Lesson 9 Forage Production
Part A Forage Establishment
Field selection
Suitable forage species are available for all types of Manitoba soils and moisture conditions. Use Table 9-1 and Table 9-2 as a guide for selecting hay and pasture forages for different soil conditions.
Perennial weeds are difficult to control in seedling forages, and should be controlled before establishment. If conventional tillage practices are being used, prepare a fine, firm, shallow seed bed. Increasingly, forage growers are successfully establishing forage stands without tillage. Benefits of zero-tillage forage establishment are:1 lower costs and less labour; 2 better seed bed moisture conservation; 3 standing 'dead mulch' protects an emerging crop from drying-out and sandblasting.
合适的牧草品种可用于马尼托巴湖所有类型的土壤和水分条件。使用表9-1和9-2 作为选作物不同土壤条件的干草和牧场牧草的指南。
牧草幼苗期的多年生杂草很难控制，应当在建立前控制，如果使用常规实践，准备一个精细，坚定，浅的种床，逐渐的，牧草种植者成功的建立了无耕作的饲料站。零耕作牧草建立的利益是1.降低成本和低的劳动力2.更好地保持种床水分，3.长期有效的死物质覆盖保护作物免受干旱胁迫和风沙的危害。
Seeding
Inoculation
Treating legume seeds with an appropriate inoculant ensures good nitrogen(N) fixation,and should be carried out before seeding. Inoculant contains living rhizobium bacteria, and must be handled carefully to ensure viability. Keep inoculant in the sealed original container, store in a refrigerator until required and do not expose to direct sunlight. Plant immediately after inoculation. If seeding is interrupted, store seed in a cool, dark place and resume seeding when possible.
Pre-inoculated seed is also available. Store seed in a cool, dark place to keep the inoculant viable. Each legume or group of legumes requires a specific species of rhizobium bacteria for N fixation. Ensure that the inoculant you buy is appropriate for the crop being seeded.
Alfalfa Group -alfalfa and sweet clover
Clover Group -for red clover, white clover and alsike clover
Bird's-foot -bird's-foot trefoil only
Sainfoin -Sainfoin only
用一个合适的接种菌处理豆科种子确保好的固氮，并应该在播种前实现。接种菌包括活的根瘤菌，并且必须仔细操作以确保生存。把接种菌保持在一个密封的原容器中，储存在冰箱中直到需要并且不要直接暴露在太阳光下。接种后立即种植。如果中断播种，种子储藏在冷的黑暗的地方，能够恢复播种。
预先接种也是有效的，种子保存在冷的，黑暗的地方能保持接种细菌的生存。每一个豆类或者豆科牧草都需要一个特定的固氮根瘤菌种，确保购买的接种菌适合于已经播种的作物。紫花苜蓿组——紫花苜蓿，草木犀
三叶草组——红三叶，白三叶，杂三叶
豆科牧草——车轴草
红豆草——只有红豆草
Seed coating
Grasses, which are very light in weight, are difficult to seed. To improve the seed flow characteristics, these seeds are frequently encased within a coating of heavier material. This material is usually an inert substance, such as clay, mixed with some fertilizer to promote rapid establishment of the stand. When using coated seed, it is important to adjust the seeding rate to account for the coating.
禾本科牧草，种子的重量很轻，很难繁殖。改良种子流动特性，这些种子经常被包裹在一层较重的材料里。这种材料通常是惰性物质，如粘土，夹杂着一些肥料促进迅速建立该站。当使用包衣种子，重要的是考虑到调节包衣种子的播种量。
Time of seeding
The best time to seed forages is in the early spring, as soon as field conditions permit. The cool, moist conditions of early spring are most favorable for the germination and growth of both grasses and legumes. The moist conditions also allow for a shallow seeding depth, which is very important for quick establishment of the forage crop. If there is adequate moisture, forages can be seeded from late July to mid-August. During this period, only grasses should be seeded. The legumes require a longer growing period to ensure winter survival.
Dormant fall seeding can be attempted when the soil temperatures approach the freezing point and germination is unlikely. The seed germinates in the spring when the growing conditions will be close to ideal, however, an early snowfall can raise the soil temperature sufficiently to cause the seed to germinate in the fall and die over winter. Use dormant seeding in problem areas That are not suitable for seeding in the spring and summer.
