TPO 34阅读解析
第一篇Population and Climate
【P1】地球人口的增长已经对大气和生态环境产生了影响。化石燃料的燃烧，毁林，城市化，种植大米，养殖家畜，生产作为助推燃料和制冷剂的CFC增加了空气中CO2，甲烷，二氧化氮，二氧化硫灰尘和CFOs 的含量。约70%的太阳能量穿过大气直射地球表面。太阳射线提高了土地和海洋表面的温度，随后土地和海洋表面将红外射线反射会太空中。这能使地球避免温度过高。但是并不是所有的红外射线被返回会太空中，一些被大气中的气体吸收，然后再次反射回地球表面。温室气体就是其中吸收了红外射线的一种气体，然后再次反射一些红外线到地球。二氧化碳，CFC，甲烷和二氧化氮都是温室气体。大气中温室效应形成和建立的很自然。事实上，大气中如果没有温室气体，科学家预测地球温度比当前的能够低33度。
【P2】大气中当前二氧化碳浓度是360ppm。人类活动正在对大气中二氧化碳浓度的增加有着重要的影响，二氧化碳浓度正在快速增长，目前预估在未来50-100年内，浓度将是目前的一倍。IPCC在1992中做出一份报告，在该份报告中大多数大气科学家中观点一致，预测二氧化碳浓度翻倍可能会将全球气温提高1.4-4.5度。IPCC在2001年的报告中做出的预测是气温几乎将会提高2倍。可能发生的气温升高比在冰河时期发生的变化要大很多。这种温度的升高也不会是一直的，在赤道周围变化最小，而在极点周围的变化则是2-3倍。这些全球变化的本地化影响很难预测，但是大家一致认为可能会影响洋流的改变，在北半球的一些区域可能增加在冬天发洪水的可能性，在一些区域夏天发生干旱的概率提高，还有海平面的升高也可能会淹没位置较低的国家。
【P3】科学家积极参与地球气候系统中物理，化学和生物成分的调查，为了对温室气体的增加对未来全球气候的影响做出准确预测。全球环流模型在这个过程中是重要的工具。这些模型体现包含了当前对大气环流模式，洋流，大陆影响和类似东西所掌握的知识，在变化的环境下预测气候。这里面有多个模式，所有的在全球范围下显示得都是一样的。比如，所有模型都显示出当二氧化碳浓度翻倍的时候气候的巨大变化。但是，不同的模式也预测了区域环境的巨大不同。大多数模式都反应出相对于全球平均温度，在中纬度地区和中部大陆地区温度变化泽温度提高较大。另外，根据对于降雨形式变化的预测，在中纬度低于呈现减少趋势，而在热带地区降雨将有所增加。最后，大多数模式预测极端事件发生的概率也会增加，比如干旱的遭受极端热浪袭击区域的扩大，温度季节性变化增加，以及暴风雨发生的频率和等级的提高。这些可能会发生的全球改边极大的影响了植物和动物。
【P4】对于有机生物对于全球气候变化的影响是很困难的。部分来说，这是因为更多的研究都是短期的且针对个体有机物，而不是长期的针对更广泛的物种进行调查研究。对于科学家想在足够大到能够包含真实世界里所有组成的的空间和条件范围内，特别是在囊括所有有机物的生态环境中，做这种调查，无论是在财政上还是物质上都是极度困难。一个古生物学家尝试过克服这个限制的方式是通过研究化石来重建过去的气候。
【P5】在有机物分布中，生物和非生物因素所扮演的角色是特别重要的，当遇到地球人口增加的问题时。气候改变，土地使用，栖息地破坏目前都引起全球范围内的生多样性的减少。所以了解气候与有机物关系对于保护和管理地球生物多样性非常重要。
题目解析
1.The phrase "makes it" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A)is reflected 反射
(B)collects 收集
(C)arrives 到达
(D)marked 标记
答案：C
解析：根据上下文，make it与reradiate为同义词，四个选项中C为表达最为合适，A选项为反射，反射与辐射含义完全不同，故不能选择A。reflect反射，物体自身没有吸收能力，reradiate再辐射，物体自身有吸收并向外传递能量
2. It can be inferred from paragraph 1 that one positive aspect of greenhouse gases is that they
(A)absorb 70 percent of the Sun's energy. 吸收70%太阳能量
(B)can be rapidly replenished in the atmosphere. 在大气中能够迅速得到补充
(C)remove pollutants from ecosystems. 从生态系统中除掉污染物
(D)help keep Earth warm. 保持地球温暖
答案：D
解析：推断题，定位词positive aspect of greenhouse gases，回到原文中定位文章中a greenhouse gas is one that absorbs……找到具体句子在第一段最后一句。
3. According to paragraph 2, what can be said about the effects of global changes?
(A)The local plants and animals will be permanently damaged.本地植物和动物将被永久破坏
(B)It is hard to know exactly what form the local effects will take. 很难知道对于当地影响是什么
(C)Seawater levels will fall around the world.海平面将下降
(D)The effects will not occur in some regions of the world.这种影响在地球的一些区域不会发生
答案：B
解析：定位词effect of global changes。细节题，需要通读下全段，进行快速排除。A动物植物影响没提，且用词绝对化。B定位第二段the local effects of these global changes are difficult to predict。C与最后一句话rising sea levels……相反。D段落没有提到“在一些区域这些影响不会发生”类似的语句。
4. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 2? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
(A)The rapid rise of carbon dioxide concentrations can be attributed largely to the actions of humans.
二氧化碳浓度的快速增加主要归结于人类的活动
(B)Predictions about atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide indicate that the influence of human
activities will double soon.
对于大气中二氧化碳浓度的预测表明人类的影响很快将翻倍
(C)In the next 50 to 100 years, human activities will no longer have an influence on atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentrations.
在未来50-100年里，人类影响对于大气二氧化碳浓度不再有影响
(D)Human activities can influence current predictions about atmospheric conditions.
人类影响活动影响了当前对于大气环境的预测
答案：A
解析：划线句子的翻译是“人类活动对于大气中二氧化碳浓度起到了主要的影响，二氧化碳浓度增加的如此之快以至于当前预测在50-100年内二氧化碳浓度将翻倍。”
5. The word "consensus" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A)publication
(B)debate
(C)collection
(D)agreement
答案：D
解析：publication 出版发表，debate争论辩论，collection收集，agreement同意，consensus一致
6. The phrase "this process" refers to
(A)the interaction between physical and biological components of Earth's climate system.
