Chapter 5
Resources and Trade: The Heckscher-Ohlin Model
?Chapter Organization
Model of a Two-Factor Economy
Prices and Production
Choosing the Mix of Inputs
Factor Prices and Goods Prices
Resources and Output
Effects of International Trade between Two-Factor Economies
Relative Prices and the Pattern of Trade
Trade and the Distribution of Income
Case Study: North-South Trade and Income Inequality
Case Study: Skill-Biased Technological Change and Income Inequality
Factor-Price Equalization
Empirical Evidence on the Heckscher-Ohlin Model
Trade in Goods as a Substitute for Trade in Factors: Factor Content of Trade
Patterns of Exports between Developed and Developing Countries
Implications of the Tests
Summary
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 5: Factor Prices, Goods Prices, and Production Decisions Choice of Technique
Goods Prices and Factor Prices
More on Resources and Output
?Chapter Overview
In Chapter 3, trade between nations was motivated by differences internationally in the relative productivity of workers when producing a range of products. In Chapter 4, the Specific Factors model considered additional factors of production, but only labor was mobile between sectors. In Chapter 5, this analysis goes a step further by introducing the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.
The Heckscher-Ohlin theory considers the pattern of production and trade that will arise when countries have different endowments of such factors of production as labor, capital, and land and where these factors are mobile between sectors in the long run. The basic point is that countries tend to export goods that are
22 Krugman/Obstfeld/Melitz ?International Economics: Theory & Policy, Tenth Edition
intensive in the factors with which they are abundantly supplied. Trade has strong effects on the relative earnings of resources and, according to theory, leads to equalization across countries of factor prices. These theoretical results and related empirical findings are presented in this chapter.
The chapter begins by developing a general equilibrium model of an economy with two goods that are each produced using two factors according to fixed coefficient production functions. The assumption of fixed coefficient production functions provides an unambiguous ranking of goods in terms of factor intensities. (A more realistic model allowing for substitution between factors of production is presented later in the chapter with the same conclusions.) Two important results are derived using this model. The first is known as the Rybczynski effect. Increasing the relative supply of one factor, holding relative goods prices constant, leads to a biased expansion of production possibilities favoring the relative supply of the good that uses that factor intensively.
The second key result is known as the Stolper-Samuelson effect. Increasing the relative price of a good, holding factor supplies constant, increases the return to the factor used intensively in the production of that good by more than the price increase, while lowering the return to the other factor. This result has important income distribution implications.
It can be quite instructive to think of the effects of demographic/labor force changes on the supply of different products. For example, how might the pattern of production during the productive years of the
―Baby Boom‖ generation differ from the pattern of production for post–Baby Boom generations? What does this imply for returns to factors and relative price behavior? What effect would a more restrictive immigration policy have on the pattern of production and trade for the United States?
The central message concerning trade patterns of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory is that countries tend to export goods whose production is intensive in factors with which they are relatively abundantly endowed. Comparing the United States and Mexico, for example, we observe a relative abundance of capital in the United States and a relative abundance of labor in Mexico. Thus, goods that intensively use capital in production should be cheaper to produce in the United States, and those that intensively use labor should be cheaper to produce in Mexico. With trade, the United States should export capital-intensive goods like computers, while Mexico should export labor-intensive goods like textiles. With integrated markets, international trade should lead to a convergence of goods prices. Thus, the prices of capital-intensive goods in the United States and labor-intensive goods in Mexico will rise. According to the Stolper-Samuelson effect, owners of a country’s abundant factors (e.g., capital owners in the United States, labor in Mexico) will gain from trade, while owners of the country’s scarce fact ors (labor in the United States, capital in Mexico) will lose from trade. The extension of this result is the Factor Price Equalization theorem, which states that trade in goods (and thus price equalization of goods) will lead to an equalization of factor prices. These income distribution effects are more or less permanent, given that factor abundances do not quickly change within a country. Theoretically, the gains from trade could be redistributed such that everyone is better off; however, such a plan is difficult to implement in practice. The political implications of factor price equalization should be interesting to students.
After presenting the basic theory behind the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, the rest of the chapter examines empirical tests of the model, beginning with a pair of case studies looking at income inequality in the United States. Wages paid to skilled workers in the United States have been rising at a much faster rate than those paid to unskilled workers over the past few decades. At the same time, there has been a large increase in international trade. Given that the United States is relatively abundant in skilled labor, the Heckscher-Ohlin theory would predict that increased trade should lead to higher wages for skilled workers and lower wages for unskilled workers. On the surface, this appears to be an empirical confirmation of the theory. However, other studies argue that rising wage inequality can only partially be explained by increased trade. According to the Heckscher-Ohlin model, the increase in skilled wages should be driven by an increase in the price of skill-intensive goods following trade. However, skill-intensive goods prices have not increased
Chapter 5 Resources and Trade: The Heckscher-Ohlin Model 23 by nearly the same proportion as skilled wages. If rising wage inequality in a rich country like the United States is driven by factor price equalization, then we should also observe a narrowing gap in developing countries that are exporting low-skill intensive goods. However, income inequality in these nations is actually larger than in rich countries. Finally, trade between rich and poor nations is simply not large enough to be entirely responsible for the size of the income gap. Rather, the increasing skill premium is most likely due to skill-biased technical innovations like computers that have increased the productivities of skilled workers more than that of unskilled workers.