种牧草的最佳时间是在早春，实地条件允许的情况下尽快播种。初春的凉爽，潮湿的环境最有利于禾本科和豆科植物的发芽和生长。在潮湿的环境下也允许播种深度浅，这是非常重要的对于饲料作物的快速建立。如果有足够的水分，牧草播种，从七月下旬到八月中旬。在此期间，只有禾本科草可能会结实种子。豆类需要较长的生长周期，以确保越冬。
休眠秋季播种，，可以尝试，当土壤温度接近冰点，发芽的可能性不大。种子在春天发芽，生长条件接近理想，但是，及早的降雪可提高土壤温度足以使种子在秋季发芽和越冬死亡。使用休眠直播的问题领域这是不适合在春季和夏季播种
Seeding equipment
Disc drills will work well, provided the seed is not placed too deep. Use depth-control bands mounted on discs, or release down-pressure from discs to let them float on a soil surface. Another option is to remove downspouts and drop seed in front of discs or hoes, allowing soil thrown up by the openers to cover the seed. Alternatively, seed tubes can be moved back to drop seed behind the openers, in front of the press wheels. Broadcast seeding is satisfactory when seed is spread uniformly and packed properly. Spinner spreaders do not spread seed uniformly, especially when a seed mixture is used. Drum seeders work well where stones are a problem. Forage seed is metered from a seed box in front of a large roller, which when weighted with water will pack down stones and firm the seed bed.
与传统耕作技术相比，保护性耕作技术具有显著的经济、社会和生态效益。论文在全面分析保护性耕作关键机具——免耕播种机研究现状的基础上，抓住影响免耕播种机作业质量和生产效率的两个关键部件——防堵装置和排种器，进行了深入的理论分析与系统的试验研究，并取得重要的研究进展。主要研究成果包括：1．首次设计了免耕播种机锯切防堵装置。论文采用理论分析、试验研究和应用虚拟仪器与高速摄影测试技术相结合的方法，对锯切防堵装置及其切割、防堵机理和参数优化进行了系统的理论分析和土槽试验研究。锯切防堵装置采用锯齿圆盘切刀逆转式作业，一方面依靠锯齿圆盘切刀切断秸秆并利用刀齿前角抛送秸秆，另一方面对落入锯齿间的断秆，借助抛撒板旋转作用定向抛送到开沟器后方，实现了切割、定
向抛撒一体化功能。大量试验表明：锯切防堵装置具有嵌住茎秆能力强、切割相对连续、切断率高达97％、转速低(650r／min)、功率消耗小(单位幅宽功率消耗2.95kw／m)，抛撒性能好，且对秸秆覆盖量适应性强等优点。理论分析和试验结果表明，该装置设计新颖，具有良好的切割与防堵性能，用于免耕播种机防堵装置是可行的。此研究是免耕播种机防堵装置设计中的一个创新，有望解决目前主动式防堵装置功率消耗大以及转速高而引起的安全性、平稳性和耐用性等问题。发表论文2篇。2．首次理论上系统建立了玉米水平圆盘精密排种器动盘参数(D、h、N、S_i、v_r)设计的数学模型，解决了长期以来对水平圆盘精密排种器型孔参数设计建立在经验基础上，缺乏一定理论依据的现实问题。实证表明：该优化数学模型用于动盘参数的设计是有效的、合理的。可根据目前我国玉米种子分类标准即大圆、小圆、大扁和小扁分别设计四种排种器动盘，简化设计过程，提高设计参数的可信性和可靠度。发表论文1篇。3．设计了新型滚珠式推刮种器。滚珠式推种器工作时种子仅受弹簧弹力Q和滚珠重力G共同作用，其合力方向与种子运动方向垂直向下，类似重力投种，且滚珠与型孔呈包容性接触，种子被推出型孔时消去了时间的超前或滞后现象。试验表明排种动盘转速在20r／min以下时，使用滚珠式推刮种器的种子粒距分布频数集中在0.8-1.2，种子破碎率低于1.5％，能有效提高排种性能和播种精度，降低种子破碎率。发表论文1篇。4．系统的试验研究了排种器种子破碎机理和影响排种性能与播种精度指标的要素，并利用高速摄影技术对排种过程和种子破碎过程进行了观察，对排种质量取得了新的认识。种子破碎主要是剪切、挤压、碰撞和研磨等作用力而引起，种子破碎的形态主要为碎化、剪切及裂纹。
If seed box agitation is not available, many forage grasses will bridge over seed cups, causing skips. To reduce bridging, do not fill seed box above half full. Alternatively, mix seed with cracked wheat( one part cracked wheat; two parts grass seed ). Some growers are successfully using phosphate fertilizer as a carrier. If this is done, ensure that seeding takes place immediately after mixing with the fertilizer. Where drills or airflow devices have a countershaft over the seed cups, placing pipe clamps on the countershaft will improve seed flow. Pack the seed bed after seeding, especially when broadcast seeding, to ensure good seed-to-soil contact,and to bring moisture to soil surface. Use a harrow packer, harrow or roller.