在地球气候系统中与物理和生物组成成分的互动
(B)the increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.大气中温室气体增加
(C)predicting future global climate预测未来全球气候
(D)global circulation models全球环流模式
答案：指代题C。
解析：定位this process。往前读句子。前一句的大意是“科学家对地球中的物理和生物组成成分做调查为了准确预测温室气体对未来全球气候的影响“---这个就是this process所指代的过程。A只提到了部分细节。B 只提到了细节。D是this process过程中的重要工具，不是指this process。
7. According to paragraph 3, rainfall amounts are predicted to decrease in what parts of the world?
(A)In mid-latitude regions中纬度地区
(B)In tropical areas 热带地区
(C)In mid-continental regions 中部大陆地区
(D)At the poles在南北极
答案：A。
解析：细节题。定位词rainfall amounts are predicted回到原文与precipitation pattern一样。细读该句即可得到答案
8. The word "incorporate" in the passage is closest in
(A)Describe描述
(B)Include包括
(C)Expand膨胀
(D)Present呈现
答案：B
9. The word "virtually" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A)nearly.几乎
(B)presumably.大概
(C)usually.通常
(D)visually.视觉得
答案：A
10. According to paragraph 3, climate models predict that all of the following events will occur with the increase in greenhouse gases EXCEPT
(A)greater seasonal temperature changes.极大的季节性气温变化
(B)prolonged heat waves.延长的热浪
(C)increased diversity of plants and animals.植物和动物多样性增加
(D)longer dry periods.更长时间的干旱
答案：C
解析：列举题。定位选项细节到原文。Finally, most models predict that there will be increased……提到了ABD。段落最后一句提到了植物和动物，但没有提到多样性增加的字眼，故选择C。
11. The author's main purpose in paragraph 5 is to
(A)explain the process of studying organism responses to climate change解释研究有机物对于气候变化反应
的过程
(B)stress the importance of learning how climate affects plants and animals强调了解气候对于植物和动物影
响的重要性
(C)illustrate an important point about factors affecting biodiversity解释影响生物多样性因素中的一个重点
(D)examine current research practices on the distribution of organisms on Earth检验当前地球有机物分布的研
究方法
答案：B
解析：修辞目的题。正确选项要包含段落的重要key words和information. 通读段5，key words有the distribution of organisms, biodiversity, climate-organism 。用这些定位词和信息做选项排除。CD只提及部分定位词，故被排除。A不是作者的目的，而是为了达到这个目的必经的一个过程。
12. Look at the terms "greenhouse gas," "atmospheric circulation patterns," "global scale," and "biotic factors." Which of these terms is defined in the passage?
(A)Greenhouse gas
(B)Atmospheric circulation patterns
(C)Global scale
(D)Biotic factors
答案：A
解析：在文章中被具体下过定义的学术名词是greenhouse gas,定位在第一段。
13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square[?] to insert the sentence in the passage
Much of this work depends on the assumption that life forms adapted to a particular climate in the present were adapted to the same type of climate in the past.
答案：D
解析：插入句子意思“这个工作更多是基于一个设想：适应于现在气候条件的生物形式也适应过去同样类型的气候条件”。找出差入句可以用于定位的词much of this work，根据上下文逻辑this work是单数指代一个工作，ABC的上一句没有这个工作同义词。另外，插入句提到了“现在的环境和过去的环境”类似的意思，刚好与D处的上一句意思一样，故选择D。
14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.
Human population on Earth is affecting both the atmosphere and the ecosystems.
Answer Choices
(A)The survival of organisms on Earth is directly related to the amount of fossil fuels that are consumed.
地球上有机物的生存与消耗的化石燃料的数量直接相关
(B)Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations are rising quickly.大气中二氧化碳的浓度快速增加
(C)Scientists are working on ways to make precise forecasts of how the increase of greenhouse gases will affect
Earth.科学家致力于对温室气体增加对地球的影响做出准确预测
(D)Scientists predict that temperature changes would be greater at the poles than at the equator.
科学家预测温度的变化在南北极比赤道大
(E)Global circulation models can be used to measure the concentrations of chlorofluorocarbons in the
atmosphere全球环流模式被用于测试大气中CFO浓度
(F)The ability to make accurate predictions about global climate presents several difficulties.
对全球气候变化做出准确预测有很多困难
答案：BCF
解析：A选项没提到。D选项第二段有提到，属于细节信息，不选。E选项全球环流模式在第三段第二句被提到，全球环流模式是预测全球气温变化的重要工具，不是用于测试大气中CFO浓度，故错误。
第二篇Europe in the Twelfth Century
【P1】11世纪的欧洲经历了巨大的社会，科技和经济变革，然而这没有创造出一个新的欧洲，而是创造出2个新欧洲。北部地区发展成为一个社会地位等级严格的社会，或者至少这么说，在这个社会中谁对土地拥有所有权，谁拥有控制权，谁在土地上劳作。而地中海南部地区则发展成为一个更加不稳定的社会结构，因此也更加混乱，在南部地区，工业和商业占主导地位，社会地位不但反映了同时也是一个人在社会公共生活中所扮演的角色的体现。换句话说，在北部地区个人身份认同和社会群体建立在个人基础上，而南部地区则是建立在公民的基础上。12世纪初，北部和南部地区完全不一样，欧洲人自己也注意到了两个地区的差异，并对该差异加以评论。
【P2】在北部地区政治统治占有绝对支配地位。德国，法国和英国有大量的人口和军队，使之形成了政治和军事意识，并且成为西欧的控制者。这些国家建立了封建制度，有着强大和复杂精细的政府机制。国王和皇后是这个时代的统治者，城堡和教堂庄严雄伟地矗立在土地上成为他们通知的象征，军队活跃并定义了这个时代。另外，封建社会依靠鼓励国内城市生活和建立社会网络平衡发展显示了卓越的能力来适应性的需求。事实上，在北部的一些区域，封建社会的发展可能甚至能够响应大城市兴起的趋势。但是欧洲南部地区经济和文化生活占有主导地位。尽管地中海的领导城市规模较小，他们也对北部城市相对富裕。12世纪只意大利一个城市Palermo就能够征收相当于整个英格兰王国四倍的商业税收。南部社会也具有都市化，多语言文化特征，这使得他们成为这个时代的有智慧和富有艺术气质的领导者。南部地区人民的文化水平远超北部人民，同时南部人们把学到的知识应用到更广泛的领域。科学，数学，诗歌，法律，历史写作，宗教思索，翻译和古典文学开始繁荣发展，整个12世纪，欧洲大陆最出色的人物都纷纷涌入南部地区。
【P3】北部的士兵也做了很多事情。12世界政治历史的中心主题之一是北部国家持续努力向南扩大他们的控制，希望能够控制地中海的繁荣。德国皇帝Otto一世不断的建立他们对于北部意大利城市的控制，因为这些城市比如德国农村地区产生更多的税收。法国则使劲一切手段推进国家的边界使之更靠近地中海海岸线。征服统治英格兰的诺曼第人在西西里地区和南部意大利附近地区建立起警戒部队。英国国王也希望或者数次宣布通过金钱或者婚姻政治成为几个地中海城市的统治者。但是当北部国家对南部地区施加压力的时候，南部的文化准确和社会机制也同样向北部扩展。在整个12世纪进程中，北部封建国家里的城市飞速增加，并且成功大范围的复制那些南部的城市。与地中海商人和金融家门的接触让北部的工业和国际贸易得到了发展（有助于为早期提到的城堡和教堂支付金钱）。教育也得到了传播，并且在引发争议的中世纪欧洲最伟大发明—大学的建立中达到了高潮。北部和南部共生共栖，换句话说，两个地区的反差比起极性对立的差异程度更大。