Another empirical observation testing the validity of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory is the Leontief paradox. This is the observation that the capital intensity of U.S. exports is actually lower than that of U.S. imports, exactly the opposite of what the theory would predict for a capital abundant country. Further evidence of this paradox is found in global data, with a country’s factor abundance doing a relatively poor job of predicting its trade patterns. Finally, the theory predicts a much larger volume of trade (given observed differences in factor endowments) than we actually see in the data. A country like China, for example, has a significant abundance in labor. H owever, China’s net exports of labor-intensive goods are lower than what the theory would predict. Similarly, U.S. net imports of labor-intensive goods are lower than what would be expected given its relative labor scarcity. An explanation for this ―missing trade‖ is that the assumption of identical technology across countries is flawed. Rather, there are significant differences in productivity across countries. That said, when the sample is restricted to trade between developed and developing countries (i.e., North-South trade), the Heckscher-Ohlin theory fits well. This is clearly seen in Figure 5-12, with low-skill countries like Bangladesh, Cambodia, and Haiti exporting products that are considerably less skill-intensive than the exports of more developed nations like France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. We can also see this pattern of trade changing as countries develop, as evidenced by the increasing skill intensity of Chinese exports following China’s increased growth and development. These observations have motivated many economists to consider motives for trade between nations that are not exclusively based on differences across countries. These concepts will be explored in later chapters. Despite these shortcomings, important and relevant results concerning income distribution are obtained from the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.
?Answers to Textbook Problems
1. a. The first step is to compute the opportunity costs of both cloth and food. We are given the
following resource constraints:
a KC=2, a LC=2, a KF=3, a LF=1L =2,000; K =3,000
Each unit of cloth is produced with 2 units of capital and 2 units of labor. Each unit of food is
produced with 3 units of capital and 1 unit of labor. Furthermore, the economy is endowed with
2,000 units of labor and 3,000 units of capital. Given these values, we can define the following
resource constraints:
2Q C + Q F≤ 2,000 → Labor constraint
2Q C+ 3Q F≤ 3,000 → Capital constraint
Solve these two constraints for the quantity of food produced:
Q F≤ 2,000 - 2Q C
Q F≤ 1,000 - 2/3Q C
This gives us two budget constraints for food production that must both be met. The production
possibilities frontier traces out these budget constraints for food and cloth production.
24 Krugman/Obstfeld/Melitz ?International Economics: Theory & Policy, Tenth Edition
Looking at the diagram, we see that production of both food and cloth will take place when the
relative price of cloth is between the two opportunity costs of cloth. The opportunity cost of cloth is given by the slopes of the two components of the production possibilities frontier above, 2/3
and 2. When cloth production is low, the economy will be using relatively more labor to produce cloth, and the opportunity cost of cloth is 2/3 a unit of food. However, as cloth production rises,
the economy runs scarce on labor and must take capital away from food production, raising the
opportunity cost of cloth to 2 units of food.
As long as the relative price of cloth lies between 2/3 and 2 units of food, the economy will produce both goods. If the price of cloth falls below 2/3, then the economy should completely specialize in food production (too low a compensation for producing cloth). If the price of cloth rises above 2, complete specialization in cloth will occur (too low a compensation for producing food).
b. Note the input requirements for each good. One unit of cloth can be produced using 2 units of
capital and 2 units of labor. One unit of food is produced using 3 units of capital and 1 unit of
labor. In a competitive market, the unit cost of each good must be equal to the output price.
Q C= 2K+ 2L→P C= 2r+ 2w
Q F= 3K+L→P F= 3r+w
This gives us two equations and two unknowns (r and w). Solve for the factor prices:
w=P F- 3r
P C= 2r+ 2(P F- 3r) = 2r+ 2P F- 6r= 2P F- 4r
***r= (2P F-P C)/4
***w= (3P C- 2P F)/4
c. Looking at the two expressions in part (b), we see that an increase in the price of cloth will cause
the rental rate of capital to fall and the wage rate to laborers to rise. This makes sense, as cloth is
a labor-intensive good. An increase in its price will lead to greater production of cloth and an
increase in demand for the factor it uses intensively—labor.
d. The capital stock increases to 4,000. The labor constraint will remain unchanged, keeping the
maximum price of cloth at 2 units of food. The new capital constraint is given by:
2Q C+ 3Q F≤ 4,000
Solving for Q F yields:
Q F≤ 1,333 - 2/3Q C
Thus, the minimum price of cloth is also unchanged at 2/3 units of food. The only difference now is that the production possibilities frontier will have a larger horizontal intercept (if cloth is on the horizontal axis). Compared to Figure 5-1, the new production possibilities frontier will intercept
the x-axis at 2,000 instead of 1,500.
e. The actual production point for cloth and food will depend on the relative prices of cloth and food.
If we assume that the economy is producing at a point such that all resources are being utilized
(point 3 in Figure 5-1), then we can compute the quantities of cloth and food by setting the resource constraints equal to one another:
Q F= 1,333 - 2/3Q C= 2,000 - 2Q C
2Q C- 2/3Q C= 2,000 - 1,333
4/3Q C= 667
Q C= 500
Q F= 1,333 - 2/3 ? 500 = 1,000
Chapter 5 Resources and Trade: The Heckscher-Ohlin Model 25
f. Prior to the expansion of the capital stock, the economy was producing 750 units of cloth and
500 units of food. After the expansion, cloth production fell to 500, while food production
increased to 1,000. This is precisely what the Rybczynski effect predicts will happen.
2.Abundance is defined in terms of a ratio not in terms of the absolute quantities. E.g. If the total amount
of capital in Australia is three times that of New Zealand, but New Zealand would still be considered a capital abundant country since the Australia has more than three times the labour that of New Zealand.
The definition of abundance is in relative terms by comparing the ratio of labour to capital in two countries. This means, if a country is abundant in labour in comparison to other country, then it cannot be abundant in capital in comparison to the same country. Hence, no country is abundant in both labour and Capital.
a.Capital labour ratio in Australia is =90000/45 = 2000 Capital labour ratio in Malaysia is
=75000/30 = 2500
Malaysia has more capital per labour. The greater capital labour ratio of Malaysia shows this is the capital abundant country.
b.Australia has the comparative advantage in the production of cloth. The opportunity cost of
producing the cloth by Australia is lower than that of Malaysia. According to the Heckscher-Ohlin Theorem, Australia has the comparative advantage in the production of cloth because they are relatively well endowed than Malaysia. Australia would export cloth to Malaysia.