盘式钻头将工作做好，只要提供种子不放的太深。使用安装在磁盘上的深度控制带，或从光盘中释放下压力，让他们漂浮在土壤表面。另一种选择是去掉落水管和在光盘或锄头前下降的种子，使土壤抛出的开盖种。另外，种子管可以搬回滴种子背后的开放，在前面的压轮。直播是令人满意的种子均匀扩散和妥善包装。微调散热器不传播种子均匀，尤其是当种子混合使用。滚筒播种机的工作以及在石头是一个问题。牧草种子是从计量种子箱前面的大滚筒，其中加权时水会包下来的石头和坚定的种子床。
如果种子箱搅拌不可用，许多牧草种子杯将堵塞，导致遗漏。降低架桥，不要填写种子箱以上半满。另外，混合种子与小麦（一部分小麦；部分草种子）。一些种植者成功使用磷酸盐肥料为载体。如果这样做，确保播种后立即发生混合肥料。在演习或气流的设备有一个副轴在种子杯，置管夹在副轴会提高种子流。包装种子床播种后，尤其是当直播，确保良好的seed-to-soil接触，并使土壤表面水分。用耙，耙或辊。
Seeding depth and rates
Seed shallow(1/4 to 1 inch ) into a firm seed bed. Seed at 1/4 inch for small-seeded forages, such as timothy, on heavy soils. Seed deeper for large-seeded forages,such as intermediate
wheatgrass or alfalfa, on lighter soils. Refer to Table 9-1 and Table 9-2 for hay and pasture seeding mixes. Refer to Table 9-1 for seeding rates for detailed instructions on seeder calibration.
播种深度和速度
种子浅（1 / 4至1英寸）成一个结实的种子床。种子在1 / 4英寸的小种子植物，如提摩太，重土壤。种子深的大饲料，如中间冰草或苜蓿对土壤，打火机。参考表1和表9 - 2为干草和牧草播种和。参考表9 - 1播种率详细说明播种机校准。
Companion crops
Cover crops compete severely with the forage crop for light, moisture and nutrients, reducing winter survival and yield the following year. However, they are often used to reduce weed competition, sandblasting and desiccation. If they are used, reduce seeding rate and nitrogen rates by half, and harvest as green feed if possible to reduce competition.
Fertilizer
For specific recommendations, have your soil tested. Sample soil at 0-6 inches and 6-24 inch depths before establishment or on established stands. Sampling to 0-6 is useful only on established stands where sulphur levels are known to be sufficient. When establishing forages, phosphorus fertilizer is applied most effectively by banding one inch to the side and one inch below the seed. If phosphorus cannot be banded, incorporate it and all other fertilizer into the soil before seeding.
Annual broadcast applications of phosphorus, potassium and sulphur fertilizer on established grass crops may be made in late fall or early spring. Do not apply fertilizer to frozen soils subject to water runoff. Rate of nitrogen fertilization can be based on soil test levels or value of the crop and cost of fertilizer.
Ammonium nitrate is generally 10-15% more efficient than urea in increasing the yield of the first cut of grasses. Manitoba studies have found that under conditions of minimal volatilization loss, urea forms are equal to or superior to ammonium nitrate for fertilizing late season grasses in multiple harvest systems and grass pasture. In these instances, hay or pasture grasses are fertilized with ammonium nitrate. V olatilization losses of surface applied N may be very high if rainfall is not received soon after application. V olatilization losses are greatest when urea is applied to a moist thatch cover, followed by warm, windy weather.
Performances of N solutions are improved by surface band or dribble application. Treating urea with an urease inhibitor will delay volatilization losses for up to 14 days. Broadcast N solutions are not satisfactory for established forages. To increase efficiency of nitrogen application with N solutions, they should be surface or dribble banded or injected into the soil with equipment such as a spoke wheel applicator.
The micronutrient boron is particularly important for alfalfa. Visual deficiencies appear as yellowing to reddening of the youngest upper leaves on the plant Deficiencies are generally limited to high pH, sandy soils when plants are under drought stress. Since deficiencies are ofter weather-related, they may be observed one year and not the next. Confirm deft-ciencies with soil and plant-tissue analysis. Where boron-deficiency is confirmed, broadcast apply 1-2 1b boron/acre. Apply with caution, since excessive boron can cause toxicity in following crops such as oats and beans.