题目解析
1. The word "rigidly" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A)extremely.
(B)normally.
(C)obviously.
(D)strictly.
答案：D
2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following was a deciding factor in person's place in society in northern Europe at the end of the eleventh century?
(A)Ownership of a commercial enterprise.商业企业的所有权
(B)Participation in social and technological changes.参与社会和科技变革
(C)Role in public life in the community.在社会中公共生活所扮演的角色
(D)Relationship to land through ownership or labor.土地关系所有权
答案：D
解析：定位词north Europe at the end of the eleventh century，原文对应是第一段第二句。ABC都是南部社会特征
3. According to paragraph 1, which of the following best characterizes the societies in European lands close to the Mediterranean Sea at the beginning of the eleventh century?
(A)They were civic societies dominated by industry and commerce.
(B)They were based on individual social status.
(C)They had a fixed and hierarchical form of government.
(D)They were established on the idea of individual responsibility.
答案：A。
解析：定位词Mediterranean Sea at the beginning of the eleventh century，原文对应是第一段第二句。BCD都是北部社会特征
4. The word "counterparts" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A)associates.同事伙伴
(B)equivalents.对等的事务
(C)opponents.反对者
(D)admirers.仰慕者
答案：B
5. Why does the author mention the "Italian city of Palermo" in the passage?
(A)It had a population that spoke several different languages.
(B)Its artists and intellectuals were famous both in the north and south.
(C)Its commerce made it richer than a large northern country.
(D)It was a relatively small and unimportant Mediterranean state.
答案：C
解析：定位关键词回原文，发现Palermo作为for example出现，例子都为了解释前面的主题句，往前看一到两句，从But southern Europe took the lead in economic and cultural life开始，通读抓住关键信息wealthier 啊~定位选项C
6. The word "urbane" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A)cultivated 有文化的
(B)famous
(C)popular
(D)exceptional例外的
答案：A
7. According to paragraph 2, European intellectuals moved to southern Europe during the twelfth century because southern cities
(A)needed learned people for commerce
(B)paid educated people better than northern cities did
(C)were flourishing centers of science, literature, and other studies
(D)needed teachers to improve the levels of general learning
答案：C
解析：定位词intellectuals move to southern Europe，回到原文是最后一句
8. Which of the following best describes the organization of paragraph 2?
(A) A statement of fact followed by examples 有例子支撑的事实描述
(B) A description followed by a contrasting description 由对比性描述支持的描述
(C) A series of detailed comparisons 一系列细节对比
(D) A logical argument有逻辑性观点
答案：B
解析：分析第二段结构抓句子间连接词,判断句子意群，moreover是另外，还有的意思，通常连接上下内容在一个区域，但是分论点不同的地方，所以可以判断，上下为一个意思层次，都在讲北部。往下but转折到南部。再看southern communities also也是为分论点的提示词。划分段落后，发现北部南部转折时，都用一句话做了内容的概述。北部是political dominance belonged to the north; 南部是but southern Europe took the lead in economic and cultural life。所以可以判断文章结构为“总起句北方+分论点1+分论点2，BUT转折总起句南方+分论点1,+分论点2”
9. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 3? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
(A)In political history, northern kingdoms tried to extend their control during the twelfth century, but the south
tapped into the rich treasures it had around the Mediterranean. 12世纪时，从政治历史上看，北部城市试图扩大他们的统治，但是环地中海的南部城市在创造财富。
(B)Political history demonstrates that during the twelfth century, while southern states enjoyed the
Mediterranean bonanza, northern countries increased the power of their kings.12世纪政治历史表明当南部
城市创造财富繁荣之时，北部城市的国王则在加强统治力量
(C)The political history of twelfth-century Europe shows particularly those northern countries continually tried
to expand their rule into the south to profit from the riches there.12世纪欧洲政治历史展现了在北部国家持续扩张他们对于南部地区的统治为了获取财富
(D)Political history shows that northern kingdoms were so influenced by the example of Mediterranean wealth
that they advanced into other areas.政治历史表明北部城市被他们进入的地中海富裕的城市影响
答案：C
解析：根据highlighted sentence句子意思
10. The word "proliferation" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A)beginning 开始
(B)increase增加
(C)occupation 职业，占有
(D)construction建设
答案：B
11. According to paragraph 3, northern Europe was influenced by the Mediterranean states in all of the following ways EXCEPT
(A)the design of castles and cathedrals 城堡和教堂的设计
(B)the spread of education 教育的传播
(C)the construction of cities 城市的建设
(D)the development of industry and trade工业和商业的发展
答案：A
解析：细节定位原文第三段But as the northern world pressed southward, 开始读起，A选项没有提到
12. Look at the four squares[?] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to insert the sentence in the passage
There was northern Europe on the one hand and southern Europe on the other.
答案：A
解析：插入句翻译“一方面是北欧，另外一个是南欧”根据逻辑放在A，能够承上启下
13. Directions: Select from the seven phrases below the two phrases that correctly characterize northern Europe during the twelfth century (选2个)and the three phrases that correctly characterize southern Europe（选3个）. Two of the phrases will NOT be used. Write your answer choices in the spaces where they belong. You can either write the letter of your answer choice or you can copy the sentence.
(A)Democratic social structure
(B)Sophisticated culture
(C)Small wealthy states
(D)Famous kings and queens
(E)Extensive communication systems
(F)Highly literate population
(G)Large military forces
答案：北欧—DG
南欧—BCF
第三篇What is a Community?