3. This question is similar to an issue discussed in Chapter
4. What matters is not the absolute abundance of factors but their relative abundance. Poor countries have an abundance of labor relative to capital when compared to more developed countries. For example, consider a large, rich country like the United States and a small, poor country like Guatemala. Though the United States has more land, natural resources, capital, and labor than Guatemala, what matters for trade is the relative abundance of these factors. The ratio of labor to capital is likely to be much higher in Guatemala than in the United States, reflecting a relative scarcity of capital in Guatemala and abundance in the United States. This makes labor relatively cheaper and capital more expensive in Guatemala than in the United States. Notice that this difference in factor prices is not driven by how much labor Guatemala has compared to the United States, but by the proportion of labor to other factors within each country.
4. In the Ricardian model, labor gains from trade through an increase in its purchasing power. This result does not support labor union demands for limits on imports from less affluent countries. The Heckscher-Ohlin model directly addresses distribution effects by considering how trade impacts the owners of factors of production. In the context of this model, unskilled U.S. labor loses from trade because this group represents the relatively scarce factors in this country. The results from the Heckscher-Ohlin model support labor union demands for import limits. This is a rational policy as labor unions representing unskilled workers are hurt directly by trade that favors the export of skill-intensive goods (and import of low-skill goods). However, the unions may be better served lobbying for resources to increase skill levels among its membership, given that the gains from trade overall will exceed the losses to a particular sector.
26 Krugman/Obstfeld/Melitz ?International Economics: Theory & Policy, Tenth Edition
5. Specific programmers may face wage cuts due to the competition from India, but this is not inconsistent
with skilled labor wages rising. By making programming more efficient in general, this development may have increased wages for others in the software industry or lowered the prices of the goods overall.
In the short run, though, it has clearly hurt those with sector-specific skills who will face transition costs.
There are many reasons to not block the imports of computer programming services (or outsourcing of these jobs). First, by allowing programming to be done more cheaply, it expands the production possibilities frontier of the United States, making the entire country better off on average. Necessary redistribution can be done, but we should not stop trade that is making the nation as a whole better off.
In addition, no one trade policy action exists in a vacuum, and if the United States blocked the
programming imports, it could lead to broader trade restrictions in other countries.
6. The factor proportions theory states that countries export those goods whose production is intensive
in factors with which they are abundantly endowed. One would expect the United States, which
has a high capital/labor ratio relative to the rest of the world, to export capital-intensive goods if the Heckscher-Ohlin theory holds. Leontief found that the United States exported labor-intensive goods.
Bowen, Leamer, and Sveikauskas found, for the world as a whole, the correlation between factor endowment and trade patterns to be tenuous. The data do not support the predictions of the theory that countries’ exports and imports reflect th e relative endowments of factors.
7. The factor price equalization is based on the fact that free trade would lead to the convergence of wages between these countries. The theory says that when trade between two countries resumes, the relative prices of the goods converge, this converge in turn, causes the convergence of the relative prices of capital and labor. This says that when two countries are engaged in trading the goods, in an indirect way these two countries are in effect trading the factors of production. In other words, a country in abundant in labor is trading the goods produced in high ratio of labor to capital for goods produced with a low labor capital ratio. That means the country is exporting the labor and importing the capital. This says that the trade leads to the equalization of two countries factor prices.
But practically, in the real world, factor prices are not equalized. Mainly, the wage rates in the developing countries are substantially lower than that of the developed countries. This may be due to the following reasons. First, the difference is may be due to the difference in the quality of labor. Second, the countries operate in different technologies of production even for the same products. Third, in the real world the prices are not fully equalized by the international trade. Fourth, many countries do not involve sufficiently in the production which relatively involve more abundant factors. Some countries even with higher labor to capital ratio involve more in the capital intensive technology. The factor price equalization does not occur if the countries involved in trading of their relative scarce resource used products. In the real world situation one or more of these factors mentioned above arises in international trade, hence the difference in wages across countries.