Diseases
Leaf diseases are the most commonly encountered and obvious disease problem with the
forage grasses.If the incidence of leaf disease becomes severe, rotate the field to other crops for several years. Ergot can be a serious problem on bromegrass and wheat grasses. Mowing the grass at heading time will prevent the formation of ergot bodies in the developing florets. This also stops the spread to nearby fields of rye, triticale, wheat or barley. After breaking up a seed field where ergot has been a problem, avoid rye, triticale, wheat or barley for one year.
Forage legumes are susceptible to a number of leaf spot diseases. They are also affected by root and crown rots, which may be associated with winter injury. Foliage diseases overwinter on infected stubble and may build up to become a severe problem. Cut before leaf drop to minimize leaf loss and reduce the amount of overwintering disease. Take severely infected fields out of production. Early-spring burning before new growth may also reduce leaf and stem diseases. Rotate with cereals or corn for at least one year before replanting to a forage legume.
Alfalfa and sweet clover are susceptible to verticillium wilt. Avoid potatoes and sunflowers in the rotation because of common susceptibility to verticillium wilt. For more information, consult Manitoba Agriculture and Food Field Scouting Guide and the current to Crop Protection.
H arvesting and storage of quality hay and silage
High-quality forage is the key to reducing feed coasts. This is done by harvesting and storing a high-yielding, good-quality crop of forage. When a crop such as alfalfa is cut just before flowering and harvested quickly under good weather conditions, protein and energy levels above 15 and 65 per cant are possible. Late harvesting decreases the crude protein content, dry matter digestibility and dry matter and forage.
One of the most important factors affecting forage quality is the state of maturity at cutting. Young, vegetative forage is higher in protein and energy than older, flowering material.
Quality of first-cut alfalfa drops especially quickly. Producers aiming for a very high-quality forage( for example for dairy cows or cash hay sales ) should consider cutting as early as June 10-15.
优质牧草是减少饲料海岸的关键。这是通过收获和存储一种高产、优质的饲料作物。良好的天气条件下时，当作物如苜蓿只在开花之前收割并快速收获，蛋白质和能量水平超过15%- 65%是可能的。晚收获减少牧草的粗蛋白质含量、干物质消化率和干物质。
影响牧草质量的最重要因素之一是在收割时牧草的成熟状态。嫩的、由生长力的牧草比老的开花材料有更高的蛋白质和能量
质量的第一次切苜蓿滴眼液特别快。瞄准非常高质量饲料生产者（例如对于奶牛或现金干草销售）应考虑切割早期作为 6 月10-15。
Relative Feed Value (RFV) is an indicator of forage quality, based on a combination of acid detergent fibre (ADF) and neutral detergent fibre (NDF). For high-quality hay to be fed dairy cows or sold in the cash hay market, a RFV of 150 is considered ideal. The feeding value of leaves is considerably higher than that of stems. Loss of leaves in handling decreases feed value. Leaf losses are likely to occur when legumes are cut and raked for hay, but can be minimized by harvesting with a mower conditioner.
相对饲料价值（RFV）是基于酸性洗涤纤维(ADF) 和中性洗涤纤维(NDF) 的组合的牧草质量的一个指标。优质干草要喂养奶牛或现金干草市场出售，150 的RFV 认为是理想的。叶子的喂养值明显高于茎。叶片的处理损失减少饲料价值。叶损失有可能发生在豆科植物被收割和晾晒成干草时，但可以由收获割草机调节剂使损失最小化。
Large losses in feeding value may result when hay is exposed to weather. Rapid-curing, collection and proper storage of forage reduces these losses. Table 9-3 summarizes the types and magnitude of losses that may be expected under good management and harvesting conditions. Much higher losses are possible with all systems under fair or poor conditions. These figures are valid only if proper care and management are provided to all harvesting and storage operations.
当甘草暴露在空气中可能导致喂养价值大大的减少，快速固化，收集和适当贮存牧草减少这些损失。表9-3 总结了的在良好的管理和收割条件下损失类型和严重程度可能被预料。在正常的或者贫乏的条件下的所有体系更高的损失是合理地。这些数字仅仅在收获和存储的所有操作都提供适当的照料和管理的情况下才有效。
Harvesting silage in round bales can be an economical means of reducing losses when faced with uncertain weather. Benefits include being able to use existing round-bale equipment, and lower field and feeding losses than with dry hay. Because stands with a high sugar content ensile well, best results are usually found with mixed alfalfa-grass stands cut at an early growth stage. Stands receiving rain in the swath should not be harvested as round-bale silage, because the bacteria needed for ensiling cannot compete with soil bacteria splashed onto the forage by rain. Before baling, ensure that bale handling equipment can handle the heavier bales, which can stack in a day. Bale at 40-60 per cent moisture. In most cases, this is achieved by baling the day after cutting. Baling too wet results in butyric acid (sour silage) production and increased freezing of the bales, and baling too dry results in greater quantities of air in the bale and mouldy silage. Seal bales in plastic as soon as possible, and always the same day. Storage options include using sheet plastic over a pyramid stack, single-row tube, and tube wrapping or individual bale wrap. Monitor silage wrap for holes and tape holes shut with duct or construction tape.
