语义学复习佛脚大全
--- 鱼太郎
一、填空
1.西方主流语言学派：Traditional philology(lexical meaning),historical comparative L(lexical
meaning),structural L(little attention to meaning),functional L(meaning centre theory),TG grammar(standard theory),cognitive L(meaning centre theory)
2.语言学不同的研究方式与观点：specific vs general, synchronic vs diachronic,
macrolinguistics vs microlinguistics, thoeritical vs applied, descriptive vs prescriptive
3.结构主义学派代表人物：Saussure, bloomfield
系统功能派代表人物：Firth,M.A.K.Halliday(Ideational meaning, interpersonal meaning&textual meaning)
转换生成语法代表人物：Chomsky(6大阶段：nativism, universal grammar ,autonomy,modularity, formalism,deduction；6变：TG grammar, standard theory, extended standard theory, revised extended standard theory, government&blinding theory, minimalist program ), Katz(在standard theory阶段引入语义成分，使phonology, semantics&syntax成为三大分支)
认知语言学代表人物：Lakoff,Jackendoff
4.语言学三大革命：Structualist L(Saussure: study language itself)→TG grammar(Chomsky:
study mind)→Cognitive L(Lakoff: study embodiment)
5.Saussure的革命-- 两分法：19世纪语言学主流：speech, external, diachronic, entity.
（Chomsky弃之）
6.认知语言学对TG的六大批判基础：embodiment,specific side of L, cognitive strategies,
form and meaning, non-formalism, induction and deduction.
7.Analytic philosophy包括logical empiricism和ordinary language philosophy.前者代表有
Frege, Russel, Wittgenstein(前期),Schlick,Carnap, Tarski,Davidson,Morris等，后者代表有Moore,Wisdom, Wittgenstein（后期）,Austin,Grice,Searle.
8.西方哲学简史的三大转向：Onotological turn→epistemology turn→linguistic turn。从
perceptualism来说是nominalism,重perception和individualism，从rationalism来说是realism,重reasoning,universals,scholasticism
9.语义学分支：philosophical vs linguistic S/formal vs cognitive S/ extensional vs. intensional/
synchronic vs diachronic/structualist S/TG/Radical S./Fuzzy S/cognitive S
10.structuralist semantics的词义是由paradigmatic relations和syntagmatic relations组成，两
大steps是semantic field和componential analysis.
11.TG产生的语义学派：Interpretative(Chomsky, Katz: sentence priority)，
generative(Lakoff:semantics priority)，Case grammar(Fillmore：deep case frame)，Chafe semantics theory(Chafe)，decompositional semantics(Katz&Fodor：lexicon&projection rule) 12.著名理论对应人名：
提出分析句和综合句的是：Hume
Behaviorism的倡导者：Bloomfield
系统意义（Sense）的提出，现代语义学开创者：Frege
外延论(denotational)与表征论(representational)的划分：Saade
语义场：J. Trier
语义成分分析法：Lounsbury,Goodenough
词义关系&句义关系：Kempson
语义公设（meaning postulate）：Carnap(1957)
语义标示（semantic marker）:Katz
真值条件论：Tarski
语义三角：Ogden&Richards
符号学（semiotics）的trilogy：Morris&Peirce(syntax,semantics&pragmatics)
行为语义论：Watson
建构论：Piaget
Speech act是最小的语言交流单位：Searle
礼貌原则，面子保全原则：Brown&Levinson
关联理论：Sperber&wilson
新格莱斯理论：Levinson（Quality＞Manner＞Information）
动态语用学：Jenny Thomas
13.按时间顺序分，语义学包括philology period, traditional s,modern s.(logical s→structualist s
→TG s→Cognitive S)
14.语义产生之前对它的评价：dirty word, Cinderella, dustman, no-man’s land etc.
15.意义有哪些理论？reference theory(Russel: nominalism,realism),ideational
theory(Frege),verification theory(schlick, carnap:priniciple of confirmability), truth value theory(Tarski, Frege),Use theory(Peirce),Behaviorist theory(bloomfiled, Watson: stimulus-response), the theory of situation(Firth, Halliday, Austin: speech act:locutionary,illocutionary, perlocutionary, felicity conditions), the theory of Intention(Grice:Conversational Implicature, CP, Levinson,Searle), theory of componential analysis,theory of substitution, theory of relation(Saussure),phenomenological theory(Husserl),existentialist theory(Heidegger),deconstructional theory(Derrida:trace theory)等
16.Leech对语义学的七分法(hepta-division)：conceptual meaning(=sense),connocative m, social
m, affective m, reflected m, collocative m, thematic m.
17.Sense = sense relations(word:hyponymy,
synonymy,autonymy,ambiguity/sentence:entailment,paraphrase,contraction,aubiguious)+sens
e properties(words:predication features/sentence:analytic sentence永真&synthetic sentence
可真)
18.语义三角：
Concept
Symbol(signifier) Object(signifee)
19.TG句法的生成之道？基础部分是phrase structure&lexicon，经过deep structure，到一系
列的转换规则，包括compositionality,projection rule&collocative rules，最后到达surface structure，由meaning&phonology来表征(其中lexicon的内容是part of speech, semantic features, semantic restriction)(Projection rule包括embedding,attachment,conversion)
20.UG包括principle+parameter
21.TG中语义是解释句法的，语义是为句法服务的，所以才有intrepretative semantics.而
decompositional S是巧妙地运用CA到TG的frame来解释语义。
22.TG的哲学本质是blending philosophy.
23.Case Grammar处理的是深层格框的问题，S=modality+proposition
24.Wittgenstein提出了game theory, meaning-in-use,picture theory(属于reference thory的一部
分).
25.Speech act包括：assertive, directive, commissive, expressive, declarative.
26.Felicity condiction包括：propositional content rules, preparatory rule, sincerity rule,
essenetial rule
27.语言三要素：phonetics, grammar&meaning
28.中国古代意义理论最高成就是：王夫之
29.第一部训诂学工具书：《尔雅》
30.Behaviorist school说“圣人立象以尽其意…故曰鼓之舞以尽神也。”
31.逻辑语义学研究语言形式化(formalization)问题，借用数理逻辑学来描写意义，代表人有
Frege, Russell,Tarski,Carnap等。
32.模糊语义学中的gray theory 由邓聚龙提出。
33.从研究内涵语义学的carnap到可能语义学的Kripke，Montague都是属于意义范畴.
34.述元结构中，五大基本语义成分：figure,ground,motion,path,manner
35.逻辑包括formal logic&dialectical logic,其中前者包括induction&deduction
36.符号(notations)与代表：
V=for all .E=there exist, ~=negation, &=conjuction, V=disjunction, →=implication, = = equivalence.
30 命题演算中，必然p 反对必然非p
差等差等
可能p 下反对可能非p
P&q全真才为真，pVq单真都为真，p→q p真q假才假，p=q同值才真
31语义公设包括hyponymy:Vx(A(x)→B(x))，synonymy:Vx(A(x)→B(x))&Vx(B(x)→A(x)),autonymy:Vx(A(x)→~B(x)).
32Predication=argument+predicate=semantic components(这是TG S 的基础)，注意判断几元谓词
33二元谓词的关系：symmetry, transitivity, reflexivity.
34归纳法的组成：inductive reasoningand others
35形式逻辑的基本规律：同一：a=a,矛盾：a≠a,排中(excluded middle)：a=a or a≠a
36Montague语义学包括：truth conditional s, model theoretic s, possible world s，以及PTQ(解决qualifier, verb tense, subjective mood)
37语义对立词举例：fireman,overlook,overlie
38认知语言学主要观点：embodied view, conceptualization, encyclopedia view, prototype theory, Imgage schema, metaphor(structural metaphor, orientational m, ontological m),iconicity view CM view.(model&frame),parable view
39体验哲学的三原则：embodiment of the mind, unconsciousness of cognition, metaphorical nature of thinking
40Circular model(Saussure) concept→linguistic sounds→transmission→thought formation 41Linear Model(Shannon&Weaver):information source→signal transmission→channel→receiver→destination
42Triangular Model(Newcomb)强调作用在A,B间的X是social environment
43Trapezoid Model(Leech):6 steps包括texual, ideational,interpersonal的交流
44Conic Model(王寅):媒介是form, 核心是meaning.