第八章 1.什么是非关税壁垒？其日趋增强的主要原因是什么？ 非关税壁垒是指一国政府除关税以外的一切限制进口的措施。它是与关税壁垒相对而言的。原因： 1. 20世纪70年代两次石油危机的爆发引起世界经济动荡不安，新贸易保护主义兴起，非关税壁垒措施应运而兴。 2.关税作用的日益下降使非关税壁垒取而代之成为主要的贸易保护措施。 3.非关税壁垒自身所具备的灵活性，隐蔽性等特点亦是其迅速发展的重要原因。 2. 非关税壁垒的特点，主要种类。 特点： 1.非关税壁垒的隐蔽性。 2.非关税壁垒的灵活性和针对性 3.非关税壁垒的差别性和歧视性 4.非关税壁垒较关税壁垒更能达到限制进口的目的 分类： 直接非关税壁垒措施和间接非关税壁垒 （前者是指一国政府直接对进口商品的数量和金额的限制，或迫使出口国自己限制自己商品的出口数量和金额。。。。。。。后者是指一国政府不直接限定进口商品的数量和金额，而是通过对进口商品制定各种严格的条件来间接的限制商品的进口 3.什么是进口配额制？其主要类型有哪些？ 进口配额制是指一国政府在一定时期（一般为一年）以内对某种商品的进口规定一个数量上或金额上的限制。在规定的期限里，限额内的货物允许进口，超过限额则禁止进口，或征收较高的关税甚至罚款后才允许进口。 类别： 绝对配额------分全球配额和国别配额；国别配额------分自主配额和协议配额 关税配额 绝对配额: 1.全球配额（又称总配额指的是对一种商品只笼统的跪地一定时期内的其进口的最高配额，但不作国别或区域分配（对邻近国家有利）） 2.国别配额（在一定时期的总配额内按国别和地区进行分配，各国家和地区安配额使用，超过不准进入）又分为自主配额（又称单方面配额是由进口国家单方面强制规定某些商品在一定时期内从某个国家或区域的进口配额。） 协定配额（又称双边配额它是由进口国和出口国政府或民间团体之间协商，谈判达成协议，规定某种商品在一定时期内的进口配额） 关税配额：是指政府在一定时期内对某种商品的绝对数量不加限制，只是对面额内的进口商品给予免税，减税，或低税的优惠待遇。对超过配额的进口商品则征收较高的关税 （进口配额对国内产业具有很强的保护作用，由于它可以直接限制进口数量，因此已由最初的防御手段变成一种进攻性的贸易措施，在贸易谈判中，配额给广泛使用作为适合他国让步的武器。
国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章 集团标准化办公室：[VV986T-J682P28-JP266L8-68PNN]
第一章练习与答案 1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？ 答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。 2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。 答案提示： 3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。 答案提示： 4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。 答案提示： 5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？ 答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。 6．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。 答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。 7．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？ 答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。8．根据上一题的答案，你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些？ 答案提示：小国。 9*．为什么说两个部门要素使用比例的不同会导致生产可能性边界曲线向外凸？
国际贸易课后习题答案（许斌版） 第一章判断题√、√、×、×、×选择题C、D、D 第二章判断题√、×、×、×、×选择题C、A、B 第三章判断题×、×、√、×、×选择题D、D、C、A、D 第七章判断题×、×、×、√、×、×、√选择题D、C、C、C、C 第八章判断题×、×、×、×、√、×、×选择题C、B、A、AD、D 第九章判断题√、×、×、×、√、×、√选择题D、B、D、C、D 第十章判断题√、×、×、×、×、√、×选择题C、A、C、B、D 第十一章判断题√、√、√、×、√、×、×选择题D、C、B、C、A 第十二章判断题×、×、×、×、√、×选择题B、C、A、B、D 第十三章判断题×、×、×、×、√、×、
×选择题D、B、BD、B、D 绝对优势：指一国的劳动生产率绝对水平高于另一国。比较优势：如果一个国家在本国生产一种产品的机会成本低于在其他国家生产该产品的机会成本的话，则这个国家在生产该种产品上就拥有比较优势。比较优势既可以出自绝对优势较大的生产领域，也可以出自绝对劣势较小的生产领域。赫克歇尔-欧林定理：在2×2×2结构的HO模型的自贸易均衡中，一个国家出口在生产中密集使用其丰裕资源的商品，进口在生产中密集使用其稀缺资源的商品。斯图尔珀-萨缪尔森定理(SS定理)：在2×2×2结构的HO模型中，贸易开放必定提高一个国家丰裕资源所有者的实际收入，同时必定降低一个国家稀缺资源所有者的实际收入。进口关税：是一个国家的海关对进口货物和物品征收的关税。进口配额：是一国政府在一定时期内，对于某些商品的进口数量或金额加以直接限制出口补贴：是
鼓励出口的政策，是一国政府为了刺激本国产品出口，对出口商品给予出口商的现金资助或财政上的优惠待遇，以降低出口商品的出口价格，提高其在国际市场上的竞争力。自愿出口限额(VER)：是出口国“自愿”设置的对出口数量的限额。我们把它视为进口国的贸易保护政策，因为出口国一般是在进口国施加的压力下才采用出口限额的。倾销行为：倾销指一个企业将出口价格定在低于其本国市场销售价格之下的行为。在某些国家的反倾销法规中，除了上述定义外，一个企业将出口价格定在低于他的生产成本之下的行为也被认为是倾销。掠夺性倾销：出口国企业将出口价格定得很低，目的在于将进口国的竞争对手逐出市场，或者是为了阻碍潜在竞争着进入这个市场，此确立垄断地位然后在提高价格获得垄断利润。这种行为被称为掠夺性倾销。美国301条款一般301条款：授予总统采取一切适当的行动来消除外国贸易壁
（判断选择题答案，有些是我自己做的，仅供参考。后面是书上老师划的一些简答和综合题，有几个发的文档上没答案。另外，老师好像提到了列昂惕夫悖论，有时间可以了解下） 第一章判断题√、√、×、×、× 选择题C、D、D 第二章判断题√、×、×、×、× 选择题C、A、B 第三章判断题×、×、√、×、× 选择题D、D、C、A、D 第七章判断题×、×、×、√、×、×、√ 选择题D、C、C、C、C 第八章判断题×、×、×、×、√、×、× 选择题C、B、A、AD、D 第九章判断题√、×、×、×、√、×、√ 选择题D、B、D、C、D 第十章判断题√、×、×、×、×、√、× 选择题C、A、C、B、D 第十一章判断题√、√、√、×、√、×、× 选择题D、C、B、C、A 第十二章判断题×、×、×、×、√、× 选择题B、C、A、B、D 第十三章判断题×、×、×、×、√、×、× 选择题D、B、BD、B、D 绝对优势：指一国的劳动生产率绝对水平高于另一国。 比较优势：如果一个国家在本国生产一种产品的机会成本（用其他产品来衡量）低于在其他国家生产该产品的机会成本的话，则这个国家在生产该种产品上就拥有比较优势。比较优势既可以出自绝对优势较大的生产领域，也可以出自绝对劣势较小的生产领域。 赫克歇尔-欧林定理：在2×2×2结构的HO模型的自由贸易均衡中，一个国家出口在生产中密集使用其丰裕资源的商品，进口在生产中密集使用其稀缺资源的
商品。 斯图尔珀-萨缪尔森定理(SS定理)：在2×2×2结构的HO模型中，贸易开放必定提高一个国家丰裕资源所有者的实际收入，同时必定降低一个国家稀缺资源所有者的实际收入。 进口关税： 进口配额：是一国政府在一定时期内，对于某些商品的进口数量或金额加以直接限制 出口补贴：是鼓励出口的政策，是一国政府为了刺激本国产品出口，对出口商品 给予出口商的现金资助或财政上的优惠待遇，以降低出口商品的出口价格，提高 其在国际市场上的竞争力。 自愿出口限额(VER)：是出口国“自愿”设置的对出口数量的限额。我们把它视 为进口国的贸易保护政策，因为出口国一般是在进口国施加的压力下才采用出口 限额的。 倾销行为：倾销指一个企业将出口价格定在低于其本国市场销售价格之下的行为。在某些国家的反倾销法规中，除了上述定义外，一个企业将出口价格定在低 于他的生产成本之下的行为也被认为是倾销。 掠夺性倾销：出口国企业将出口价格定得很低，目的在于将进口国的竞争对手逐 出市场，或者是为了阻碍潜在竞争着进入这个市场，由此确立垄断地位然后在提 高价格获得垄断利润。这种行为被称为掠夺性倾销。 美国301条款 一般301条款：授予总统采取一切适当的行动来消除外国贸易壁垒的权力。可针对外国政府“不正当的、不合理的、歧视性的、给美国商品造成负担或限制的”