( Cited from Manitoba Agriculture and Food, Canada )
收获的青贮饲料打成圆捆是一种减少损失的经济的方法当面对不确定的天气时。收益包括尽可能使用现有的圆捆设备和较低的领域与喂养损失比起干草，因为青贮饲料中糖含量很高，混合苜蓿草地在生长阶段前收割能够产生好的结果。站接收雨地带不应该收获成圆捆的青贮饲料。因为青贮饲料需要的细菌无法与通过雨水被溅到草料上的土壤细菌竞争,在打包之前，确保打包操作设备能够处理成更重的大包，可以在一天堆积起来。打包在40—60%的水分，在大部分情况下，收割的第二天通过打包来实现这个。捆太湿导致丁酸生成和增强捆结冰，同时捆太干导致大量的空气进入捆和产生霉味。用塑料袋密封的捆尽快的和常常也是同一天。储存选项包括在锥形的垛上覆盖塑料，单排管、塑料布和管包装用或个别包换行。监视孔和关闭与风管或施工磁带的磁带孔青贮换行。
汉译英 Unit1 1.无论你是多么富有经验的演说家，无论你做了多么充足的准备，你都很难在这样嘈杂的招待会上发表演讲。（no matter how） No matter how experienced a speaker you are, and how well you have prepared your speech ，you will have difficulty making a speech at such a noisy reception. 2.就像吉米妹妹的朋友都关系吉米一样，吉米也关系他们（just as） Just as all his sister ’ s friends cared about him, Jimmy cared about them 3.汽车生产商在新车的几处都印有汽车识别号码，以便帮助找回被盗的车辆。（track down）Car manufacturers stamp a vehicle identification number at several places on new cars to help track down stolen vehicles. 4.老师回来时你敢告我状的话，我就不再和你说话了。（tell on） If you dare tell on me when the teacher gets back I won’t say a word to you any more. 5.有些老年人愿意独自过日子，但大多数老人选择和儿女一起生活。（on one’s own） Some elderly people prefer to live on their own while the great majority choose to live with their children. 6.现在需要面对的事情是：如何筹集创建公司所需的资金。（reckon with） Here is something that needs to be reckoned with: how to get the necessary finances to establish the company. Unit2 1.被告是位年仅30岁的女子，她坚持称自己无罪 The defendant, a woman of only 30, kept insisting on her own innocence. 2.总体看来，枣、豆类以及一些多叶的绿色蔬菜是最好的铁质来源。 All tings considered, dates, beans and some leafy green vegetables are the best sources of iron . 3正餐时不供应饮料，饮料会影响消化。 No beverages are served with meals because they interfere with digestion. 4.考虑到那个地区受欢迎的程度，提前订旅馆是明智的。 Taking the popularity of the region into consideration, it is advisable to book hotels in advance. 5.服药后若有呕吐感，请立即停止服用并立刻咨询医生。 If you have a feeling of wanting to throw up after taking this drug, stop taking it immediately and consult your doctors as soon as possible. 6.总结这次讨论时，他说双方都要好好考虑怎样以最有效的方法来解决这一问题。 Summing up the discussion, he said both parties should consider the most effective way to solve the problem. Unit3 1.在思维方面，与他的行为一样，他是非常传统的。 In his thinking, as in his behavior, he is very traditional. 2..教师一旦同意接受新的教学计划，他们就得面对新计划所带给他们的压力。 Once the teachers agree to accept the new teaching program, they have to face the strain it puts on them. 3.从长远看，大学毕业后继续深造而不是直接参加工作是值得的。 In the long run, it is worthwhile to pursue one ’ s study after graduatin g from university instead of going to work directly. 4.由于这所学校的办学宗旨是品德第一，所以道德观和学习成绩受到同样的重视。 As the school operates on the Character First principle, moral values and academic achievements are stressed equally. 5.据说，原定于这个月召开的会议将推迟到下个月召开。