模式是P V/W R
GS
这是以context为基础，以expression为方式，以encoding&decoding和deduction为机制的
过程。
45字典定义的方法：genus+differentia.
46情感意义中的举例：propaganda：derogatory meaning/empiricism: commendatory meaning/liberalism: commendatory meaning/ sophisticated: neutral meaning
47意义扩展的方式：radiation&concatenation
48主动义与被动义：同源形容词含active&passive meaning, eg. Desirous vs. disirable NB: 物为主语，则被动意义，人为主语，则主动意义
49主观义与客观义：-ed，+to主观；-ing,+for客观，eg. Suspicious好猜忌、可疑的。
50主题义与次要义：topic sentence→supporting sentences（induction）,supporting sentences →topic sentence(reduction)
51在discourse meaning中特别注意connectives的重要性，把握篇章的frame.
52非常规搭配有哪些？rhetoric, zeugma&syllepsis, new application of idioms, from illogical to normal
53Heavy的搭配决定哪些语义？如heavy blow, heavy crop, heavy news等
54搭配在教学中的应用：WPS program, word association exercises.
55两种动词：durative v(= linear meaning) , terminative v.(=dotted meaning)
充分必要性的研究：sufficient condition中，有甲必有乙，无甲可能无乙，necessary condition 中，无甲必无乙，有甲可能有乙，necessary+sufficient condition：有甲有乙，无甲无乙。
所以得出durative condition I →（necessary）←（sufficient）terminative verb necessary sufficient durative condition II
56. 点性动词有：die,stop,finish,leave,lose,marry,arrive,reach,knock,hit；线性动词有live,work,study,sleep,wait,eat,play,rain,run,study,speak,go,watch；点性其他有：at,since,when,if only, till(until)；线性其他有：during,for,while,as long as,till(until),for 5 days, since 1978；点性的体是perfective aspect, general aspect，线性的体是progressive aspect,general aspect.(点点相连，线线相接)
57 点性动词+进行体的三种例外情况：duration, repeated action, upcoming action
60选择文章标题应该用superordinate,但不可太大，正确的上下义关系是从concrete 到abstract.
61Peirce关于sign的三分法：Icon(image, diagram, metaphor), index, symbol
62Lakoff&Johnson提出metaphorical cognitive theory: 通过人类的认知和推理将一个概念域（conceptual domain）系统对应地映合（map）到另一个概念域。
63Microsystem: At: Dot(能量聚集，如point at)- On:surfece(论，关于：on practice)-In:aspect(穿衣：in red, in silks)
64象似性发展的时期：stalemate period→saussurian period (arbitrariness)→
post-saussurian period(iconicity)
65句法&现实具有Isomorphy(同构性)
66哪些象似性？iconic sequencing（SVO）, iconic proximity(如help的例子), iconic quantity,marked iconicity
67Vendler四大时间图解：state, activity, accomplishment, achievement
681997年在苏黎世召开语言与文学中的象似性的会议(最近的一次)
补充：69. This ruler and this pen are long: L(a)&L(b)
70. In RGS Plane, one factor based on which R could defer the meaning of P is a common generalized meaning and similar situations shared by P and R.
71 Cognitive school与Chomsky’s Formalist Semantics school相抗衡。
72 Taboo属于numeral Iconicity
73 Generic sentence 类指句: a sentence in which same statement is made about a whole of individuals.(有the或a引导)
74 structural linguistics的基本哲学理论是analytical philosophy,而TG的是formalism.
75 referring expression 指称语：is any expression used in an utterance to refer to sth or sb.(it cannot be exchanged with predicates, cuz there is no continuum running from them.)
76 Leech对语言有多种定义，其中他相信meaning=observable situation.
77 necessary condition on the sense of a predicate is a condition which thing must meet in order to qualify as being correctly described by that predicate.
78 反义词的种类：gradable, relational, complementary
79 白马非马理论是：Gongsun Long提出的。
80 Sememe is the smallest semantic unit which is indivisible.
81 Leech的connotative meaning是与additional subjective meaning有关的
82 composite expression(合成原则)是为了解释Frege’s Principle.
83 Snow is white is true if and only if snow is white是Tarski说的。
84 Extensional s与intensional s的区别是Extensional S regards the reference as the centre of their study.
85 Semantics最早是谁使用的？Michael Breal(Essay de Semantique)
86 The theory of integration can be described as the whole is more than he composition of its parts.
87. equative sentence is one which is used to assert the identity of the referents of two referring expressions.
88. dictionary的property有？interconnectedness, completeness of coverage, precision.
89 analyticity是a sense property of sentences.
90 stereotype与prototype有什么区别？stereotype指的是具体特征，prototype指的是entity.
91 cognitive linguitics的哲学与心理基础是：embodiment philosophy,embodiment mentalism
92 美国三大pragmatist philosophers是William James, Peirce& John Dewey
93 idioms are naming units
94 Donald,Davison提出：to give truth condition a way of giving the meaning of the sentence.
95. XXX is a man. 是one-place predicate.
96 Synonymy是a relation between two predicates that have the same sense.
97 sentence is a grammatically complete string of words expressing a complete though.
98 Lyons按功能把意义分为：descriptive, social & expressive.
99 语义学作为独立学科发行的书籍是：Semantics: studies in the science of meaning.
100 不是deictic word的是place,而易误判不是的是today.
101 常判断哪个不是predicate? you
102 Logical semantics的代表人物是Montague.
103 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis两大要旨是linguistic determinism & linguistic relativity.
104 现代句意理论创始者是Katz.
105 既有唯名论又有唯实论的是荀子（正名篇）
106 core of linguitic logic是：by analyzing logical problems, people can solve linguitic problems
107 Leech的梯形图的缺点是：没有考虑进meaning in communication.
108 Logical positivism是谁提出的：Schlick.
二、简单/论述题
1.什么是语义学：a.semantics is a branch of linguistics dealing with the meaning of words,
phrases and sentences, however, contrary to pragmatics it does not analyze the intended speaker meaning, or what words denote on a given occasion, but the objective, conventional meaning in a narrow sense.
b. synonym of sense or content
c. a reciprocal and reverisble relationship between name and sense.
2.Sense与Reference的区别：(先给出定义，再做区别)
Sense is the congnitive content associated wit ha sign and reference is the object to which the sign refers to
Reference is concerned with the relation between a linguistic and non-linguistic unit.
a.words with meaning have sense but not always have reference.
b.The same sense may have the different references.
c.The same reference may derive from the different senses.
d.In the dictionary, only the sense can be recorded as entry.
e.Sense, which is radical, is the core of the meaning while reference, as the peripherized
member, is not that important.
f.Sense is characterized by stability and explicitness, whereas reference is featured by
changeablity and fuzziness.
g.Sense is limited while reference is endless.
h.Sense is abstract form of the world whilst reference is concrete.
i.Proposition and sentence meaning are all sense while utterance meaning belong to reference.
3.propositition, sentence和utterance的区别？（先定义，再区分）
proposition is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which describes some state of affairs.