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》中文版·第九版课后习题答案 第一章练习与答案 1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？ 答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。 2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。 答案提示： 3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？ 试解释原因。 答案提示： 4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。 答案提示： 5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？ 答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。 6．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。 答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。 7．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？ 答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。 8．根据上一题的答案，你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些？ 答案提示：小国。 9*．为什么说两个部门要素使用比例的不同会导致生产可能性边界曲线向外凸？ 答案提示： 第二章答案 1．根据下面两个表中的数据，确定（1）贸易前的相对价格；（2）比较优势型态。
Chapter 03 Why Everybody Trades: Comparative Advantage Overview This chapter extends the analysis of international trade to consider trade in a multiple-product economy. An economy composed of two products is useful to bring out insights about international trade. This general equilibrium approach explicitly shows the effects of resource reallocations between industries. The chapter culminates in showing the importance of comparative advantage for understanding why countries trade. The story begins with Adam Smith and absolute advantage. (A box on mercantilism summarizes the view that Smith opposed and shows how mercantilist thinking continues today.) The analysis focuses on the productivity of labor (output per hour) in producing each of two products (wheat and cloth) in two countries (the United States and the rest of the world). Smith examined the case of absolute advantage, in which labor productivity in producing one product is higher in one country and labor productivity in producing the other product is higher in the other country. With no trade each country must produce both products to meet national demands. The discussion of the Smith case focuses on the increase in global production efficiency achieved by shifting production in each country toward the product in which it has the higher labor productivity. National demands can be met by international trade—apparently excess supplies can be exported and apparently excess demands can be met by imports. The increase in total world production is the evidence of gains from international trade. Smith's approach does not indicate what would happen if the same country has absolute advantage in both products. Ricardo took up this case and demonstrated the principle of comparative advantage—a country will export products that it can produce at low opportunity cost and import products that it would otherwise produce at high opportunity cost. The Ricardian example is developed in more detail. The ratio of resource costs (or labor hour input-output coefficients, the inverse of labor productivities) indicates the opportunity costs or relative prices of the products in each country with no trade. The difference in prices with no trade sets up the opportunity for arbitrage, with each good being exported from the initially low-price country and imported by the initially high-price country. The shift to a free trade equilibrium results in an equilibrium international price. Without information on demand, we cannot say exactly what this price will be, but we do know that it is in the range bordered by the two no-trade price ratios.