M1U1 托尼：呣…..好香啊。你做的比萨看上去不错。 贝蒂：谢谢！来一点尝尝？ 托尼：好的。看上去不错，闻起来香喷喷的，呣，好吃。 大明：这上面是什么？ 贝蒂：噢，是奶酪，想尝一块吗？ 大明：啊！不用了，谢谢，我不喜欢奶酪。奶酪闻起来不新鲜，气味太大，吃起来有点酸。 贝蒂：嗯，我的巧克力饼干做好了，尝尝吧！ 大明：谢谢！很甜，里面很酥软。 托尼：你是不是在做很多不同的食物啊？你看上去挺忙的！ 贝蒂：是的。我做了比萨和饼干，现在我在做苹果派和蛋糕。 大明：苹果派听起来不错呢。我喜欢甜食，你知道的。我给你拿糖吧？ 贝蒂：好。噢，你确定你拿的是糖吗？先尝一下，可能是盐。 大明：没拿错，是甜的，是糖。 托尼：这是什么？也是甜的。 贝蒂：是草莓酱，做蛋糕用的。 大明：太好了。每种东西都是甜丝丝的。我今天可真幸运啊！ M1U2 玲玲： 你好！ 谢谢你上次的来信，收到你的信真是太好了。真想马上见到你。 希望你能凭着照片在机场认出我来。我的个子比较高，留着一头金色短发，戴眼镜。为了旅行方便，我将穿牛仔裤和T恤，但我也会拿一件厚点的外套。我这里有你的照片，你非常漂亮，我想我们肯定能认出对方来！ 谢谢你告诉我你的爱好，我俩的爱好非常相似！我花很多时间在学校和朋友弹奏古典音乐，我也喜欢舞曲——我喜欢跳舞。我也喜欢运动，尤其是网球。我哥哥在我们学校网球队，我为他感到非常自豪。他各方面都很优秀，而我不行。有时候考得不好，我会难过。我要更加努力。 你问我：“要来中国了，你有什么感受？”嗯，每当我要离开父母几天时，起初都会有点感伤。和陌生人一起的时候，我会很害羞，讲汉语时我会感到紧张，但是过几天就好了。当我不知道该如何正确处理事情时，心里总是难过，所以到中国和你在一起的时候，你要帮助我哟！对了，我还害怕做飞机。不过要去中国了，你不知道我有多兴奋！ 下周见！ 爱你的， 萨莉
1、应力和应变 应力和应变的概念可以通过考虑一个棱柱形杆的拉伸这样一个简单的方式来说明。一个棱柱形的杆是一个遍及它的长度方向和直轴都是恒定的横截面。在这个实例中，假设在杆的两端施加有轴向力F，并且在杆上产生了均匀的伸长或者拉紧。 通过在杆上人工分割出一个垂直于其轴的截面mm，我们可以分离出杆的部分作为自由体【如图1(b)】。在左端施加有拉力P，在另一个端有一个代表杆上被移除部分作用在仍然保存的那部分的力。这些力是连续分布在横截面的，类似于静水压力在被淹没表面的连续分布。 力的集度，也就是单位面积上的力，叫做应力，通常是用希腊字母，来表示。假设应力在横截面上是均匀分布的【如图1(b)】，我们可以很容易的看出它的合力等于集度，乘以杆的横截面积A。而且，从图1所示的物体的平衡，我们可以看出它的合力与力P必须的大小相等，方向相反。因此，我们可以得出 等式(1)可以作为棱柱形杆上均匀应力的方程。这个等式表明应力的单位是，力除以面积。当杆被力P拉伸时，如图所示，产生的应力是拉应力，如果力在方向是相反，使杆被压缩，它们就叫做压应力。 使等式(1)成立的一个必要条件是，应力，必须是均匀分布在杆的横截面上。如果轴向力P作用在横截面的形心处，那么这个条件就实现了。当力P 没有通过形心时，杆会发生弯曲，这就需要更复杂的分析。目前，我们假设所有的轴向力都是作用在横截面的形心处，除非有相反情况特别说明。同样，除非另有说明，一般也假设物体的质量是忽略的，如我们讨论图1的杆一样。
轴向力使杆产生的全部伸长量，用希腊字母δ表示【如图1(a)】，单位长度的伸长量，或者应变，可以用等式来决定。 L是杆的总长。注意应变ε是一个无量纲的量。只要应变是在杆的长度方向均匀的，应变就可以从等式(2)中准确获得。如果杆处于拉伸状态，应变就是拉应变，代表材料的伸长或者 ，那么应变就是压应变，这也就意味着杆上临近的横截面是互相靠近的。 当材料的应力和应变显示的是线性关系时，也就是线弹性。这对多数固体材料来说是极其重要的性质，包括多数金属，塑料，木材，混凝土和陶瓷。处于拉伸状态下，杆的应力和应变间的线性关系可以用简单的等式来表示。E 是比例常数，叫做材料的弹性模量。 注意E和应力有同样的单位。在英国科学家托马斯·杨(1773 ~ 1829)研究杆的弹性行为之后，弹性模量有时也叫做杨氏模量。对大多数材料来说，压缩状态下的弹性模量与处于拉伸时的弹性模量的一样的。 2、拉伸应力应变行为 一个特殊材料中应力和应变的关系是通过拉伸测试来决定的。材料的试样通常是圆棒的形式，被安置在测试机上，承受拉力。当载荷增加时，测量棒上的力和棒的伸长量。力除以横截面积可以得出棒的应力，伸长量除以伸长发生方向的长度可以得出应变。通过这种方式，材料的完整应力应变图就可以得到。 图1所示的是结构钢的应力应变图的典型形状，轴向应变显示在水平轴，对应的应力以纵坐标表示为曲线OABCDE。从O点到A点，应力和应变之间是直接成比例的，图形也是线性的。过了A点，应力应变间的线性关系就不存