【P1】Black hill 森林，草原河滨森林和美国西部其他森林的物种组合有着明显的不同。所以很容易区分black hill和草原河滨森林：一个是火山灰和杨木林组成的阔叶林，一个是由北美黄松和白云山组成的针叶林。一个有美洲食蜂鹟，一个有灯芯草雀。生态群落确实是易于辨认的生物群体，这个事实让早期的生态学家，特别是那些生活在20世纪初期的生态学家做出声明，宣称群落是高度融合，精确平衡的集合体。这个声明可以追溯到早期关于自然平衡存在的观点--- 每个物种的存在都是有其特定的目的，就像是一部复杂机器的一个重要部分。在这个观点看来任何物种的移动，无论是植物，鸟类，或者昆虫，都可能会打破平衡，栖息地也可能开始恶化。同样地，增加一个物种也会导致破坏自然平衡。
【P2】生态学家著名先锋之一frederick clements，在中西部和南美其他地域做了大量的生态研究。他说在任何一个气候给定的区域，生态群落都会逐步覆盖成为一个单一的终结点，他称之为“气候性顶点”。这种顶点群落，在Clement看来，是平衡性和融合性最好的物种，并且可能发生在任何独特的区域。Clements 甚至认为生态演替的进程--- 随着时间推进一些物种被另外一些物种替代—多少有点类似有机物从胚胎到成熟状态的发展过程。Clements认为生态演替代表了群落发展的不连续的阶段进程（就像婴儿期，儿童期，成人期），最终在成人时期达到顶点，在这个成人时期阶段群落开始进行独立繁殖，演替过程停止。Clements 关于生态群落的观点反应了一个自然精确平衡的概念。
【P3】clements的观点受到了另外一个生态学家Henry的挑战。Henry认为群落大部分就是一个物种，对于来自于气候和地区其他典型条件的压力具有相似的容忍度。Henry认为在物种发生的地区机遇因素也很重要。他的群落概念表明自然不是高度融合，Henry认为生态演替依托于当地环境可能会有很多方向。
【P4】谁是正确的？很多生态学家已经做出了精确的测量方式，来测验两个人的猜想。例如，沿着山体斜坡，一个用于栖息的生命地带忽然变化或者逐渐变成另外一个吗？如果这种分割很明显，或者原因就是群落融合性很高，很完整，正如Clements认为那样，整个生物群体必须保持在一起。如果这种分割是逐步的，或许就如Henry所说的那样，每个物种对于环境的反应都是独立的，物种群体没有融合所以他们必须总是在一起才会发生。
【P5】现在看来似乎Henry的观点比起clements更接近真相。生态群落主要是由物种偶然的聚集在一起，对一个特定的环境有相似的反应。绿灰树被发现与平原地区的杨木树有关系，因为两者都能够在泛滥平原上生存得很好，两者之间得竞争不激烈，所以当中得一个得以保存。一个生态群落通常是缓慢的流入另外一个生态群落，这种流入的速度非常缓慢以至于不可能说出哪个地方的树叶落下，哪个地方的树叶开始生长。群落是独立的。
【P6】这并不是说精确的和谐在群落里是不存在的。大多数有花植物不能生存如果不给他们授粉，反之亦然。捕食者，病原体，和竞争者都影响着每一个东西从橡树到田鼠的繁殖到分布。但是如果我们看到了自然精确的平衡，大部分都是我们意识里的假象，因为大自然，尤其是像森林那样复杂的系统，似乎每天都没有任何变化，所以我们会产生一种幻觉。
题目解析
1. In paragraph 1, why does the author distinguish between prairie riparian forest and Black Hills forest?
(A)To highlight the difference between the views of various ecologists about the nature of ecological
communities强调生态学家关于生态群落本质观点的不同
(B)To illustrate why some ecologists tended to view ecological communities as highly integrated
解释为什么生态学家认为生态群落是高度融合
(C)To demonstrate that one forest has a greater variety of species than the other
解释一个森林比另外一个森林有更多的物种
(D)To show how these two forests differ from others in the United States说明美国的2个森林不同
答案：B
解释：定位文章第四句子the fact that ecological communities are indeed 这句话，选答案B。
A选项生态学家观点是一样的，没有分歧和不同。C没有做比较。D不是为了说明森林不同，是为了说明物种。
2. According to paragraph 1, what was a common claim about ecological communities before the early twentieth century?
(A)Every species in a community has a specific role in that community. 在群落里每个物种都是有特定的角色
(B)It is important to protect communities by removing certain species.移除某个物种对于保护群落很重要
(C) A precise balance is difficult to maintain in an ecological community.精确的平衡对于维持生态群落很难
(D)It is necessary for new species to be added quickly as ecological communities develop.
当生态群落发展的时候，快速添加新物种很必要
答案：A
解析：定位句和第一题一样，并再往后多读一句。B与原文所提观点相反，C难易程度没提，D没提
3. The word "clusters" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A)models.
(B)categories.
(C)examples
(D)groups
答案：D
4. According to paragraph 1, the belief in a balance of nature suggests that removing a species from an ecological community would have which of the following effects?
(A)It would reduce competition between the remaining species of the community.减少群落里其他物种的竞争
(B)It would produce a different, but equally balanced, community.产生一个不同但是同样平衡的群落
(C)It would lead to a decline in the community.引发群落的陷落
(D)It would cause more harm than adding a species to the community. 比添加一个物种到群落危害大
答案：C
解析：定位到第一段最后一句话 a decline 对应deterioate
5. The word "ceased" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A)succeeded 成功
(B)balanced 平衡
(C)ended 终止
(D)advanced前进
答案：C
6.Which of the following best represents the view of ecological communities associated with Frederick Clements in paragraph 2?
(A)Only when all species in a community are at the reproductive stage of development is an ecological
community precisely balanced.
只有当一个群落的物种处在自我繁殖阶段，这个生物群里才能达到精确平衡
(B)When an ecological community achieves "climatic climax," it begins to decline.
当一个生态群落达到“气候性顶点“，它就开始恶化
(C)All climates have similar climax communities. 所有气候都有相似的顶点群落
(D)Ecological communities eventually reach the maximum level of balance that is possible for their region.