Sentence is a grammatically complete string od words expressing a complete thought. Utterance is any stretch of talk, by one person, before and after which there is silence on the part of that person.
a.In terms of category, proposition belongs to logics, sentence belongs to syntax and utterance
belongs to pragmatics.
b.With regard to properties, proposition is abstract, sentence is somewhat concrete and utterance
is more concrete.
c.In terms of creteria, proposition relies on truth condition, sentence relies on grammaticality
and utterance depends on acceptablity.
d.As to the relationship with the language, proposition have nothing to do with the specific
language, while sentence and utterance belongs to some language.
e.As to the dialects, proposition and sentence have no relation with it, while utterance relies on
it.
f.In terms of meterality, the case is the same with e.
g.With regard to the sentence pattern, proposition is a declarative sentence, while others are not
limited.
h.As to the relationship with the meaning, proposition is the centre of the meaning which is
stable and has meaning potential, sentence can reflect a certain sense in different pattern, while the utterance can be various in meaning which is deductive and real.
i.As for entailment, P →S,U/ S→U/P,S→U
j.As for ambiguity, there is no ambiguity in proposition while the other two may involve some degrees of ambiguity.
k.In terms of expression, proposition is expressed in logical formula, while other two are various in syntactic and pragmatic categories.
4.什么是训诂学（Chinese traditional semantics）? 意在研究名实之争，中国传统研究古书
上词义的学科，是传统语文学的小分支。它在魏晋时形成独立学科，清末章太炎发展到高峰，但它和语义学是“两股道上跑的车”。
5.中西语义学怎样结合？communication, translation, practice with theory
6.语义形式化的优点？a.intreprete meaning systematically and scentifically b. easy to find the
error c. pave the way for computerization d. clearify the sense relation e. show the ambiguity.
7.区别fuzzy,vague,ambiguous&hedge words
Fuzzy: clear intension but unclear extension
Vague: several sense in an entry
Ambiguous: in different entries.
Hedge: some degree words eg: about, around etc.
8. 语言模糊的特征：a. objectivity&universality b.scope, prototype and membership degree c. unbalance d. communication&pragmatisms
9. 语言模糊的原因：a. objective origin: the world we live in is a continuous entity and hard to find the clear boundary b.subjective cause: our cognition on the world differs from person to person , c.Linguistic cause: there are countless things in the world but our language is limited to express them.
10 人们怎样理解含糊表达？a. relative exactness b. prototypicality c. collocarion d. context e. more questions.
11. 中西语义对比研究？(Humboldt&Saussure为例)
Humboldt认为汉语缺乏语法标志，汉语具有非语音表达形式，汉语有一定文化特性，Saussure 认为汉语理据程度最低（motivation），一个字符代表一个词。评价：H较S更加科学客观。
12.Petrification的程度？a. totally wrong equality b. partially equality c. emotional discrepancy
13 Petrification的原因？a. Names of things are different in different places b. customs and cultural background are different c. the intrinsic features of different language are different
14 怎样防止petrification? A. Explicitly undertand the meaning in the context https://www.doczj.com/doc/af4288354.html,e bilinguial dictionary. C. understand the culture background d. deal with unlearn problem. D understanding
words while using association.
15 proposition定义？It is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which describes some states of affairs.
16 reference的定义？a relationship between a particular object in the world and an expression used in an utterance to pick that object out.
17 sense的定义？an expression is its relationship to semantically equivalent or semantically related expressions in the same language.
补充：18. Evaluate the Semantic Triangle?
It is proposed by Ogden and Richards, in which the symbol refers to the linguistic elements, the referent refers to object in the world and thought refers to the concept. Therefore, the symbol of a word signifies things by virtue of the concept. In this system, concept has direct relationship with referent and symbol but symbol has no direct relationship with referent just because one thing can be expressed in different words.
In terms of its shortcomings, it poorly deals with polysemous words, and it doesn’t have semantic meaning when being divided into morpheme, and only a few words have the “signified”and sometimes they have different meanings so that we cannot differentiate them etc.
19. All the sentences which contain ambiguous words are ambiguous, and all the sentences which contain no ambiguous words are unambiguous? 判断分析
No, The meaning of the sentence is to say that all the ambiguities are caused by ambiguous words. It is just about sentence ambiguity on the level of lexicon. While the sentence ambiguity has two levels – lexical level resulting from ambiguity of a word reflected by homonymy and polysemy and grammatical level resulting from different relationships of words. Therefore, whether a sentence is ambiguous is not decided by if there is any ambiguous word in it, sometimes even a sentence containing an ambiguous word is not ambiguous.
20. How many kinds of meaning did linguists find and study?
Fries makes a traditional distinction between lexical meaning and structural meaning, and then Leech further divides them into seven categories, namely conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, thematic meaning and collocative meaning. In fact, according to Wang Yin, meaning can be divided into many types from different angles, namely, speaker’s meaning and hearer’s meaning from the roles played by participants, natural meaning and non-natural meaning in the light of communicative essence, morpheme meaning, word meaning, sentence meaning and utterance meaning from different structure, intensional and extensional meaning philosophically, descriptive, social and expressive meaning respectively by Lyons, conceptual meaning and attached meaning according to the different roles, finally the proposition, sentence and utterance meaning.
21 How many semantic relations are there among sentence? Give example
Four. A. paraphase, eg. I love you=I am fond of you. b. entailment. Eg. Tom married a blond heiress entails mark married a blond c. contradiction. Eg. We are unmarried couples d. ambuguity. Eg I give you the hammer and saw through the window.
22. What’s arbitrariness? Your opinion about it in contrast to iconicity?
Arbitrariness, proposed by Saussure, refers to the fact that the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning, which is the first principle of language. But in my opinion, he overstated its importance, ignoring the fact that signifier and signified have a certain motivation. On the other hand, iconicity, proposed by Pierce, refers to the fact that signifier and signified are
not arbitrary, but motivated. In my view, iconicity is not an absolute negation of arbitrariness but a complementary feature. They are both design features of language at different levels. At the lower level, arbitrariness plays a bigger role while at a higher one, iconicity overwhelms arbitrariness. However, total arbitrariness means a total negation of mappings between human concept and language.
23. Features of 2 place predicates?
Symmetrical/symmetrical, semantic formula is written as Axy(M(x.y))→M(y,x,)).
Transitive/Intransitive, show an attribute like behind above and in front of, which goes like Axyz(R(x,y)&R(y,z)→R(x,z))
Reflexive/Irreflexive have the following semantic meaning as equal, identical , Axy(x,y)→R(x,x) 24 Tell the difference between pour him a drink and pour a drink to him?
According to the cognitive linguitics, iconicity of distance, if pour is closely followed by him, then the person is probably be presented, the other expression doesn’t have this sense.
25 Translate sentences into logical forms
a. Ann is Bill’s mother. M(a,b)
b. Bill loves Carol, and Carol loves Bill. L(b,c)&L(c,b)
c. Ann loves Bill, but Ann doesn’t love Carol. L(a,b)&~L(a,c)
26 What’s features of metaphor according to cognitive linguistics?
a. Conventionality indicates that some metaphors have become fossilized or dead metaphors.
b. Systematicity refers to the way that metaphor doesn’t just set up a single point of comparison.
c. asymmetry refers to the way that metaphors are directional which means they provoke the listener or reader to transfer features from the source to target domain.
d. abstraction means that metaphor uses a more concrete source to describe a more abstract target.
27 What do you think of semantic formalization? Merit and demerit?
Semantic formalization, which uses mathematical logic to describe language meaning, is one of the main streams of inevitable semantic research.
Merits: a. interpret meaning more scientifically and systemically b. easy to check or discover the errors c. helpful to machine translation d interpret sense relations more exactly e. formulate the ambiguity.
Demerits: a. insufficient to clarify the complicated semantic rules b. makes language change into some stark or mechanical signs. C. cannot include all kinds of semantic phenomenon. D. too complicated to be understood. E. some words cannot be interpreted by formulation in a subtle way.
F. they don’t have the same format.
28 What’s the disadvantage of Naming Theory?
It regards that there is a direct relationship between the word form and its reference.The disadvantage of it is the following threes. A. all the words have sense, but not every word has its referent. B. linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. C. there are occasions when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense.
29 区别一堆概念？
Meaning: association of language symbols with the real world.
Concept: impression of objects in people’s mind.