1.方以CFR贸易术语出口货物一批，在从出口公司仓库运到码头待运过程中，货物发生 损失，该损失应该由何方负责？如果买方已经向保险公司办理了货物运输保险，保险公司对该项损失是否给予赔偿？并说明理由。 要点评析：保险公司不需赔偿。货物损失放生在从出口公司仓库运到码头待运过程中，此时买方对该批货物还不具有可保利益，因为本案采取CFR术语成交，CFR的风险点在装 运港船舷，发生货损时卖方还未完成交货，所有权还属于卖方，所以虽然买方已经向保险公司办理了货物运输保险，但是保险公司不予赔偿。 2.某轮载货后，在航行途中不慎发生搁浅，事后反复开倒车，强行起浮，但船上轮机受损并且船底划破，致使海水渗入货舱，造成货物部分损失。该船行驶至邻近的一个港口船坞修理，暂时卸下大部分货物，前后花费了10天时间，增加支出各项费用，包括员工工资。当船修复后装上原货启航后不久，A舱起火，船长下令对该舱灌水灭火。A舱原载文具用品、茶叶等，灭火后发现文具用品一部分被焚毁，另一部分文具用品和全部茶叶被水浸湿。试分别说明以上各项损失的性质，并指出在投保CIC（1981.1.1条款）何种险别的情况下，保险公司才负责赔偿？ 要点评析：（1）属于单独海损的有：搁浅造成的损失；A舱被焚毁的一部分文具用品。 因为该损失是由于风险本身所导致的。 属于共同海损的有：强行起浮造成的轮机受损以及船底划破而产生的修理费以及船员工资等费用属于；A舱被水浸湿的另一部分文具用品和全部茶叶。因为该损失是由于为了大家的利益而采取的对抗风险的人为措施所导致的。 （2）投保CIC（1981.1.1条款）的平安险，保险公司就负责赔偿，因为平安险承保共 同海损；对于本案中的单独海损，是由于搁浅和失火意外事故导致的，意外事过导致的部分损失属于平安险承保范围。 3.外贸公司进口散装化肥一批，曾向保险公司投保海运一切险。货抵目的港后，全部卸 至港务公司仓库。在卸货过程中，外贸公司与装卸公司签订了一份灌装协议，并立即开始灌装。某日，由装卸公司根据协议将已灌装成包的半数货物堆放在港区内铁路边堆场，等待铁路转运至他地以交付不同买主。另一半留在仓库尚待灌装的散货，因受台风袭击，遭受严重湿损。外贸企业逐就遭受湿损部分向保险公司索赔，被保险公司拒绝。对此，试予以评论。 要点评析：保险公司不需赔偿，因为根据保险责任起讫条款，保险责任在货物到达目的地进入指定仓库时终止，而本案中的货损发生在仓库内，所以不属于保险公司责任范围。 4.远洋运输公司的“东风”号轮在4月28日满载货物起航，出公海后由于风浪过大偏离航线而触礁，船底划破长2米的裂缝，海水不断渗入。为了船货的共同安全，船长下令抛掉一部分货物并组织人员抢修裂缝。船只修复以后继续航行。不久，又遇船舱失火，船长下令灌
国际贸易习题答案
学习中心/函授站_ 姓名学号 西安电子科技大学网络与继续教育学院 2013学年上学期 《国际贸易》期末考试试题 （综合大作业） 考试说明： 1、大作业于2013年6月13日下发，2013年6月29日交回； 2、考试必须独立完成，如发现抄袭、雷同均按零分计； 3、答案须手写完成，要求字迹工整、卷面干净。 一、名词解释（每个名词4分，共20分） 1、国际贸易与对外贸易
2、总贸易与专门贸易：①总贸易指对外贸易统计时，以国境为界，一定时期内，凡进入国境的商品一律列为进口，凡输出国境的商品一律列为出口。②专门贸易指对外贸易统计时，以关境为界，凡进入关境的商品一律列为进口，称专门进口；凡输出关境的商品一律列为出口，称专门出口。 3、普惠税与特惠税: 普惠税是指发达国家承诺对发展中国家或地区输入的商品，特别是制成品或半制成品，给予普遍的、非歧视的和非互惠的关税优惠待遇。②特惠税是指对某个国家或地区进口的全部商品或部分商品，给予特别优惠的低关税或免税待遇。特惠税有的是互惠的，有的是非互惠的，但不适用于从非优惠国家或地区进口的商品 4、班轮运输与租船运输：班轮运输是指，我们在贸易术语里讲过班轮条件。班轮，就是轮船公司的船舶按照固定的船期，固定航线，固定的港口往来行驶的，这样的船舶叫做班轮，这样
的运输就叫班轮运输。 租船运输中，有程租船、期租船、光船租船等三种。程租船又叫定程租船，是按里程来计算，程租船的费用计算问题，可由租船人和船东专业人员商量确定 5、共同海损与单独海损：共同海损是指载货船舶在海上运输中，遭遇自然灾害、意外事故或其他特殊情况时，为了使船舶、货物免遭共同危险，有意地采取合理措施而引起的特殊牺牲或支出的额外费用，应由各受益方共同分摊损失的一种法律制度。 单独海损是指因自然灾害、意外事故或驾驶人员等的航海过失直接造成的船舶或货物的损失。这部分损失不能要求航海中的个利害关系人来分摊，只能由各受害方自行承担，或按运输合同的有关规定进行处理。 二、辨析题（每小题5分，共30分） 1、一国即便在某种商品的生产上具有绝对劣势，它也可以在该商品的生产上具有相对优势。 答：对
Chapter 1 Introduction ?Chapter Organization What Is International Economics About? The Gains from Trade The Pattern of Trade How Much Trade? Balance of Payments Exchange Rate Determination International Policy Coordination The International Capital Market International Economics: Trade and Money ?Chapter Overview The intent of this chapter is to provide both an overview of the subject matter of international economics and to provide a guide to the organization of the text. It is relatively easy for an instructor to motivate the study of international trade and finance. The front pages of newspapers, the covers of magazines, and the lead reports on television news broadcasts herald the interdependence of the U.S. economy with the rest of the world. This interdependence may also be recognized by students through their purchases of imports of all sorts of goods, their personal observations of the effects of dislocations due to international competition, and their experience through travel abroad. The study of the theory of international economics generates an understanding of many key events that shape our domestic and international environment. In recent history, these events include the causes and consequences of the large current account deficits of the United States; the dramatic appreciation of the dollar during the first half of the 1980s followed by its rapid depreciation in the second half of the 1980s; the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s and the Mexican crisis in late 1994; and the increased pressures for industry protection against foreign competition broadly voiced in the late 1980s and more vocally espoused in the first half of the 1990s. The financial crisis that began in East Asia in 1997 and spread to many countries around the globe and the Economic and Monetary Union in Europe highlighted the way in which various national economies are linked and how important it is for us to understand these connections. These global linkages have been highlighted yet again with the rapid spread of the financial crisis in the United States to the rest of the world. At the same time, protests at global economic meetings and a rising wave of protectionist rhetoric have highlighted opposition to globalization. The text material will enable students to understand the economic context in which such events occur. ? 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Addison-Wesley