生态群落最终达到平衡的最大化程度，这个在该群落所在的区域是可能发生得
答案：D
解析：需要对应第二段所有clements提过得观点：第一个生态群落物种最终都会缓慢发展到一个单一的终点，这个终点意味着所有物种平衡性和融合性最好且在特定的区域都可以发生。第二个生态演替过程与有机物发展过程类似。第三个演替过程是多个独立的阶段，最终到达成熟阶段，在这个成熟阶段群落自我繁殖时候，演替过程终止。D选项与第一个观点一致。
7. According to paragraph 2, Clements compared the process of ecological succession to
(A)the replacement of animal habitats over time 随着时间推移动物栖息地更替
(B)the development of an organism 有机物的发展
(C)self-reproduction 自我繁殖
(D)changes in climate气候变化
答案：B
解析：定位到……somewhat akin to the development of an organism
8. According to Gleason in paragraph 3, the occurrence of a species in a particular community is influenced by
(A)unpredictable events不可预测的事件
(B)how individualistic the species is物种的独立性
(C)the number of other species present 其他物种显示的数量
(D)the tolerance of other species to stresses其他物种对于压力的容忍度
答案：A
解析：定位第三段Gleason saw the element of chance as important in influencing where species occurred。
9. What did the ecologists in paragraph 4 hope to determine with their measurements?
(A)Whether different species compete for the same environments是否不同物种在相同环境里竞争
(B)Whether habitats are sharply separated or gradually flow into each other是否栖息地忽然分割或者缓慢的
流入到另外一个栖息地
(C)Whether succession differs in different types of habitats是否生态演替在不同类型的栖息地是不一样的
(D)Whether integrated communities survive better than independent communities
是否融合的群落比独立的群落生存更好
答案：B
解析：定位段落里的for instance得出关键信息是看气息地带的分割是缓慢还是忽然。所以只有选项B与这个意思完全一致。直接选择。
10. In paragraph 5, why does the author mention green ash trees and plains cottonwood trees?
(A)To support the current view about how ecological communities develop.支持生态群落如何发展的观点
(B)To provide an example of species that prefer to live on floodplains.
提供一个能够更适应在泛滥平原生存的物种例子
(C)To provide evidence that supports the theory of Clements提供证据支持clements理论
(D)To show where one ecological community stops and the other begins显示一个生态群落停止，另外一个生
态群落开始的地点
答案：A
解析：举例子都是为了支持前面的论点，所以定位词green ash trees and plains cottonwood trees回原文后往前一句看，发现这个例子是支持了Gleason这个人的观点---物种都是偶然的集合体都能对特定的环境做出同样的反应。A选项与这个观点靠近。B泛滥平原本身就是这两种树所在例子里的细节内容，不是两种树作为例子的目的，排除。C这个是支持Gleason不是Clement。D没提这个事
11. The word "persevere" in the passage is closest in meaning to
(A)reproduce.繁殖
(B)fail.失败
(C)expand.扩张，膨胀
(D)continue持续
答案：D，persevere 坚持，不屈不挠
12. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 6? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
(A)We see nature as precisely balanced because nature is unchanging.
我们认为自然是精确平衡因为自然是没有变化得
(B) A precise balance of nature is not possible because of the complexity of natural systems.
自然得精确平衡是不可能得因为自然系统得复杂性
(C)0ur sense that nature is precisely balanced results from the illusion that it is unchanging.
我们认为自然是精确平衡的这个想法来自于它是没有变化的错觉
(D)Because nature is precisely balanced, complex systems do not seem to change.
因为自然是精确平衡的，所以复杂系统似乎没有变化
答案：C
解析：划线句翻译是“但是如果我们看到了自然精确的平衡，大部分都是我们意识里的假象，因为大自然，尤其是像森林那样复杂的系统，似乎每天都没有任何变化，所以我们会产生一种幻觉。”
A与该句意思相反。B没提。D没提
13 Look at the four squares[■]that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?
Their research has helped to decide between the two views because it has focused on questions to which Clements and Gleason would give opposing answers.
答案：C
解析：插入句翻译是----他们的研究帮助在2个观点间做出判断，因为这个研究专注于解决clements和gleason 可能给出相反回答的问题。根据插入句主语their research得知这前面必定有所提及研究是什么，所以A位置不合适。如果放在B位置处，会发现前一句里也没有单词能够作为their research的指代内容，唯一相近的precise measurements但是这个是复数，我们需要一个单数的名词，故排除。C位置their research刚好指代前面for instance后面在一个山体斜坡上做的一个观察的研究，且该插入句后面意思是“该研究有助于帮助大家在两个观点中下决定。”从而引出后面两个if从句所做出的不同的观察所下的结论。逻辑上相符合。
14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.
Over time, a variety of views have been formed on the structure of ecological communities.
Answer Choices
(A)Clements held that ecological communities were like organisms that compete with each other for dominance
in a particular climatic region.
Clements认为生态群落和有机物类似，在一个特定的气候区域里互相竞争成为占有统治地位的物种(B)Clements saw the community as a collection of thoroughly interdependent species progressing toward a
single climax community.
Clements把群落看做相互依赖物种的集合，最终进化成为一个单一的终端群落
(C)Gleason held that within a single climatic region, differing local factors would cause ecological communities
to develop in different ways.
Gleason认为在一个单一的气候区域里，不同的本地因素可能会导致生态群落以不同的形式发展(D)Gleason believed that sharp divisions would exist between species in different habitats.
Gleason相信快速的分割可能存在于不同栖息地的物种中
(E)Today's ecologists recognize that ecological communities must be precisely and permanently balanced.
今天生态学家意识到生态群落必须是绝对精确和永远平衡得
(F)The current thinking is that communities are individualistic and largely accidental collections of species with
similar needs and tolerances.
当今想法是群落是独立的，大部分是有着相似需求和容忍度的物种的偶然的集合
答案：BCF
解析：选项A的内容竞争成为统治者没有提到，排除。B是文章第二段意思的综合概括。C是文章第三段的观点。D内容没有提及。E观点是第一段20世纪早期科学家的想法。F是第五段的意思概括
2001年1月第二篇 Questions 10-17 at least one carpenter, joiner, sawyer, and cooper in woodworking; a weaver and a tailor 5) an assistant, the rural artisan provided the neighborhood with common goods from furniture to shoes to farm equipment in exchange for cash or for “goods in kind” from the customer’s field, pasture, or dairy. Sometimes artisans transformed material provided by the customer wove cloth of yam spun at the farm from the wool of the family sheep; made chairs or tables 10) from wood cut in the customer’s own woodlot; produced shoes or leather breeches from cow, deer, or sheepskin tanned on the farm. Like their farming neighbors, rural artisans were part of an economy seen, by one historian, as “an orchestra conducted by nature.” Some tasks could not be done in the winter, other had to be put off during harvest time, and still others waited on raw materials that were 15) only produced seasonally. As the days grew shorter, shop hours kept pace, since few artisans could afford enough artificial light to continue work when the Sun went down. To the best of their ability, colonial artisans tried to keep their shops as efficient as possible and to regularize their schedules and methods of production for the best return on their investment in time, tools, and materials. While it is pleasant to imagine a woodworker, for example, 20) carefully matching lumber, joining a chest together without resort to nails or glue, and applying all thought and energy to carving beautiful designs on the finished piece, the time required was not justified unless the customer was willing to pay extra for the quality— and few in rural areas were, Artisans, therefore, often found it necessary to employ as many shortcuts and economics as possible while still producing satisfactory products.