Chapter 1 Passage 1 Human Body In this passage you will learn: 1. Classification of organ systems 2. Structure and function of each organ system 3. Associated medical terms To understand the human body it is necessary to understand how its parts are put together and how they function. The study of the body's structure is called anatomy; the study of the body's function is known as physiology. Other studies of human body include biology, cytology, embryology, histology, endocrinology, hematology, immunology, psychology etc. 了解人体各部分的组成及其功能，对于认识人体是必需的。研究人体结构的科学叫解剖学；研究人体功能的科学叫生理学。其他研究人体的科学包括生物学、细胞学、胚胎学、组织学、内分泌学、血液学、遗传学、免疫学、心理学等等。 Anatomists find it useful to divide the human body into ten systems, that is, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the digestive system, the urinary system, the endocrine system, the nervous system, the reproductive system and the skin. The principal parts of each of these systems are described in this article. 解剖学家发现把整个人体分成骨骼、肌肉、循环、呼吸、消化、泌尿、内分泌、神经、生殖系统以及感觉器官的做法是很有帮助的。本文描绘并阐述了各系统的主要部分。 The skeletal system is made of bones, joints between bones, and cartilage. Its function is to provide support and protection for the soft tissues and the organs of the body and to provide points of attachment for the muscles that move the body. There are 206 bones in the human skeleton. They have various shapes - long, short, cube - shaped, flat, and irregular. Many of the long bones have an interior space that is filled with bone marrow, where blood cells are made. 骨骼系统由骨、关节以及软骨组成。它对软组织及人体器官起到支持和保护作用，并牵动骨胳肌，引起各种运动。人体有206根骨头。骨形态不一，有长的、短、立方的、扁的及不规则的。许多长骨里有一个内层间隙，里面充填着骨髓，这即是血细胞的制造场所。 A joint is where bones are joined together. The connection can be so close that no movement is possible, as is the case in the skull. Other kinds of joints permit movement: either back and forth in one plane - as with the hinge joint of the elbow - or movement around a single axis - as with the pivot joint that permits the head to rotate. A wide range of movement is possible when the ball - shaped end of one bone fits into a socket at the end of another bone, as they do in the shoulder and hip joints. 关节把骨与骨连接起来。颅骨不能运动，是由于骨与骨之间的连接太紧密。但其它的关节可允许活动，如一个平面上的前后屈伸运动，如肘关节；或是绕轴心旋转运动，如枢轴点允许头部转动。如果一根骨的球形末端插入另一根骨的臼槽里，大辐度的运动（如肩关节、髋关节）即成为可能。 Cartilage is a more flexible material than bone. It serves as a protective, cushioning layer where bones come together. It also connects the ribs to the breastbone and provides a structural base for the nose and the external ear. An infant's skeleton is made of cartilage that is gradually replaced by bone as the infant grows into an adult. 软骨是一种比一般骨更具韧性的物质。它是骨连结的保护、缓冲层。它把肋骨与胸骨连结起来，也是鼻腔与内耳的结构基础。一个婴儿的骨骼就是由软骨组成，然后不断生长、
