、宾格用来作及物动词或者介词的宾语。如:Who teaches you English this year?(今年 谁教你们的英语?) / Help me!(救救我!) / We often write letters to her.(我们常给 他写信) 3、人称代词作表语或者放在比较状语从句连词than或as之后时,可以用主格形式,也可 以用宾格形式,口语中大多用宾格。如:--Who is it?(是谁?)–It’s I/me.(是我。) 4、三个不同人称同时出现,或者主语中包含“我”时,按照“you→he→I”的顺序表达。如: Both he and I are working at that computer company.(我和他都在那家电脑公司上班) –Who will go there?(谁要去那儿?) –You and me.(你和我) 5、人称代词it除了可以指人指物之外,还可以表示“时间、天气、温度、距离、情况” 等含义,此外还可以作“非人称代词”使用,替代作主语或者宾语的不定式、动名词 或者名词性从句。如:--What’s the weather like today?(今天天气怎样?)—It’s fine.(天气晴好) / --What’s the time?(几点啦?)–It’s 12:00.(12点) / It’s a long way to go.(那可要走好长的路) / It took him three days to clean his house.(打扫屋子花了他 三天的时间) / It is very clear that the public want to know when these men can go into space.(很显然,公众想知道这些人什么时候能进入太空) / We found it very difficult to learn a foreign language well.(我们发觉要学好一门外语是非常困难的) 3 Is that your umbrella?(那是你的伞吗?) / I often go to see my aunt on Sundays.(我经 常在星期天去看望阿姨) / They are their books.(是他们的书) 2、名词性物主代词相当于名词,既代替事物又表明所属关系,在句子中往往独立地作主 语、宾语或者表语,后面千万不可以跟名词。如: This is your cup,but where is mine?(这是你的杯子,可我的在哪儿?)/ Your

SP(Lecture2)

目录2-1随机过程:随机游动与鞅1 Lecture2 日期:2011-03-23作者:杨广宇 摘要 目录 1随机游动、例子2-2 2输光问题2-3 3首达时2-5 4反射原理、反正弦律及对偶2-9 5Wald等式2-15 6附注2-18 6.1鞅停止定理......................................2-18 6.2稳定律的一个例子..................................2-19

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本文部分内容来自网络整理,本司不为其真实性负责,如有异议或侵权请及时联系,本司将立即删除! == 本文为word格式,下载后可方便编辑和修改! == 英国文学家乔叟的作品特点介绍 乔叟是诗人、哲学家、炼金术士、天文学家,被称为英国文学之父,是中世纪公认为最伟大的英国诗人。以下是小编精心整理的乔叟的作品特点介绍,希望能帮到大家了解! 乔叟的作品特点 杰弗里乔叟是一位将现实主义风格和浪漫幻想主义风格完美结合的英国文学家。乔叟的作品为英国的文学史打开了新的一条文明道路,他是英国乃及全世界公认的在中世纪的时候最了不起的英国籍本土诗人。 关于乔叟的作品在现今世界还有不少人对它进行拜读研究。乔叟的作品在早期的时候充满着意大利和法国文学作品的特点风格。因为热爱读书的乔叟,在他开始代表英国国王爱德华三世出使欧洲大陆各国的时候,乔叟的作品风格接触到了更多不一样的新鲜血液。在当时没有方便的交通以及印刷术的普及。在乔叟出使不同的国家的时候,会大量找寻当地的文学作品进行品读。走过越来越多的国家,让他慢慢扩大了自己的知识面,开始知道了不一样的文学作品。一直到他品读到薄伽丘和皮特拉克的作品。乔叟初次接触到的现实主义风格的作品让他对这种艺术风格痴迷。 乔叟是个非常善于模仿的人,他的作品一直在模仿他认为好的作品进行再次创作而进行的。当乔叟发现现实主义风格作品的时候,他将这种风格直接运用到了他后来的作品之中。乔叟的作品在后期就是混合了现实主义的刻画以及加上浪漫主义的幽默用词进行整合的产物。也正是这种不同于现实主义风格和浪漫主义风格的作品,让乔叟的作品别具一格。形成了他浓重的个人风格。 乔叟的历史贡献 杰弗里乔叟是英国中世纪最为伟大的文学家,他开启了伊丽莎白时期的文学道路。乔叟的历史贡献是不言而喻的,他作为英国的诗歌之父,一生遗留下不少的优秀作品。 《坎特伯雷故事集》、《公爵夫人之书》、《声誉之宫》和《特罗勒斯和克莱西德》都是他的经典作品。这些作品一些是杰弗里乔叟的早期作品,比如《公爵夫人之书》。这本书是杰弗里乔叟第一本创作的书籍,从这本书中

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初中英语代词专项训练及答案

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常用的翻译技巧

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初中英语代词讲解及练习

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