第一章导言 1.对外贸易产生需要具备什么条件? （1）可供交换的剩余产品 （2）存在各自为政社会实体间的交换行为 2.为什么说地理大发现后贸易才具有“世界”的概念？ 地理大发现将各洲独立发展的国家联系起来。 3.战后国际贸易发展具有什么特点？ （1）不同阶段，国际贸易增长速度呈现出重大差异。 （2）制成品贸易成为国际贸易的主导。 （3）服务贸易迅速发展，成为国际贸易的重要组成部分。 （4）发达国家仍然是国际贸易的主体，发达国家之间的贸易成为国际贸易的主要流向。（5）区域性贸易迅速发展。 （6）各种类型国家经济发展对贸易的依存度都在提高。 4.什么是对外贸易量？它与对外贸易额是什么关系？ （1）对外贸易额在进行年度对比时存在缺陷，它在反映规模的同时，也涵盖了价格因素的影响。 （2）对外贸易量是以固定价格或不变价格计算的对外贸易额，它剔除了价格因素的影响，单纯反映规模因素对贸易额变动的影响。 5.转口贸易与过境贸易的区别是什么？ 交易关系的确立不同。 6.什么是对外贸易依存度？它要说明什么问题? （1）又称对外贸易系数。以一国对外贸易额同该国GNP或GDP比率来表示。 （2）用以反映一国经济发展对对外贸易的依赖程度。 第二章国际分工 1.为什么说国际分工体系的建立是在第二次产业革命时期? 这一时期，社会生产力的飞跃式发展与资本输出使得资本主义国际分工的重要形式—宗主国与殖民地半殖民地间的分工、工业产品生产国家与初级产品(农产品、矿产品)生产国之间的分工日益加深，得以强化，导致国际分工体系最终形成，具体表现为： （1）亚、非、拉国家的经济变为单一经济，其经济发展主要依赖于一两种或两三种产品的生产和出口 （2）分工的中心从英国变为一组国家，扩展到包括美国、德国、法国等。他们之间也形成了以经济部门为基础的国际分工关系。 （3）随着国际分工体系的形成，加强了世界各国之间的相互依赖关系，除亚、非、拉国家之外，发达的资本主义国家也加强了对国际分工的依赖。 总之，在这一时期，随着国际分工体系的建立，参加国际分工的每一个国家都有许多部门首先是为世界市场而生产的，而每一个国家消费的许多产品都源自世界市场，直接或间接凝结着许多国家劳动者的劳动。 2.为什么说社会生产力是国际分工形成与发展的决定性因素? （1）国际分工是生产力发展的必然结果。 （2）各国生产力水平决定其在国际分工中的地位。 （3）生产力的发展对国际分工的形式、广度和深度起着决定性的作用。 （4）生产力的发展决定了国际分工产品内容。 （5）技术在国际分工中的作用日渐显著。 3. 为什么说比较成本论是对绝对成本论的继承和发展?
国际贸易实务习题答案
第二章（一）货物描述-品质条款 一、单选题 1．大路货是指（D）。 A．适于商销B．上好可销品质 C．质量劣等D．良好平均品质 2．某美国客商到我国一家玩具厂参观，之后对该厂的部分产品很感兴趣，于是立即签定购买合同，批量购买他所见到的那部分产品，决定按实物样品作为合同中交收货物的品质要求。这种表示品质的方法是（ B ）。 A．看货购买 B．凭卖方样品 C．凭买方样品 D．凭对等样品 3．凭样品买卖时，如果合同中无其他规定，那么卖方所交货物（ B ）。 A．可以与样品大致相同B．必须与样品完全一致 C．允许有合理公差D．允许在包装规格上有一定幅度的差异 4．外商在收到我方寄送的样品后，来电表示愿意按我所提交易条件成交，并嘱其签订销售合同。我方在合同内详细列出该商品的品质规格，经对方签字后寄回无误。我方按约装船，忽然接到对方来电：“你方所装货物品质是否与样品相符。”我方的正确答复应该是（ D ）。A．我方所装货物品质与样品相符 B．我方所装货物品质与样品大致相符 C．我方所装货物品质与样品完全相符 D．我方所装货物品质以合同为准，样品仅供参考 5．对等样品也称之为（ B ）。 A．复样 B．回样 C．卖方样品 D．买方样品 6．在国际贸易中造型上有特殊要求或具有色香味方面特征的商品适合于（ A ）。 A．凭样品买卖B．凭规格买卖C．凭等级买卖 D．凭产地名称买卖 7．凡货样难以达到完全一致的，不宜采用（ A ）。 A．凭样品买卖B．凭规格买卖C．凭等级买卖 D．凭说明买卖 8．凭卖方样品成交时，应留存（C ）以备交货时核查之用。 A．对等样品 B．回样 C．复样 D．参考样品 9．在品质条款的规定上，对某些比较难掌握其品质的工业制成品或农副产品，我们多在合同中规定（ C ）。 A．溢短装条款 B．增减价条款 C．品质公差或品质机动幅度 D．商品的净重 10．若合同规定有品质公差条款，则在公差范围内，买方（ A ）。 A．不得拒收货物 B．可以拒收货物 C．可以要求调整价格 D．可以拒收货物也可以要求调整价格 二、多选题 1．表示品质方法的分类可归纳为（BC ）。 A．凭样品表示商品的品质 B．凭实物表示商品的品质 C．凭说明表示商品的品质 D．凭商标表示商品的品质 2．卖方根据买方来样复制样品，寄送买方并经其确认的样品，被称为（ BD ）。A．复样B．回样C．原样D．对等样品 三、判断题
克鲁格曼国际经济学课 后答案英语版 Company Document number：WUUT-WUUY-WBBGB-BWYTT-1982GT
C H A P T E R 2 LABOR PRODUCTIVITY AN D COMPARATIV E ADVANTAGE: THE RICARDIAN MODEL ANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK PROBLEMS 1. a. The production possibility curve is a straight line that intercepts the apple axis at 400 (1200/3) and the banana axis at 600 (1200/2). b. The opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas is 3/2. It takes three units of labor to harvest an apple but only two units of labor to harvest a banana. If one foregoes harvesting an apple, this frees up three units of labor. These 3 units of labor could then be used to harvest bananas. c. Labor mobility ensures a common wage in each sector and competition ensures the price of goods equals their cost of production. Thus, the relative price equals the relative costs, which equals the wage times the unit labor requirement for apples divided by the wage times the unit labor requirement for bananas. Since wages are equal across sectors, the price ratio equals the ratio of the unit labor requirement, which is 3 apples per 2 bananas. 