Connotation: implied meaning, similar to implicature.
Sense: lexical position in which a word finds itself.
Denotation: is not directly related with objects but make the abstract assumption of the real world. Reference: the world-object relationship
Implicature: convesation implicature is achieved by intentionally violating the CP. Signification: the meaning of a word taught to pupils may not have any communicative value.
30 Difference between cognitive linguitics and TG L?
TG Linguitics belongs to formalism. It is a universal grammar. TG linguistists consider language as autonomous system, in principle independent of other knowledge and competence. In TG L meaning can be described by truth-value and production is prior to generalization.
While cognitive linguitics belongs to functionalism. Cognitive linguistists consider the structures of grammar and meaning change with different languages and competence is one part of human’s general cognitive competence. Meaning cannot be described by truth-value. It is an course of objective and subjective course interacted. Cognitive L consider that generalization is prior to production.
31 Difference between prototype and stereotype?
Stereotype is a list of the typical characteristics of things to which the predicate may be applied while prototype is a typical member of its extension. The stereotype of a predicate may often specify a range of possibilities but an individual prototype of this predicate will necessarily take some particular place within this range. In terms of speakers, they may know the sterotype but not familiar with prototype .
32 Main points held by Nominalism and Realism?
In 1976, Palmer put forward the Naming theory divided into 2 categories; nominalism and realism. The main points of the former is that signal bears no inherent relationship with its referent while the latter is the relationship between signal and its referent is intrinsic.
33 Major principles about formal semantics?
a. compositionality
b. rule to rule hypothesis
c. fragmentary approach
d.most certain principle
34 Is the act of addressing sb. Illocutionary or perlocutionary?
Illocutionary. Because the illocutionary act inherent in an utterance is intended by the speaker, is under his full control. If it is evident, it is so as the utterance is made. In the act of addressing, it is sth that a speaker can decide for himself to do, and be sure of doing it when he decides to do it. The hearer in a speech situation cannot decide whether to be addressed or not.
35 Relationship between interpretative semantics and generative semantics?
Interpretive semantics(Chomsky, Katz)is a part of Chomsky’s TG grammar which holds meaning comes from syntax, so syntax goes first, semantics is only a part of syntax which can interprete sentences, which is the goal of semantics. Besides, syntax is between phonology and semantics and syntax is grammatical base. According to Cho, there are two sets of rules in TG, transfermational and projection rules which deals with problem of syntax and phonology and semantics respectively.
Generative semantics(Lakoff)states that syntax comes from semantics, semantics goes first. All sentences comes from semantics, which will generate the surface structure with the help of transformational rules and phontics rules. The role of semantics is not to interpret but to generate. Moveover, generative semantician think transformational rules are enough which are also being called predicate-lifting transformations.
36 Differences between metaphor and metonymy?
A metaphor is a conceptual expression in which the characters of the source domain is mapped
onto the target domain whereas a metonymy involves the conceptual mapping taking place across different sub-domains within the same common or superordinate experiential domain so that the source domain mentally activates the target domain. So it is clear that metaphor relates to two domains while metonymy occurs within the same domain. Metaphor is cognitively more useful while the major function of metonymy is to help the hearer to locate or recognize the referent and its special characteristics.
37 What’s synonymy?
It is used to mean sameness or close similarity of meaning. Dictionary makers rely on the existence of synonymy for their denifition. Some semanticians maintains that there are no real synonyms because two or more words named synonyms are expected without exception to differ from one another in one of the following aspects, eg shades, stylistics, emotive, rangg of use etc.
38 State the Game Theory?
It is Wittgenstein later philosophy. The term is introduced by describing some examples of simple prctices, both real and imaginary. Wittgenstein’s builders, children’s games with words, such as ring-a-ring-a-roses, and the ways chilren learns words. But he also applies the term to almost any practice in which language is involved in some way, any interweaving of human life and language. Here the term “language-game” is meant to bring into prominenece the fact that the speaking of language is part of an activity or a form of life.