托福阅读难句专业翻译一 1. Wearing masks and costumes, they often impersonated other people, animals, or supernatural beings, and mined the desired effect – success in hunt or battle, the coming rain, the revival of the Sun – as an actor might. 戴着面具身着盛装的人们，经常扮演各种其他人物、动物或超自然生灵，并且作为一个扮演者所能做的，就是期盼一个在狩猎或战役中获胜、降雨的来临，阳光的重现的结果。 2.But these factors do not account for the interesting question of how there came to be such a concentration of pregnant ichthyosaurs in a particular place very close to their time of giving birth. 但是这些事实不能解释这个令人感兴趣的问题，就是为什么在一个特殊的靠近他们出生的地方如此的集中了这么多怀孕的鱼龙。 3.A series of mechanical improvements continuing well into the nineteenth century, including the introduction of pedals to sustain tone or to soften it, the perfection of a metal frame, and steel wire of the finest quality, finally produced an instruments capable of myriad tonal effects from the most delicate harmonies to an almost orchestral fullness of sound, from a liquid, singing tone to a ship, percussive brilliance. 十九世纪一系列持续的机械进步，包括踏板的传入、金属结构的完善和钢丝最完美的质量，最后产生了一种能容纳无数音调-从最精致的和弦到一个成熟管弦的声音或从一个清澈的歌声到辉煌的敲击乐的效 果-的乐器。 4.Accustomed though we are to speaking of the films made before 1972 as “silent”, the film has never been, in the full sense of the word, silent. 虽然我们习惯于谈到1972年以前的电影是无声的，但用一句完全感性的话来说电影从来就不是没有声音的。 5.For a number of years the selection of music for each film program rested entirely in the hands of the conductor or leader of the orchestra, and very often the principal qualifications for holding such a position was not skill or taste so much as the ownership of a large personal library of musical pieces. 多年以来电影音乐的选择程序完全掌握在导演和音乐督导手中，通常拥有这些权力的主要资格并非是自身的技艺和品味而更多的是因为拥有大量的个人音乐素材库。 6.Rather, they were made of a top layer of woolen or glazed worsted wool fabric, consisting of smooth, compact yarn from long wool fibers, dyed dark blue, green, or brown with a bottom layer of a coarser woolen material, either natural or a shade of yellow.
TOEFL阅读高难度句子举例解析及翻译 摘要：托福阅读中也会出现一些考验大家的托福阅读难句，遇到这些句子的时候，要在平时新托福阅读中注意积累，觉得用得到的要记下来，以下总结的托福阅读中的几个高难度句，希望对大家有所帮助。 "Sociologists have built on the distinction between expressive and instrumental ties to distinguish between two types of groups: primary and secondary. A primary group involves two or more people who enjoy a direct, intimate, cohesive relationship with one another. Expressive ties predominate in primary groups; we view the people as ends in themselves and valuable in their own right. A secondary group entails two or more people who are involved in an impersonal relationship and have come together for a specific, practical purpose. Instrumental ties predominate in secondary groups; we perceive people as means to ends rather than as ends in their own right. Sometimes primary group relationships evolve out of secondary group relationships." 很多同学，看到上面的“we view the people as ends in themselves”和“we perceive people as means to ends”就彻底晕菜了。这个其实是可以理解的，这两句话实际是哲学家Kant(康德)关于道德的哲学思想。我们先来看看康德是怎么说的： Humanity According to Kant, there are different ways to state what our duty is. One of them involves the idea of a law. Another involves the idea of humanity, or human reason. Morality says that you should never treat rational human beings merely as means to your end. Whenever you use someone’s skills or services to your own end, you should always also treat that person as an end in him- or herself. 翻译：康德认为，有不同的方式来陈述我们的职责。其中一个是涉及法律。另外一个是涉及人性和人道。道德论认为，你永远不应该把一个理性的人只是作为你达到你的目的中间手段。当你用其他的服务和技能作为你达到你的目的是，你应该尊重他们作为个体而不是你的手段而已。 分析：这里的mean实际上是一个途径，一个中间过程。如果我们把他人视为达成某种目标的中间途径,那就不是道德的。end在这里是终点，自身的结果。只有把他人视为end才是尊重别人才是道德的。 其实这个道理很简单。就是我们常说的：不已结婚为目的谈恋爱都是耍流氓。你不已结婚为目的，就是把女孩当成means了，所以很不道德。你如果是以结婚为目的话，就是当成ends了。
托福阅读真题100篇原文+题目(一) 托福阅读在备考的过程中，大家可以多找一些真题来进行练习 PASSAGE 1 By the mid-nineteenth century, the term icebox had entered the American language, but icewas still only beginning to affect the diet of ordinary citizens in the United States. The ice tradegrew with the growth of cities. Ice was used in hotels, taverns, and hospitals, and by someforward-looking city dealers in fresh meat, fresh fish, and butter. After the Civil War (1861-1865),as ice was used to refrigerate freight cars, it also came into household use. Even before 1880, halfthe ice sold in New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and one-third of that sold in Boston andChicago, went to families for their own use. This had become possible because a new householdconvenience, the icebox, a precursor of the modern refrigerator, had been invented. Making an efficient icebox was not as easy as we might now suppose. In the early nineteenthcentury, the knowledge of the physics of heat, which was essential to a science of refrigeration,was rudimentary. The commonsense notion that the best icebox was one that prevented the icefrom melting was of course mistaken, for it was the melting of the ice that performed the cooling.Nevertheless, early efforts to economize ice included wrapping the ice in blankets, which kept theice from doing its job. Not until near the end of the nineteenth century did inventors achieve thedelicate balance of insulation and circulation needed for an efficient icebox. But as early as 1803, an ingenious Maryland farmer, Thomas Moore, had been on the righttrack. He owned a farm about twenty miles outside the city of Washington, for which the villageof Georgetown was the market center. When he used an icebox of his own design to transport hisbutter to market, he found that customers would pass up the rapidly melting stuff