2. a. The production possibility curve is linear, with the intercept on the apple axis equal to 160 (800/5) and the intercept on the banana axis equal to 800 (800/1). b. The world relative supply curve is constructed by determining the supply of apples relative to the supply of bananas at each relative price. The lowest relative price at which apples are harvested is 3 apples per 2 bananas. The relative supply curve is flat at this price. The maximum number of apples supplied at the price of 3/2 is 400 supplied by Home while, at this price, Foreign harvests 800 bananas and no apples, giving a maximum relative supply at this price of 1/2. This relative supply holds for any price between 3/2 and 5. At the price of 5, both countries would harvest apples. The relative supply curve is again flat at 5. Thus, the relative supply curve is step shaped, flat at the price 3/2 from the relative supply of 0 to 1/2, vertical at the relative quantity 1/2 rising from 3/2 to 5, and then flat again from 1/2 to infinity. 3. a. The relative demand curve includes the points (1/5, 5), (1/2, 2), (1,1), (2,1/2). b. The equilibrium relative price of apples is found at the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves. This is the point (1/2, 2), where the relative demand curve intersects the vertical section of the relative supply curve. Thus the equilibrium relative price is 2. c. Home produces only apples, Foreign produces only bananas, and each country trades some of its product for the product of the other country. d. In the absence of trade, Home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, and Foreign could gain by one apple foregoing five bananas. Trade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. Home could then gain four bananas by foregoing two apples while Foreign could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. Each country is better off with trade. 4. The increase in the number of workers at Home shifts out the relative supply schedule such that the corner points are at (1, 3/2) and (1, 5) instead of (1/2, 3/2) and (1/2, 5). The intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves is now in the lower horizontal section, at the point (2/3, 3/2). In this case, Foreign still gains from trade but the opportunity cost of bananas in terms of apples for Home is the same whether or not there is trade, so Home neither gains nor loses from trade.
第二章世界贸易概览 1、引力模型的作用：引力模型不仅能够解释两国间贸易量的大小，而且能够说明在当今经济全球化中仍然制约国际贸易发展的障碍因素。 2、国内生产总值（gross domestic product—GDP）——全部最终产品和服务的市场价值之和。亦可等于对该国所生产产品和服务的购买支出之和。 3、引力模型产生的基础是：现实充分说明一国的经济规模与其进出口总额息息相关。 4、国际贸易的引力模型是指，在其他条件不变的情况下，两国间的贸易规模和两国的GDP 成正比，与两国间的距离成反比。其方程式为：T ij=A*Y i*(Y j/D ij) 其中，A是常量，T ij是i国与j国间的贸易额，Y i是i国的国内生产总值，Y j是j国的国内生产总值，D ij是两国间的距离。 5、引力模型的内在逻辑，即其有效的原因：广义的讲，大的经济体由于收入高，因而大量进口产品。同时，由于大的经济体可以生产更多品种的系列产品，因而更能满足其他国家的需求，进而大量出口产品。（在两国贸易中，任一方的经济规模越大，则双方的贸易量就越大。） 6、引力模型的重要用途之一就是有助于明确国际贸易中的异常现象。文化的亲和性、地理位置、运输成本等都会影响贸易规模。 7、所有估计出来的引力模型都表明两国距离对贸易有负的效应。典型的估计是两国距离每增加1％，则两国的贸易量要降低0.7％～1％。下降幅度部分地体现为产品和服务运输成本增加的幅度。 8、在各国GDP和距离给定的情况下，有效贸易协定（trade agreement）比无效的贸易协定更能显著增加成员国的贸易量。贸易协定虽然可以消除成员方间的贸易壁垒，但是对各国国界几乎没有任何影响。最近的经济学研究成果表明，即便产品和服务可以免关税和无限制地进入疆界，在一个国家内部各地区之间产生的贸易量也要比在同样条件下国家之间产生的贸易量大。 9、服务外包（service outsourcing），亦称为离岸服务，是指曾经必须在一国国内实现的服务现在可以在国外实现。 10、国际贸易的主要内容：工业制成品，如汽车、计算机、服装等；矿产品，包括从铜矿砂到煤炭各种产品，如石油；农产品，如小麦、大豆、棉花等；服务出口，包括传统的运费、保费和旅游收入（运费由航空公司和船舶公司收取，保费由国外客商支付，旅游收入由国外游客提供。）；服务贸易、电子传输等。 本章重点习题（P23～24） 1、加拿大和澳大利亚都是英语国家，两国的人口规模也相差不太大（加拿大多60％），但是相对各自GDP而言，加拿大的贸易额是澳大利亚的两倍。为什么会如此？ 根据引力模型，我们可以看到，两国间贸易量的大小不仅与两国的GDP相关，同时两国间的距离也是关键因素。澳大利亚由于地处偏远而面临着成本相对较高的运输进出口贸易，从而减少贸易的吸引力。加拿大的边界有一个大型经济体——美国，而澳大利亚附近没有主要经济体，这使得加拿大的经济更加开放而澳大利亚的经济就相对独立。 2、墨西哥和巴西各自的贸易伙伴不同。墨西哥主要与美国贸易，巴西与美国和欧盟的贸易量大致相当。墨西哥的贸易量相对其GDP而言很大。用引力模型解释这种现象。 墨西哥在地理上相当接近美国，但却远离欧盟，这就导致了墨西哥主要与美国贸易。巴西在地理上与这两个经济体的距离相当，所以它与这两个经济体间的贸易量是大致均分的。墨西哥的贸易量比巴西的大，部分原因是因为墨西哥接近一个主要经济体——美国，另一部分原因则是墨西哥是它是一个庞大的经济自由贸易协定（NAFTA）的成员。巴西是远离任何大型经济体，并且它是一个与相对较小的国家组成的经济自由贸易协定的成员。