39 Illustrate the relationship of extension between sense and reference.
An extension is a set of physical objects, which is contrast with sense. A speaker’s knowledge of the sense of a predicate provides him with an idea of its extension. The referent of a referring expression used in a particular utterance is an individual member of the extension of the predicate used in the expression.
40 Shortcoming of reference theory and ideational theory?
Reference theory: a. not suitable for adj, adv. B. one word means different things. C. some imagined things don’t have referents
Ideational theory: a. idea itself is abstract then how can it be used to explain meaning b. meaning is abstract so that it is difficult to define an abstract term in using another abstrct term.
41 What is simple proposition?
It is representable by a single predicator, drawn from the predicates in the language, and a number of arguments drawn from the names in the language.This implies, among other things, that no formula for a simple proposition can have two or more predicators and it cannot have anything which is neither a predicate nor a name.
42 What is necessary condition and sufficient set of conditions?
Necessary condition on the sense of a predicate is a condition which a thing must meet in order to quantify as being correctly described by that predicate.
Sufficient set of conditions is a set of conditions which are enough in themselves to guarentee that the predicate correctly describes that thing.
三、词根、词缀
1.Anthrop- :man anthropic, anthropoid, anthropology, anthropologist, anthropological
2.Hydro-: water hydrocarbon, hydrogen, hydropathy, hydrobiology, hydrobiologist
3.Cord-: heart cardinal, cardiovascular, cardiograph, cardiologist, cardiology
4.Ped: foot centipede, biped, bipedal, bepedalism, pedal
5.Ceed: go exceed, precede, accede, recede, concede
6.Log: speak dialog, prologue, logic, logical, antilogy
7.Fer-: carry transfer, infer, confer, refer, defer
8.Dict: speak diction, dictate, edict, indict, predict
9.V olve: turn convolve, involve, revolve, devolve,evolve
10.Tele: far telegram, television, telegraph, telecommunication, telescope
11.Ab: against abnormal,abuse, abscise, abdicate, abhor
12.e-: out : emit, emission, eject, erupt, efface
13.ceive-: take conceive, perceive, receive, deceive,preconceive
14.ate: verbalization eradicate, extricate, domesticate, replicate, abate
15.eu: good euphemism, euthanasia, eugenics, eulogize, euphony
逻辑学复习知识点 前言：逻辑学：传统逻辑、现代逻辑；它是基础性，工具性的学科（更直接，更系统） 第一章（绪论）： 第一节什么是逻辑学 1.“逻辑”的含义：源于古希腊，原意：思想，言辞，理性，规律。 逻辑是一门学科，即逻辑学（思维科学）。 2.逻辑学的研究对象：研究思维的形式结构及其规律的科学。 逻辑学的研究目的：总结出人们正确运用各种思维形式的逻辑规律。 思维：感性认识（感觉，知觉，表象）和理性认识（概念，命题（判断），推理） 思维的形式结构（思维的逻辑形式）：包括逻辑常项和变项 逻辑常项：不随思维具体内容变化而变化，是判定一种逻辑形式具体类型的唯一依据。 传统逻辑：自然语言（日常用语）现代逻辑：人工语言（符号语言：表意符号，公式，公式序列） 思维形式结构的规律：逻辑规则：仅适用于某种思维形式。逻辑思维的基本规律：普遍适用于各种类型的思维形式。（传统逻辑定义） 逻辑思维的基本规律包括：同一律，矛盾律，排中律，充足理由律。表现方式： 现代逻辑的基础部分：经典命题逻辑,经典谓词逻辑（表现方式：重言式（重言蕴涵式，重言等值式））第二节逻辑学的性质和作用 1.逻辑学的性质：工具性，全人类性（没有民族性，阶级性） 2.逻辑学的作用： 联合国教科文组织1974年规定的七大基础学科：逻辑学、数学、天文学和天体物理学、地球科学和空间科学、物理学、化学、生命科学
三方面作用：促成逻辑思维由自发向自觉转变；培养和提高人们认识事物、从事科学研究的能力；帮助识别、驳斥谬误和诡辩。 3.第三节逻辑简史 逻辑学的历史：两千多年逻辑学的三大源头：古中国、古印度、古希腊。 西方逻辑：以古希腊逻辑为先河，在发展的历程中完整地经历了传统和现代两个形态。（以此为例） 传统逻辑的诞生与发展： 传统逻辑：由亚里士多德开始直至莱布尼兹之前的整个逻辑类型。特点：借助自然语言，主要范围是常见日常思维类型。 亚里士多德：（公元前384-公元前322）:古希腊著名学者，第一次全面、系统研究逻辑学主要问题，首创逻辑学这门科学。被称作“西方逻辑之父”，主要逻辑著作《范畴篇》、《解释篇》、《前分析篇》、《后分析篇》、《论辩篇》、《辩谬篇》，分别论述概念、命题（判断）、推理、论证、论辩的方法和如何驳斥诡辩的问题。哲学著作《形而上学》系统论述了矛盾律、排中律，涉及同一律。奠定了西方逻辑学发展的坚实基础。古希腊斯多葛学派及欧洲中世纪的逻辑学家：研究了假言命题、选言命题、联言命题和推理形式，提出相应推理规则。 弗兰西斯.培根（1561-1626）：英国哲学家、逻辑学家。17世纪，实验自然科学兴起和发展，研究了科学归纳法问题。《新工具》一书中提出科学归纳的“三表法”：“存在和具有表”、“差异表”、“程度表”，奠定归纳逻辑的基础。 穆勒（1806-1873）：19世纪英国哲学家、逻辑学家。在《逻辑体系》（我国近代学者严复译为《逻辑名学》）把科学归纳法发展为五种：求同法、求异法、求同求异并用法、共变法、剩余法。至此，传统逻辑的基本框架大致形成。 现代逻辑的兴起与发展： 现代逻辑（“数理逻辑”或“符号逻辑”）:由莱布尼兹奠定基本思想,目前仍在不断发展中的逻辑类型。特点：借助人工语言（符号语言），建立形式系统，对研究对象整体把握。 莱布尼兹（1646-1716）：德国著名数学家、哲学家。17世纪末期，提出用数学演算的方法处理演绎逻辑；
第一章作为语言学一个分支的语义学 语义学的建立以法国学者米歇尔·布勒阿尔1897年7月出版《语义学探索》为标记。 该书1900年翻译为英文“语义学：意义科学的研究（Semantics:Studies in the Science of Meaning）”。 这本专著材料丰富，生动有趣，重点在词义的历史发展方面，兼顾词汇意义和语法意义。 全书共三编：1，讲词义变化的定律，介绍变异、扩散、类推等概念；2，讲如何确定词义，介绍释义、比喻、多义、命名等；3，讲词类、词序、组合规则等，涉及语法意义。 除了语言学的语义学，还有逻辑学的语义学，哲学的语义学，还有心理学家对语义的研究。 a,逻辑学的语义学是对逻辑形式系统中符号解释的研究，又称“纯语义学”，对象并非自然语言的语义。 b,哲学的语义学围绕语义的本质展开涉及世界观的讨论。“语义学”或“语义哲学”又是本世纪前半叶盛行于西方的至今仍有影响的一个哲学流派的名称。 c,心理学家研究语义，主要是想了解人们在信息的发出和接收中的心理过程。 d,语言学的语义学把语义作为语言（乃至言语）的一个组成部分、一个方面进行研究，研究它的性质，内部结构及其变异和发展，语义间的关系等等。 布勒阿尔的书给语义的发展以重要地位，声称研究语义的变化构成了语义学。同时它把语义限制在“词语”的意义上，主要是词义上。这两个特点一直贯穿在他以后半个多世纪的若干代表性著作里。 继布勒阿尔之后，一部有世界影响的语义学专著是两位英国学者奥格登和理查兹合写，1923年出版的《意义的意义》（The Meaning of Meaning）。这两位学者还曾共同创制了后来遭到各种非议的“基本英语”(Basic English).
