Chapter 2 Phonetics
Contents:
2.1.The phonic medium of language
2.2.1 What is phonetics
2.2.2 Organs of speech oral cavity
nasal cavity
broad transcription 2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds
narrow transcription
vowel
2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds
consonants
2.3 phonology
2.3.1 phonology and phonetics
2.3.2 phone, phoneme, and allophone因素，音位和音位变体
2.3.3 phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
Sequential rules
Assimilation rule
Deletion rule
stress
2.3.5 Suprasegmental features tone
intonation
2.1.The phonic medium of language
2.2.1. What is phonetics
Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language.
语音学是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究,它关注语言世界中的所有语音。
Articulatory phonetics----it studies how a speaker uses his speech organ
to articulate the sounds.
Acoustic phonetics---- it studies the way sounds travel by looking at the
sound waves, the physical means by which sounds
are transmitted through the air from one person to
another.
发音语音学通过观察声波研究语音的传播方式，即语音经过空气从一
个人到达
另一个人的物理方式。
Auditory phonetics---- it studies how the sounds are perceived by the
hearer.
2.2.2 Organs of speech (vocal organs)
the pharynx (pharyngeal cavity), the mouth (oral cavity), and the nose
(nasal cavity).
2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds语音的正字法表征
a method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.
2.2.
3.1 IPA (International phonetic Alphabet)
IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet
1.3.2 Two ways to transcribe speech sounds
Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only.
This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.
Narrow transcription: transcription with letter-symbols together
with the diacritics.
This is the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.
Diacritics: A set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone can possibly do.
2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds
Vowels are modifications of the voice-sound that involve no closure, friction, or contact of the tongue or lips.(Bloomfield)
元音是一种不涉及舌头或嘴唇的闭合、摩擦或接触的浊音变体。
A vowel is defined as a voiced sound in forming which the air issues in a continuous stream through the pharynx and mouth, there being no audible friction.(Jones)
元音被定义为这样一种浊音，在它的形成过程中，连续的气流通过咽腔和嘴，而且不产生听得见的摩擦。
2.2.4.1 Classification of English consonants
①place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs
②manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished manners of articulation:
stops闭塞音:如果发音器官造成的阻塞是完全的或彻底的，通过听觉上释放阻塞和气流再次传出而发出的语音被称为闭塞音或破裂音。[p] [b]; [t] [d]; [k] [g]。
fricatives摩擦音:如果阻塞不完全，气流通过嘴形成的狭窄通道得以在某一点发生确定的摩擦。[f][v][s][z][?] [?][θ]][e][h] affricates塞擦音:如果阻塞开始是完全的，由于部分阻塞引起摩擦（像在摩擦音中那样）而慢慢释放。：[t?]、[d?]
liquids流音：当气流受到阻塞，但能勉强从舌的一个或几个部位（舌尖或两侧）与上腭见的通道穿过。[1][r]
nasal鼻音:如果将软腭降低至口腔后部，从而使鼻腔通道张开让气流经过。[m] [n] [?]
glides: 滑音有时也称半元音，是一个比较边缘的类别。[w][j] place of articulation:
bilabial双唇音:在发这些音时，双唇合拢形成阻塞。[p][b][m][w] labiodental唇齿音:下唇与上齿接触造成阻塞。[f][v]
dental齿音:阻塞发生在舌尖与上齿之间。[ θ][ e]
alveolar齿龈音:舌尖与上齿龈接触发生阻塞。[t][s][d][z][n][1][r] palatal腭音:阻塞发生在舌后与硬腭之间。[?][ ?][ t?][ d?][j]
velar软腭音: 舌后与软腭接触。[k][g][?]
glottal喉音:声带暂时合拢而产生阻塞。[h]
2.2.4.2 Classification of English vowels:
Vowels
Momophthong:
front vowels[i:][i][e][ ?] [a], central vowels[?:][ ?][ ?],
backvowels[u:][u][ ?:][ ?][a:]
close vowels[i:][i][ ?:][u],semi-close vowels [e][ ?:],semi-open
vowels[?][ ?:],open vowels[?][a][ ?][ ?][a:]
diphthong:
[ei][ai][au][ ?u][ ?i][i?][ ??][ u?]
2.3 Phonology
2.3.1 phonology and phonetics
Phonetics and phonology are the two disciplines dealing with speech sounds. While both are related to the study of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetic studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received. Phonology.
2.3.2 phonemes, phones and allophones
phone: the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.