老托福阅读真题及答案解析 托福从听、说、读、写四方面进行英语能力全面考核。托福频道为大家提供了这四个方面的资料，希望对大家有所帮助。 Aviculturists, people who raise birds for commercial sale, have not yet learned how to simulate the natural incubation of parrot eggs in the wild. They continue to look for better ways to increase egg production and to improve chick survival rates. When parrots incubate their eggs in the wild, the temperature and humidity of the nest are controlled naturally. Heat is transferred from the bird's skin to the top portion of the eggshell, leaving the sides and bottom of the egg at a cooler temperature. This temperature gradient may be vital to successful hatching. Nest construction can contribute to this temperature gradient. Nests of loosely arranged sticks, rocks, or dirt are cooler in temperature at the bottom where the egg contacts the nesting material. Such nests also act as humidity regulators by allowing rain to drain into the bottom sections of the nest so that the eggs are not in direct contact with the water. As the water that collects in the bottom of the nest evaporates, the water vapor rises and is heated by the incubating bird, which adds significant humidity to the incubation environment. In artificial incubation programs, aviculturists remove eggs from the nests of parrots and incubate them under laboratory conditions. Most commercial incubators heat the eggs fairly evenly from top to bottom, thus ignoring the bird's method of natural incubation, and perhaps reducing the viability and survivability of the hatching chicks. When incubators are not used, aviculturists sometimes suspend wooden boxes outdoors to use as nests in which to place eggs. In areas where weather can become cold after eggs are laid, it is very important to maintain a deep foundation of nesting material to act as insulator against the cold bottom of the box. If eggs rest against the wooden bottom in extremely cold weather conditions, they can become chilled to a point where the embryo can no longer survive. Similarly, these boxes should be protected from direct sunlight to avoid high temperatures that are also fatal to the growing embryo. Nesting material should be added in sufficient amounts to avoid both extreme temperature situations mentioned above and assure that the eggs have a soft, secure place to rest. 1. What is the main idea of the passage ? (A) Nesting material varies according to the parrots' environment. (B) Humidity is an important factor in incubating parrots' eggs. (C) Aviculturists have constructed the ideal nest box for parrots. (D) Wild parrots' nests provide information useful for artificial incubation. 2. The word "They" in line 2 refers to
精选45句托福阅读长难句翻译及词汇注释 （涵盖部分句子简化题翻译） 1.The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment（沉积物）-laden（装满的）river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows: the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing（沉积）the sediment in the form of a smooth, fan-shaped slope（斜面）. 虽然是较为小型的，但类似的事情也在当下发生，无论什么地方的、大量携带沉积物的河水或溪流从山谷中流至较为平坦的地带，都会随着流速的减慢会沉淀下它的携带物。 河流通常以扇形蔓延，使沉积物以一种平滑的扇形斜面的形式沉积。 2.In lowland country almost any spot on the ground may overlie（躺在某上） what was once the bed of a river that has since become buried by soil; if they ar e now below the water’s upper surface (the water table), the gravels （石子，砂砾）and sands of the former riverbed, and its sandbars（沙洲，堤坝）, will be saturated（浸湿）with groundwater. 在地势较低的城市里，地面上几乎所有曾是河床的地方都被土壤掩埋。如果曾是河床的地方现在处于河流（的上表面）之下，旧时河床的石砾、沙子和沙洲就会被地表水浸湿。 3.But note that porosity（孔隙度）is not the same as permeability（渗透率）, which measures the ease with which water can flow through a material; this depends on the sizes of the individual cavities（腔，洞）and the crevices （裂缝，缺口）linking them. 但是要注意的在测量水可以从一种材料间通过的轻松程度的时候，孔隙度并不等同于渗透率。这个要依材料中每个独立的洞和裂缝的大小而定。 4.If the pores（毛孔，气孔）are large, the water in them will exist as drops too heavy for surface tension to hold, and it will drain（使液体流走）away; but if the pores are small enough, the water in them will exist as thin films（薄膜）, too light to overcome the force of surface tension holding them in place; then the water will be firmly held. 如果气孔很大，其内部的水分会以滴的形式存在，水分会由于过重、不能被表面张力持住而流走。反之，如果气孔很小，其内部的水分会以薄膜的形式存在，水分太轻以至于不能克服固定它们的表面张力，因此水分就会被以膜的形式保留。 5.But the myths that have grown up around the rites（隆重的仪式或典礼）may continue as part of the group’s oral（口头的; 口述的）tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced（分离）from these rites.
托福写作翻译句子练习集团文件发布号：（9816-UATWW-MWUB-WUNN-INNUL-DQQTY-
1. 旅游业不但给政府带来税收而且给很多人提供了就业机会。 2. 赌博不但对健康有害，而且会影响家庭和睦。 3. 打工不但能让学生赚零花钱，而且还能让他们学到人际交往的能力。 4. 现在很多学校的校服不但贵，而且还难看，质量不好。 5. 政府不但要多建一些公路，还要鼓励人们多使用公交车。 6. 老人们既不需要很多的钱，也不需要很大的房子，他们最需要的是子女的关心和照顾。 7. 我喜欢旅游，但是，我既没有钱，也没有时间。 8. 在老人院，老人既能够接受到医疗，又能够找到很多有共同话题，共同兴趣的的伙伴。 9. 缴税既是有有利于国家，也是有利于个人。因为政府的税收主要用于公共服务，这个是每个人都会受益的。 10. 打电脑游戏既浪费时间，又有害视力。
11. 打电脑游戏既能使人放松，又能锻炼大脑的灵活性，反映能力 12. 依照最近的一项调查，每年有4，000，000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。 13. 没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。 14. 许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。 15. 无可否认，空气污染是一个极其严重的问题：城市当局应该采取有力措施来解决它。 16. 考虑到问题的严重性，在事态进一步恶化之前，必须采取有效的措施。 17. 尽管这一观点被广泛接受，很少有证据表明飞机会造成灾难性的污染。 18. 没有人能否认：教育是人生最重要的一方面。 19. 事实上，我们必须承认生命的质量和生命本身一样重要。
20. 我们应该不遗余力地保护我们的环境。 21. 现在，人们普遍认为 22. 我同意后者，有如下理由： 23. 这一观点正受到越来越多人的质疑。 24. 使用自行车有助于人们的身体健康，并极大地缓解了交通阻塞。 25. 尽管自行车有许多明显的优点，但是它也存在它的问题。 26. 在速度和舒适度方面，自行车是无法和汽车、火车这样的交通工具相比的。 27. 通过以上讨论，我们可以得出结论：自行车的优点远大于缺点，并且在现代社会它仍将发挥重要作用。 28. 这个问题已经引起了广泛关注。 29. 很多人生活在这样的幻想之中。。。