《逻辑学》笔记整理 2012300160016 马院12级思政杨郑伟 第一章 绪论 第一节 “逻辑”和逻辑学 一、“逻辑”一词的含义 “逻辑”这个语词由英语Logic音译而来，导源于希腊文，原意是思想、理性、言词、规律等。在现代汉语中，“逻辑”是个多义词，其含义主要有： 1、客观规律性。例如：“谦虚使人进步，骄傲使人落后，这是生活的逻辑”。这里的“逻辑”是指生活的规律性。 2、思维的规律性。例如：“应该合乎逻辑地思维，明确地表达思想”。这里的“逻辑”是指思维要合乎思维的规律。 3、某种理论观点。例如：“明明是侵略，却说成是友谊，这是强盗的逻辑”。这里的“逻辑”是指一种荒谬的理论。 4、与“逻辑学”同义，指研究思维形式及其规律的科学。例如：“认真学习逻辑知识，熟炼运用逻辑知识，对思考问题、写文章、说话、办事以及进一步发展智力都大有好处”。这里的“逻辑”便是指逻辑学。 二、逻辑学的研究对象 逻辑学是一门古老的科学，它的研究对象主要是思维的形式结构及其规律的简单的逻辑方法。 思维的形式结构也叫思维的逻辑形式，它是由逻辑常项和变项组成的。综上所述，逻辑学是研究思维的形式结构及其规律和简单的逻辑方法的学说。推理形式及其有效性的判定是它的核心内容。 第二节逻辑学的性质与意义 一、逻辑学的性质 从逻辑学的研究对象可知，这门科学提供给人们的是认识事物、表达论证思想时必须运用的一种思维工具，所以，它是一门工具性质的科学。 二、学习逻辑学的意义 学习逻辑学的根本意义，是训练和提高人们的逻辑思维能力，促进其自觉地运用逻辑知识，提高学习和工作的质量。 具体来说，学习逻辑学的意义主要有： 第一，有助于正确认识事物，从已知进到未知。 第二，有助于准确、严密地表达和论证思想。
从认知语言学的角度看一词多义现象 摘要：一词多义指一个词项具有多个相关义项的语言现象。新义项的产生不是随机的, 也不是盲目的, 而是人类认知参与下语言历时变化的结果, 因此认知角度的一词多义研究能够比较清楚地揭示一词多义的根源与本质。新义项以基本义项为核心, 按照辐射型或链接型方式排列, 构成一个词项意义的原型范畴。人们总是从基本义项出发, 主要利用隐喻和转喻思维等方式, 将新义项赋予现有词项, 从而使一词多义现象表现出明显的认知理据性。 关键词: 认知; 一词多义; 范畴化; 隐喻; 转喻 Abstract:Polysemy is the linguistic phenomenon in which a lexical item has more than one related meaning. It is the diachronic result of language development facilitated by human cognition. New meanings, centering on the basic meaning and arranged in a radiant or linear manner, form the prototypical category of a w ord. People tend to attach new meanings to a lexical item by w ay of categorization, metaphor and metonymy, which results in the striking motivational features of polysemy. Key words: cognition, polysemy, categorization, metonymy, metaphor 几乎所有的语言中都存在一个普遍现象, 即一个词可能会承载二种以上的意义, 语言学家将此语言现象称为一词多义现象。通过赋予同一词形以更多的词义来减少词的数量, 它极大地丰富了我们的语言，减轻了人们词汇记忆的负担，是人们进一步认知世界的简便、有效的途径,是优于造词、构词和借词的语言手段。因而，一词多义现象一直成为了语义学研究的热点。传统的理论对于一词多义现象做过众多的研究, 其中主要有: K atz 和Fo rdo r( 1963) 基于组词间的类似性提出的语义成分分析法(semantic feature analysis); 由德国学者J. Trier 提出的词在语义上是互相联系的完整的词汇系统语义场理论以及传统的真值语义分析。传统的语义学理论更多地将它归于历史的、社会的因素。这些固然是词义变化的重要因素, 但它们只是外部因素, 传统的语义学理论终究没有看清词义变化和一词多义的关系, 也未能充分地解释一词多义现象形成的缘由。本文试图从认知语义学的角度运用范畴化的型理论对一词多义现象的形成方式，发展模式以及认知手段进行研究。 1.认知语言学的语义观 认知语言观承认客观世界的现实性及对语言形成的本源作用, 但更强调人的认知的参与作用, 认为语言不能直接反映客观世界, 而是由人对客观世界的认知作用之。所谓“心生而言立” , 其认知模式是: 客观世界—认知加工一概念生成一语言符号(赵艳芳,20 0 1 : 3 5 )。Lakof与Jo h n s o n (1 9 8 0 : 1 9 5 : 1 9 9 9 ) 以及L a k o f (19 8 7 )根据他们提出的体验哲学认为: 人类的认知、概念、意义、推理和语言等均源于对客观外界的感知和经验, “体验哲学和C L (cognitive linguistics ) 认为认知来源于实践, 语言是体验和认知的结果” (王寅, 2 0 0 5 : 1 6 )。认知是和语言不可分的, 认知是语言的基础和发端。语言是由客观世界, 人的认知体验, 社会、文化历时与共时价值观及其语用因素促动形成的、具有动态演绎、延异性质和形态的象征符号系统和精
《产品语义学》教学大纲 一、课程的的性质、任务及适用专业 （一）课程性质 《产品语义学》是工业设计专业的一门必修课。课程从设计符号的基本理论出发，对意义、传达、语境、修辞等概念进行了阐述，使学生通过学习了解并掌握新的设计思考的角度和敏锐的观察能力，使学生从感性认识提升到理性认识，并且引导以产品语义学在设计中广泛扩展思路，帮助学生提高设计的创新能力。 （二）教学任务 本课程的主要任务是：使学生通过符号的关联性和语言学中的修辞方法展开发散思维与联想，以期觅得产品预定概念和意义的最佳传达途径，并对后续的专业课程学习起辅助作用。 （三）适用专业 适用于工业设计本科专业。 二、课程教学基本内容、基本要求及学时分配 （一）基本内容(含章节的重点、难点等) 第一章设计符号理论概 述 基本要求：了解设计符号的理论意义、符号理论发展简史、设计符号的特性以及文化与符号之间的关系。 重点:设计符号的特点。 难点:文化与符号之间的联系。 第二章产品语义学概述 基本要求：了解产品语义学的概念、产品语义学的缘起与发展、影响产品语义理论的诸多新观念以及产品语义学对我国设计发展的价值。 重点:产品语义学的缘起与发展。 难点:产品语义学与现代主义及后现代主义的关系。 第三章产品的语义 基本要求：了解产品语义的外延意义与内涵意义，以及两者之间的关系，从而掌握产品语义的诉求层面。 重点：外延意义与内涵意义。 难点：产品语义的诉求层面。 第四章产品语义的传达 基本要求：了解意义的来源，学习人的要素、环境的要素和生活方式的约定。进而对产品语义有一个更高层次上的理解，使学生以使用者的角度认知产品、以及了解使用者心理模型和产品语义实现的条件。 重点：传达的概念与过程、语义传达的类型。 难点：使用者心理模型和产品语义实现的条件、产品语言的局限性。 第五章产品语义学在设计中的运用 基本要求：了解产品使用情景语境，产理解产品的合理性说服、情感性说服以及产品语义设计程序，了解修辞在产品语义表达中的应用及价值。 重点：产品说服功能与语义设计程序、产品语义传达的有效思维方法。
第一章绪言 第一节“逻辑”的含义 一、逻辑的词源 1. 逻辑一词源出于希腊文的“逻各斯”（logos，复数形式是logoi）。 ·古希腊的哲学家赫拉克利特据说有专论逻各斯的著作《逻各斯》。 ·逻各斯的基本词义是言辞、秩序和规律。言语是这一语词的原创义，然后在此基本词义基础上派生出理性、理想、推理论证等词义。 2. 逻各斯演变为“逻辑”一词 ·最先是由斯多葛学派使用;看作是由论辩术和修辞学两部分构成的理论。 ·古罗马和欧洲中世纪的逻辑学家也在这种意义上来看待“逻辑”一词。 ·其后，逻辑一词的含义就一直和推理与论辩的方法和原则相关。 3. 逻辑一词传入中国 ·严复开始，“按逻辑此翻名学。其名义始于希腊，为逻各斯一根之转”. ·严复翻译的时间大约在19世纪末; ·再过十多年后，由章士钊正式在汉语中定名，作为讨论思维、讨论推理的规范和秩序的学问 4. 为什么logic要翻译为逻辑？ 逻辑学是有点特殊的学科。 特殊在什么地方？ 学科名的特殊和学科内容的特殊。 中国历史上和逻辑对应的学科? 逻辑究竟研究什么？ 二、什么是逻辑？ 1. 逻辑是一门和方法、原则、规范紧密相关的人文学科。 她探索和研究的是我们进行推理（reasoning，inference）时应该使用的方法、技巧、标准和原则。 逻辑是一门讲道理的学科。逻辑总是和语言相关。逻辑总是和论证证明推理相关。p2 2. 三个方向的推理 追寻历史：一个事件出现了，我们寻求其产生的原因，案件、历史、文物等，向后的推导。 确定目标：未来可能出现的事件，这是向前的推理。 演绎推理：没有时空条件的推理，数学和逻辑。几何证明和数学计算。 第二节逻辑历史简述 一、古典逻辑 1. 古希腊哲学家亚里士多德公认为是逻辑学之父。 2. 亚里士多德创立逻辑学科的标志是他所撰写的逻辑专著，这些讨论逻辑问题的专著有《范畴篇》、《解释篇》、《分析前篇》、《分析后篇》、《论辩篇》和《辩谬篇》，这些篇章后来合编为《工具论》一书。 3. 亚里士多德的三段论逻辑（第四章） 4. 斯多葛学派的逻辑 ·亚里士多德是现代形式逻辑的创始人，斯多葛学派稍后于亚里士多德，大约晚2个世纪。他们创立了命题逻辑雏形。（第三章） ·就形式逻辑学科而言，这两大逻辑学派都应该看作是现代形式逻辑的祖先。 Formal logic