音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段。我们在语言交际中听到的、发出的语音都是音素。
Conventionally, phones are placed with in square brackets “[]”phoneme: A phoneme is a phonological unit;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象单位。
allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that
phoneme.在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音
位的音位变体。
One phoneme may have several allophones, but the choice of an allophone is rule-governed.英语中的音位/l/能被实现为模糊舌边音[l]、清晰舌边音[l]等。它们都是音位/1/的音位变体。
2.3.3 phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
2.3.3．1 Minimal pairs (最小对立体)
a minimal pair : lit-lip; phone-tone; pill-bill
a minimal set: beat, bit, bet, boot, but, bite
The minimal pair test helps establish which sounds contrast in a language.
2.3.3．2 Complementary distribution
Not all speech sounds occur in the same environment, when the two sounds never occur in the same environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.
Sequential rules
Assimilation rule
Deletion rule
1.Sequential rules：This indicates that there are rules that govern the combination of sound in a particular language. These rules are called sequential rules.
在某特定语言中存在支配语音组合的规则，这些规则被称为序列规则。比如一个词以[1]或[r]音开头，那么下个音一定是元音。[1bik][1kbi].另外，如果三个辅音都出现在词首，这个语音组合必须遵守以下三条规则：
（1）第一个音位一定是/s/;
（2）第二个音位一定是/p//t/或/k/
（3）第三个音位一定是/1//r/或/w/
Spring, strict, square, splendid, screem
2.Assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.
同化规则是通过“复制”序列中音位的特征来使一个语音同化为另一个，从而使两个音素相似。语音同化大多反映在拼写中，因为[n]音被同化为[m]音，所以possible的否定形式不是inpossible，而是impossible。同样,plausible, legal,regular的否定形式分别是impossible,illegal,irregular。
Deletion rule: Another phonological rule is the deletion rule. It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.另一个音位学规则是省略规则。省略规则告诉我们一个拼写上有表现的语音在什么时候该省略。省略词末鼻辅音前面的[g]音。
Sign-signature, reign-resignation.
stress
2.3.5 Suprasegmental features tone
intonation 超音段特征
The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called Suprasegmental features, these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence.超出音段层面的语
音特征被称为超音段特征，是指音节、词、句子这些单位的音位学特征。
Tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.音调是指由声带振动的不同频率引起的音高变化。
Intonation：when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentences rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
如果音调、重音和音长与句子而不是单个的词联系起来，它们就被统称为语调。
Chapter one Introduction 1.1什么是语言学 1.1.1定义 语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 1.1.2The scope of linguistics语言学分支必考P2 普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学） The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学） The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学） 1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考P3 （1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写 If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language
第11章语言学与语言教学 1. Why should language teachers learn some knowledge of linguistics? Key: Some knowledge of linguistics will not only help language teachers to better understand the nature of language, but also helps them better understand how to teach language. Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching. Language teachers do need a theory (maybe theories) of language in order to teach language effectively, and they need to know at least how the language they teach works. To discover the real language and to obtain some understanding of it, language teachers may well turn to linguistics. Many language learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories. In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can learn, how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately. Therefore, linguistics has always played an important role in the studies of language acquisition and learning. 2. What is FOCUS ON FORM? Key: The key point in focus on form is that although language learning should generally be meanling-focused and communication oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally. Focus on form often consists of an occasional shift of attention to linguistic code features by the teacher and/or one or
实用标准文案 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general) 2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics. (language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ) https://www.doczj.com/doc/bf10533993.html,nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say. 6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory 7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time 3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语） These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing) https://www.doczj.com/doc/bf10533993.html,ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate. 9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure ) https://www.doczj.com/doc/bf10533993.html,petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language 11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky) traditional grammar and modern linguistics 1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive 2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer. 3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework. Functions of language. 精彩文档
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案 Chapter 1 Introduction 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language. 答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;
第11章第二语言和外语教学 11.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching 语言学与语言教学之间的关系 2. Grammar, input and language learning 语法、输入与语言学习 3. Interlanguage in language teaching 语言教学中的中介语 4. Linguistics and syllabus design 语言学与教学大纲设计 5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析 6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching 语料库语言学与语言教学 常考考点： 语言学与语言教学的关系；语言学与语言学习；语言学与教学大纲设计；二语学习者的主要障碍；对比分析与错误分析；中介语；语料库语言学与语言教学等。
本章内容索引： I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process
新编简明英语语言学教程 Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性
Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence
第10章认知语言学 10.1 复习笔记 本章要点: 1. Cognitive linguistics 认知语言学 2. Categorization and categories 范畴化与范畴 3. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy 概念隐喻与转喻 4. Iconicity and grammaticalization 象似性与语法化 常考考点： 认知语言学定义；范畴化与范畴定义分类等；概念隐喻与转喻的定义，层次分类；象似性的分类以及语法化等。 本章内容索引： I. Definition of cognitive linguistics II. Categorization and categories