新托福TPO19阅读原文(一)：The Roman Army's Impact on Britain TPO19-1：The Roman Army's Impact on Britain In the wake of the Roman Empire's conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy. Assessing the impact of the army on the civilian population starts from the realization that the soldiers were always unevenly distributed across the country. Areas rapidly incorporated into the empire were not long affected by the military. Where the army remained stationed, its presence was much more influential. The imposition of a military base involved the requisition of native lands for both the fort and the territory needed to feed and exercise the soldiers' animals. The imposition of military rule also robbed local leaders of opportunities to participate in local government, so social development was stunted and the seeds of disaffection sown. This then meant that the military had to remain to suppress rebellion and organize government. Economic exchange was clearly very important as the Roman army brought with it very substantial spending power. Locally a fort had two kinds of impact. Its large population needed food and other supplies. Some of these were certainly brought from long distances, but demands were inevitably placed on the local area. Although goods could be requisitioned, they were usually paid for, and this probably stimulated changes in the local economy. When not campaigning, soldiers needed to be occupied; otherwise they represented a potentially dangerous source of friction and disloyalty. Hence a writing tablet dated 25 April tells of 343 men at one fort engaged on tasks like shoemaking, building a bathhouse, operating kilns, digging clay, and working lead. Such activities had a major effect on the local area, in particular with the construction of infrastructure such as roads, which improved access to remote areas. Each soldier received his pay, but in regions without a developed economy there was initially little on which it could be spent. The pool of excess cash rapidly stimulated a thriving economy outside fort gates. Some of the demand for the services
2000年5月第五篇 Questions 41-50 According to sociologists, there are several different ways in which a person may become recognized as the leader of a social group in the United States. In the family, traditional cultural patterns confer leadership on one or both of the parents. In other cases, Line such as friendship groups, one or more persons may gradually emerge as leaders, although support to individual members. Instrumental leaders are likely to have a rather secondary relationship to other group members. They give orders and may discipline group members who inhibit attainment of the group’s goals. Expressive leaders cultivate a more personal or primary relationship to (25) suggest, expressive leaders generally receive more personal affection from group members; instrumental leaders, if they are successful in promoting group goals, may enjoy a mote (30) distant respect.
3.Early Food Production in Sub-Saharan Africa 在更新世末期（大约公元前10000年），食品生产的技术可能已经在非洲西部和中部 的热带雨林的边缘地区使用，在那里非洲山药等根茎型植物的普遍使用，使人们认识到自己种植食物的好处。这种原始形式的“蔬菜栽培”（块根植物和树本作物的种植）可 能已经成为了一种经济传统，基于这种传统，夏季降水谷类作物的种植也采用嫁接的办法，这种种植技术已经在撒哈拉沙漠南部边界地区的草原南部被使用。随着撒哈拉 沙漠在公元前5000年之后干涸，游牧民族（牧民）向南沿着主要河道迁移到了西非和苏丹的热带草原地带。 直到公元前3000年，正如埃及文明发源于尼罗河流域一样，这些游牧民族定居在了离南部很远的东非高原地区的中心。东非高原是理想的养牛场所，如今也是像马赛人（肯尼亚和坦桑尼亚的游牧狩猎民族）这样的有名的牧牛民族的家园。直到大约公元前3300 年，第一批牧牛人出现时，高地上居住着狩猎采集者，他们居住在平原附近的山区。和其他地方的情况一样，在非洲，牛是饲养起来很费劲的动物。如果要饲养各种规模 的牛群的话，这些牛至少每24小时就需要喝一次水，而且需要大片的牧场。饲养的秘 诀在于仔细挑选放牧场地，尤其是在季节性降雨会导致全年牧草质量有明显差异的环境中。即使是规模适中的牛群也需要大片的土地和相当大的可移动性。为了获得这样的土地，经常需要牛群移动相当远的距离，甚至是从夏季牧场移动到冬季牧场。同时，放牧人不得不让牲畜在有舌蝇出没的地带吃草。唯一能够保护人类和牲畜，不患上昏 睡病（一种由舌蝇传播的疾病）的办法，就是避免在这些地区定居或者放牧——对非 洲东部和中部地区的牧民来说，这个办法严重地限制了他们的迁移。结果是，小牛群迅速地向南部地区迁移，在那里人们可以放牧。在谷类农业占领最南部的撒哈拉沙漠之前，非洲东部和南部稀树草原地区的一些依靠狩猎和采集生活的人可能已经饲养了牛群和其他家养动物，他们将牲畜作为礼物交换，或者通过劫掠放牧的邻居，来获得这些牲畜。 和主流观点相反：没有所谓的“纯粹”的牧民，即只依靠牧群生存的社会。撒哈拉沙漠地 区为了躲避干旱而向南迁移的牧民，几乎肯定的是他们也在种植高粱、小米和其他热带降雨作物。到公元前1500年，谷类作物已经广泛分布于整个撒哈拉沙漠南部的稀树 草原带。小型农业社区遍布在草原和西非东部森林的边界处，这些小型农业社区都依赖于所谓的轮耕法。这种形式的农业包括清理林地，焚烧清理过的地块上的那些被砍倒的灌木丛，将灰烬混合在土壤中，然后在这些制备好的土地上耕种。几年后，土地耗尽了养分，于是农民们继续前进，开辟新的林地，让原来的荒地休耕。轮耕法，也 被称为“刀耕火种”，高度适用于没有犁的稀树草原地区的农民，因为这种方法能够消耗 最少的能量。
新托福TPO11阅读原文(一):Ancient Egyptian Sculpture TPO11-1：Ancient Egyptian Sculpture In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? Why do the artists seem to get left and right confused? And why did they not discover the geometric perspective as European artists did in the Renaissance? The answer to such questions has nothing to do with a lack of skill or imagination on the part of Egyptian artists and everything to do with the purposes for which they were producing their art. The majority of three-dimensional representations, whether standing, seated, or kneeling, exhibit what is called frontality: they face straight ahead, neither twisting nor turning. When such statues are viewed in isolation, out of their original context and without knowledge of their function, it is easy to criticize them for their rigid attitudes that remained unchanged for three thousand years. Frontality is, however, directly related to the functions of Egyptian statuary and the contexts in which the statues were set up. Statues were created not for their decorative effect but to play a primary role in the cults of the gods, the king, and the dead. They were designed to be put in places where these beings could manifest themselves in order to be the recipients of ritual actions. Thus it made sense to show the statue looking ahead at what was happening in front of it, so that the living performer of the ritual could interact with the divine or deceased recipient. Very often such statues were enclosed in rectangular shrines or wall niches whose only opening was at the front, making it