Chapter 5 Semantics Ⅰ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Dialectal（方言的）synonyms（同义关系）can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. F 2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. F 3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. T 4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience. F 5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. T 6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. T 7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components. F 8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality. T 9. “It is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument. T 10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. T Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 11. Semantics can be defined as the study of meaning. 12. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. 13. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 14. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 15. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called homophones（同音/形异义词）. 16. Relational opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items. 17. Componential（指数）analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components. 18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 19. An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. 20. According to the naming theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete
反事实条件句语义学理论的发展分析 在自然语言中，我们把形如如果p，那么q 的语句称为条件句。而条件句涉及逻辑学的核心问题推理，或者从更宽泛的意义上说，全部逻辑，至少是旨在刻画推理的逻辑，都建立在澄清和研究若 A 则 B的真值和涉及此类条件句的推理的形式有效性之上。①因而具有重要的意义。一般来说，条件句分为直陈条件句和反事实条件句，条件句关注最多的就是后者，不仅因为它在日常生活中大量存在，还由于它有不同于一般条件句的自身特点。通常人们认为前件为假的条件句为反事实条件句，但前件为假有两种情况，一种是客观事实上是假的，另一种是主观认定是假的 ( 而客观事实是真的) 。客观事实上为假的反事实条件句，例如，我为昨天开会迟到而感叹地说如果我没有迟到，我就不会被批评了。主观认定是假的反事实条件句，举个例子，我们学校举行元旦晚会，张三很有表演才华，他的节目是压轴戏，最后我没看完提前回家，第二天见到张三的时候说了这么一句话要是你参加了昨天的晚会，节目会更精彩。在这种情况下，对于我而言，我表达的是一个反事实条件句，尽管我所说的与客观事实是一致的。本文中我们用□表示反事实条件句的逻辑符号，用 p□q 表示反事实条件句如果 p，那么 q。 历史上人们尝试用各种不同的方法来刻画它，这些方法大致来自三个方面的: 语形的、语义的和语用的，而从语用学角度刻画反事实条件句起步较晚，文献较少，本文主要从语义学的角度综述了反事实条件句理论的发展。反事实条件句语义学理论的发展经历了从传统的静态语义学向现代的动态语义学的发展。 一、用传统的静态语义学理论刻画反事实条件句 我们知道，传统逻辑语义学对意义的理解就是它的成真条件，这种意义理论描述的是语言与客观事物之间的静态关系，因此是静态语义学。实质蕴含理论、严格蕴含理论、可共存性理论和 Stal-nakerLewis 可能世界语义学理论都属于传统的静态语义学理论。 ( 一) 实质蕴含理论 实质蕴含源于古希腊斯多葛学派，有着悠久的研究历史，其核心思想是: 不考虑前后件之间的联系，条件句的真值由它的肢命题的真值决定。它的逻辑特征是: 如果有 p，就必然有 q，而没有 p 是否有 q 不能确定。根据特征，我们知道，条件句在三种情况下是真的，即 p 真 q 真，p 假 q 真，p 假q 假。这条进路除了会出现违反人们直觉的怪论( 假命题蕴含任何命题，真命题为任一命题所蕴含) 外，还会与自然语言的使用不符。问题就出在后两行，因为根据真值表，如果前件假，而不管后件为真还是为假，整个条件句都是真的，而这与反事实条件句不符合。这样一来，所有的反事实条件句都是真的，因为反事实条件句前件假。如: ( 1) 如果我念了博士，我就可以找到更好的工作。 ( 2) 如果我念了博士，我也不可以找到更好的工作。 人们通常会认为 ( 1) 是真的， ( 2) 是假的，而不会根据实质蕴含的真值表认为两句都是真的，因为这样做太违反直观了。除此之外，运用实质蕴含理论刻画反事实条件句，导
《逻辑学》完整版笔 记整理
第一章绪言 第一节“逻辑”的含义 一、逻辑的词源 1. 逻辑一词源出于希腊文的“逻各斯”（logos，复数形式是logoi）。 ·古希腊的哲学家赫拉克利特据说有专论逻各斯的著作《逻各斯》。 ·逻各斯的基本词义是言辞、秩序和规律。言语是这一语词的原创义，然后在此基本词义基础上派生出理性、理想、推理论证等词义。 2. 逻各斯演变为“逻辑”一词 ·最先是由斯多葛学派使用 ;看作是由论辩术和修辞学两部分构成的理论。·古罗马和欧洲中世纪的逻辑学家也在这种意义上来看待“逻辑”一词。 ·其后，逻辑一词的含义就一直和推理与论辩的方法和原则相关。 3. 逻辑一词传入中国 ·严复开始，“按逻辑此翻名学。其名义始于希腊，为逻各斯一根之转”. ·严复翻译的时间大约在19世纪末 ; ·再过十多年后，由章士钊正式在汉语中定名，作为讨论思维、讨论推理的规范和秩序的学问 4. 为什么logic要翻译为逻辑？ 逻辑学是有点特殊的学科。 特殊在什么地方？ 学科名的特殊和学科内容的特殊。 中国历史上和逻辑对应的学科? 逻辑究竟研究什么？ 二、什么是逻辑？ 1. 逻辑是一门和方法、原则、规范紧密相关的人文学科。她探索和研究的是我们进行推理（reas oning ，inferen ce）时应该使用的方法、技巧、标 收集于网络，如有侵权请联系管理员删除
准和原则。 逻辑是一门讲道理的学科。逻辑总是和语言相关。逻辑总是和论证证明推理 相关。p2 2. 三个方向的推理 追寻历史：一个事件出现了，我们寻求其产生的原因，案件、历史、文物 等，向后的推导。 确定目标：未来可能出现的事件，这是向前的推理。 演绎推理：没有时空条件的推理，数学和逻辑。几何证明和数学计算。 第二节逻辑历史简述 一、古典逻辑 1. 古希腊哲学家亚里士多德公认为是逻辑学之父。 2. 亚里士多德创立逻辑学科的标志是他所撰写的逻辑专著，这些讨论逻辑问题 的专著有《范畴篇》、《解释篇》、《分析前篇》、《分析后篇》、《论辩 篇》和《辩谬篇》，这些篇章后来合编为《工具论》一书。 3. 亚里士多德的三段论逻辑（第四章） 4. 斯多葛学派的逻辑 ·亚里士多德是现代形式逻辑的创始人，斯多葛学派稍后于亚里士多德，大约 晚2个世纪。他们创立了命题逻辑雏形。（第三章） ·就形式逻辑学科而言，这两大逻辑学派都应该看作是现代形式逻辑的祖先。 Formal logic 希腊： 亚里士 收集于网络，如有侵权请联系管理员删除
The relationship between semantics and pragmatics As a branch of linguistics, semantics can be simply defined as the study of linguistic meaning, which studies literal, structural or lexical meaning conveyed by words, phrases and sentences. What we concerned with is the denotation of the word, namely the relationship between words , phrases and sentences not the possible connotations. It is context independent, de-contextualized.and it deals with what is said. while pragmatics is a study which can be defined as the analysis of meaning in a particular context, which studies non-literal, implicit meaning. It deals with the relations between language and context that are basic to language understanding. pragmatics is context dependent, contextualized. What we concerned is what is communicated by a speaker and interpreted by a listener. Through the definition of semantics and pragmatics, we can see that semantics and pragmatics both concern the meaning of language. But they research the different sides of language, and they have different study methods. The study objects of semantics is words, phrases and sentences, what we need to know is their meaning, sense , reference and presupposes. Different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. And one word may belong to another word. So we can conclude the words to these relations, Such as synonymy, polysemy, homonymy,hyponymy and antonymy. And when we talk about the sense relations between sentences ,we may think of presupposes. Whether it is right under the presupposes. All those are semantics. It would not change with the