1. Definition of categorization 2. The classical theory 3. The prototype theory 4. Levels of categorization III. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy 1. Conceptual metaphor 2. Conceptual metonymy IV. Iconicity 1. Iconicity of order 2. Iconicity of distance 3. Iconicity of complexity V. Grammaticalization I. Definition of cognitive linguistics (认知语言学定义) 【考点：名词解释】 Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information. 认知语言学是一种研究自然语言的方法，集中研究语言组织，处理与传达信息的作用。 II. Categorization and categories (范畴化与范畴) 1. Definition of categorization and categories (定义)
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.1 Why study language? 1. Language is very essential to human beings. 2. In language there are many things we should know. 3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically. 1.2 What is language? 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness 1.3.2 Duality 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement 1.4 Origin of language
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction What is linguistics? Scientific study of language. Interpretation: ①try to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language; ②linguistics studies not any particular language but language in general; ③scientific study because based on systematic investigation of linguistic data. The scope of linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic.
Some important distinctions in linguistics
What is language Definitions of language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules; ②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well; ③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound; ④language is human -specific,different from animal communication. Design features of language Proposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal & human communication are five major design features of human language: ①arbitrariness No logical connection between meaning and sounds(except onomatopoetic and compound words) ②productivity It makes to possible to construction and interpretation of new signal by its users. ③duality
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax 1. What is syntax? Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 2. What is phrase structure rule? The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP →(Det) N (PP) ... VP →(Qual) V (NP) ... AP →(Deg) A (PP) ... PP →(Deg) P (NP) ... We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P. 3. What is category? How to determine a word's category? Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. 若详细回答，则要加上： Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving. The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.
第11章语言学与语言教学 Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks. 1. _____ is a method of foreign or second language teaching which makes use of translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities. 【答案】Grammar-translation Method 【解析】语法翻译法即在外语教学中主要运用翻译和语法学习为教学活动的方法。 2. _____ is formed when the leaner attempts to learn a new language, and it has features of both the first language and the second language but is neither. 【答案】Interlanguage 【解析】当学习者学习一种新语言时，就产生了中介语。中介语具有第一语言和第二语言的特征，但中介语是一个动态的语言系统，我们不能把中介语看成是母语和二语的过 渡阶段或者是二者的简单混合。 3. Hymes’ theory leads to nation/function-based syllables, and a step further, _____ syllabuses. 【答案】communicative 【解析】海姆斯提出的交际教学大纲以功能—意念大纲为基础，它教授表达和理解不同语言功能时所需要的语言，并且强调交际的过程。
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Definition : linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is always guided by the three cannons of science:exhaustiveness, consistency and economy. Linguistics Linguistics versus traditional grammar: Scope Microlinguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Macrolinguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Neurolinguistics Stylistics Discourse analysis Computational linguistics Cognitive linguistics Definition: Ding-Dong Theory: human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered. Sing-Song Theory: language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise. Pooh-Pooh Theory: language came from interjections, which express he speaker ’s emotions. Origins Yo-He-Ho Theory: language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work. Ta-Ta Theory : language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongues movements. Bow-Wow Theory: language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature. Design features Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of written language. Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages. Linguistics describes each language on its language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system---elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. Language is arbitrary --- there is no intrinsic connection between the word . pen) and the thing. what we write with).Language is vocal---the primary medium for all languages is sound. Language is used for human communication ---it is human-specific, very different form Arbitrarines s: this refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, English should use the sounds/d?g/ to refer to the animal dog, but Chinese should use “gou ” to refer to te same animal. A dog may be called a pig if the first man happens to name it as a “pig ”. So, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack ” and “bang ” are exceptions, but words these are relatively few compared withe the total number of words in language. Duality: language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Productivity : productivity or creativity refers to man ’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before. Interchangeability : interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease. Displacement: displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Specialization : specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Cultural transmission : language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being brought up in isolations simply doesn ’t acquire language, as is demonstrated by the studies of children brought up by animals without human contact. Animals transmit their cries simply from parent to child, while human baby doesn ’t speak any language at birth. What language a baby is going to speak