一、Antonymy（反义词）：（书本P70） 1.Gradable antonyms（分程度反义词）：a matter of degree. eg. Old—middle-aged—younghot-warm-cold https://www.doczj.com/doc/af4288354.html,plementary antonyms（互补关系）：a matter of degree between two extremes. eg. Alive—dead; male—female 3.relational opposites（关系反义词）：pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items. eg. father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient；buy-sell；above-below 二、Paul Grice（保罗·格莱斯）提出的两个概念（书本P86） 1.conventional implicature（规约含意，约定俗成的）：is based on the conventional meaning of certain words in the language. eg. He is rich but he is not greedy. 2.particularized conversational implicature（特殊规约隐涵）：is inferred by the hearer with reference to the context of communication. eg. A：Where is the steak? B：The dog looks very happy. 三、Charles Hockett（霍凯特）提出的人类语言的识别特征之一（书本P8） Arbitrariness（随意性）：There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. eg. Rumble, crash, cackle, bang 四、Free morpheme（可独立存在的）：a morpheme which can be a word by itself. eg. boy（书本P33） 五、新构词（书本P99） 1.blending（拼缀，紧缩法）：a blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words. eg. Smog --- smoke+fog; motel---- motor+hotel 2.acronyms（首字母缩写，词首字母缩略法）：are words derived from the initials of several words eg.IT-----information technology; CPI---- consumer price index 六、Languageaptitude（语言能力倾向，语言学能）：the natural ability for learning a second language.（书本P164） 七、Semantic Changes（语意变化）：（书本P102） 1.semantic broadening（扩展，意思越来越广，语义扩大化） 2.semantic narrowing（意思变小） 3.semantic shift（转换） 八、indirect speech act（间接言语行动）：which aimed to explain indirect language in the light of the speech act theory.（书本P84-85） 1.The primary speech act is the speaker’s goal of communication while the secondary
作者◆一剑钻神 一、判断（一） 1.SAP是指所有的S是P；SEP是指所有的S不是P; SIP是指有的S是P; SOP是指有的S不是P。 2.A与E是反对关系（不能同真，可以同假）； I与O时下反对关系（不能同假，可以同真）； A与O和E与I是矛盾关系（不能同假，已不能同真）； A与I和E与O是差等关系 逻辑方阵 全同真包含于真包含交叉全异 A 1 1 0 0 0 E 0 0 0 0 1 I 1 1 1 1 0 O 0 0 1 1 1 A、E、I、O四种判断的真假情况列表
注：1代表“真”；0代表“假”(下同)。 4.普通逻辑是研究思维的逻辑形式及其基本规律和简单逻辑方法的科学。 任何一种逻辑形式都是由逻辑常项和逻辑变项两部分组成。 普通逻辑所研究的思维是指抽象思维中的知性思维。 现代形式逻辑主要是指数理逻辑。 知觉是感觉的综合。 感性认识的基本特征是直接感受性。 人们平常提到逻辑学时，通常指的是形式逻辑。 在感性认识阶段，人们对客观事物的认识的三种存在形式人别是感觉、知觉、表象。 在理性认识阶段，人们对事物的认识的三种存在形式人别是概念、判断、推理。 5.概念是反映对象特有属性或本质属性的思维形式，概念有两个逻辑特征，他们是内涵和外延。 概念的内涵是指反映到概念中的对象中的特有属性或本质属性。 具有概念所反映的特有属性或本质属性的对象，称为概念的外延。 从逻辑的角度讲，所谓明确概念，指的就是要明确概念的内涵和外延。 普通逻辑不去研究概念在具体内容上的关系，而是把概念作为思维形式，从内涵或外延方面来研究概念间的关系。
根据概念的外延大小，概念分为单独概念和普通概念。 根据概念反映的对象是否为集合体，概念分为集合概念和非集合概念。 根据概念所反映对象是否具有某种性质，概念分为正概念和负概念。 6.定义的规则？ （1）定义项的外延和被定义项的外延应是相同的（违反这条规则，就会犯“定义过宽”或“定义过窄”的逻辑错误）。 （2）定义项中不能直接或间接地包括被定义项（违反这条规则，就会犯“同语反复”或“循环定义”的逻辑错误）。 （3）定义项中不得包括含混的概念和语词，不得用比喻。 7.划分的规则？ （1）划分的各子项外延之和必须与母项的外延相等（违反这条规则，就会犯“划分不全”或“多出子项”的逻辑错误）。 （2）每次划分必须按照同一标准进行（违反这条规则，就会犯“划分标准不同一”的逻辑错误）。 （3）划分的各子项应当互不相容（违反这条规则，就会犯“子项相容”的逻辑错误）。 8.判断的逻辑特征是有所肯定或有所否定和有真假。 普通逻辑不研究判断的具体内容的真假，只研究判断在形式上的真假特征和真假关系。 性质判断就是断定对象具有或不具有某种性质的判断。它是由主项、谓项、联项和量项四部分组成。 性质判断的四种基本形式SAP、SEP、SIP、SOP。 判断分为简单判断和复合判断；简单判断就是自身不含其他判断的判断，复合判断就是自身中包含其他判断的判断。 9. 属于非传递的关系有：判断间的不等值关系、概念间的交叉关系 同时具有反对称性质和传递性质的有：概念间的真包含关系和概念间的真包含于关系。 同时具有对称性和传递性的是：概念间的全同关系和判断间的等值关系。 非传递关系的是：判断间的矛盾关系和判断间的交叉关系。 具有反对称性质的是：真包含关系和真包含于关系。 具有传递性质的关系的有：概念间的全同关系和判断间的矛盾关
语义学与翻译 【摘要】语义学是从哲学和语言学方面研究意义的一门学科。第二次世界大战以后，由于不同学科的相互影响，对语义的研究迅速发展。20世纪20～30年代盛行的逻辑实证主义对以后的语义研究产生了重大影响。以卡纳普为代表的“学院派”语义哲学家认为，现代逻辑的主要任务是对“理想”的语言作语法（句法）的语义描写和分析。所指“理想”语言的语义即联结语言符号和世界可见现实或可感知经验的纽带。在他们看来，自然语言在某种程度上是原始的、模糊的、不精确的和容易混淆的。美国人类语言学家沃夫提出了语言相对论，认为说话者学习和使用的语言决定了说话者的感知和思想框架。到40年代，剑桥学派代表人物g.e.穆尔及l.维特根斯坦又提出了“普通语义学”理论。50年代，美国语言学家哈里斯、乔姆斯基等创立转换-生成语法理论，对自然语言的句法结构提出更深刻的见解。 【关键词】语义学；翻译；转换生成语法理论 一、定义 胡壮麟的《语言学教程》里是这样给语义学定义的“semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. it is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items， but also with levels of language below the word and above it， e.g. meaning of morphems and sentences. the following are what the key concepts look like： semantic components， denotation of
语用学概论 （1）丈夫：我去办公室啦。 （2）妻子：老公，今天是星期天。 （1）父亲：今天哪儿也不想去。 （2）女儿：老爸，今天是星期天。 （1）下午踢球去吗？ （2）晚上还有考试。（昨天把腿拉伤了。） （1）小王：怎么样？ （2）小李：资料都拿走了。 （1）老师：现在几点了？ （2）学生：路上自行车没气啦。 第一讲什么是语用学 一、语用学的起源 ?“语用学”术语的提出 1938年美国哲学家莫里斯在著作《符号理论基础》（Foundation of the theory of signs）中首次使用了“语用学”这一术语（Pragmatics）。这个术语是莫里斯参照pragmatism（实用主义）和pragmaticism（实效主义）创造出来的。 符号学（semiotics）包括：句法学（sy ntax）、语义学（semantics）、语用学（pragmatics）三分。 句法学（Syntactics or sy ntax）研究“符号之间的形式关系”； 语义学（semantics）研究“符号及其所指对象的关系”； 语用学（Pragmatics ）研究“符号和使用者的关系”（Morris,1938） 《符号、语言和行动》（1946 ） 语用学是符号学的一个部分，它研究符号的来源、应用及其在行为中出现时所产生的作用或效果。 ?语用学与符号学 ?语用学与语言哲学 自20世纪30年代末开始，皮尔斯、莫里斯和卡纳普等把语用学作为符号学的一部分，其研究仅限于哲学，这可算是语用学发展的第一个阶段。从20世纪50年代初到60年代末，以希勒尔、奥斯汀、塞尔和格赖斯等为代表的语言哲学家对言语行为和会话含意理论的探索，使语用学有了突破性的进展，他们的研究成果基本上奠定了语用学的理论基础，这可算是语用学发展的第二个阶段，此时的语言学研究仍限于哲学范围内。正式因为哲学家对语言的探讨，为70年代语用学成为语言学的一门独立学科准备了条件。70年代以后，特别是1977年在荷兰正式出版发行了《语用学学刊》以后，语用学作为语言学的一门新兴学科才得到确认。 ?语用学作为一门新兴学科的标志： ?1977年，《语用学杂志》（Journal of pragmatics）在荷兰的阿姆斯特丹正式出版发行； ?1983年由列文森（Levinson）所编著的第一部语用学教科书《语用学》问世； ?1986年“国际语用学会”正式成立。 （沈家煊，1996） 二、语用学的发展 ?1、语言研究发展历史： ?20世纪初：结构主义语言学—50年代后期：转换生成语法理论—70年代初：语义学研究（引入语 境概念，为语用学的发展开辟了道路）。 ?归纳为：形态——句法——语义——语用几个阶段。 ?发展缘由