新视野大学第三版book1英语课后翻译答案 Unit1 苏格拉底是古希腊哲学家，被誉为现代西方哲学的奠基人。他是一个谜一般的人物，人们主要通过后来的一些古典作家的叙述，尤其是他最著名的学生柏拉图的作品去了解他。苏格拉底以他对伦理学的贡献而闻名。他的教学法亦称为苏格拉底法，即通过提问和回答来激发批判性思维以及阐述观点。该方法在各种讨论中仍被普遍使用。他还在认识论和逻辑领域作出了重大而深远的贡献。他的思想和方法所带来的影响一直是后来的西方哲学的坚实基础。苏格拉底是古代哲学史上最丰富多彩的人物。他在他那个时代已威名远扬。虽然他未曾建立什么哲学体系，未曾设立什么学派，也未曾创立什么宗派，但他的名字很快就变得家喻户晓了。 Confucius was a great thinker and educator in Chinese history. He was the founder of Confucianism and was respectfully referred to as an ancient “sage”. His words and life story were recorded in The Analects. An enduring classic of ancient Chinese culture, The Analectshas had a great influence on the thinkers, writers, and statesmen that came after Confucius. Without studying this book, one could hardly truly understand the thousands-of-years’traditional Chinese culture. Much of Confucius’thought, especially his thought on education, has had a profound influence on Chinese society. In the 21st century, Confucian thought not only retains the attention of the Chinese, but it also wins an increasing attention from the international community. Unit2 圣诞节是一个被广泛庆祝的文化节日，全世界有许许多多的人在12月25日庆祝这一节日。它是为了纪念耶稣基督的诞辰。该节日最早可追溯到公元336年。渐渐地，这一节日演变为一个既是宗教又是非宗教的节日，越来越多的非基督徒也庆祝圣诞节。如今，圣诞节在全球被作为一个重大的节日和公共假日来庆祝。不同国家的圣诞节风俗也各不相同。现代流行的圣诞接风俗包括交换圣诞贺卡和圣诞礼物、唱圣诞歌曲、参加教堂活动、摆放各种圣诞装饰品和圣诞树、举行家庭聚会以及准备一顿特别的大餐。对小孩子们来说，这个节日充满了幻想和惊喜。据传说，圣诞老人会在圣诞夜从烟囱进入每户人家，给乖巧听话的孩子带来礼物。由于圣诞节送礼物以及许多其他方面推动了基督徒和非基督徒的经济活动，圣诞节也因此成为商家的一个重大活动和主要销售季。 According to the Chinese lunar calendar, August 15 of every year is a traditional Chinese festival-the Mid-Autumn Festival. This day is the middle of autumn, so it is called Mid-Autumn. One of the important Mid-Autumn Festival activities is to enjoy the moon. On that night, people gather together to celebrate the Mid-Autumn Festival, looking up at the bright moon and eating moon cakes. The festival is also a time for family reunion. People living far away from home will express their feelings of missing their hometowns and families at this festival, all expressing people’s love and hope for a happy life. Since 2008, the Mid-Autumn Festival has become an official national holiday in China.
工程建设标准英文版翻译细则 （试行） 为规范工程建设标准英文版的翻译工作，根据《工程建设标准翻译出版工作管理办法》，制定本细则。 1 翻译质量及技术要求 1.1 基本要求 1）工程建设标准的翻译必须忠于原文，并遵守完整、准确、规范、统一的原则。 2）标准的译文应当完整。标准的前引部分、正文部分、补充部分都应全文翻译；脚注、附录、图、表、公式以及相应的文字都应翻译并完整地反映在译文中，不得误译、缺译、漏译、跳译。 3）强制性条文的翻译必须准确无误，译文用黑体字注明。 4）译文的内容、术语应当准确，语法应当恰当，行文流畅。 5）标准中的典型语句、术语、计量单位、专业词汇应当前后统一。 6）标准翻译稿的幅面、版面、格式、字体等应当规范并符合《工程建设标准英文版出版印刷规定》，图表、公式的编号应与原文相一致。
1.2 具体要求 1）数字表达应符合英文表达习惯。 2）标准中的符号、代号、计量单位、公式应直接引用原文，时间、货币、标点符号可按英文惯例翻译或表达。 3）日期按译文语言，应采用公历，按月、日、年顺序排列（例如，December 1,2006）。 4）术语的英文翻译，应以中文版中的英文术语为准。如果中文版中英文术语表达不准确或出现错误，应由翻译人员与编制组共同商议后做出必要修正，并在译文中注明。 5）标准名称应以中文版的英文译名为准。如果中文版标准名称的英文译文不准确，翻译人员可向翻译出版办公室提出书面修改建议。 6）人员的中文姓名译成英文时，采用标准汉语拼音。外籍人员的姓名应按其原姓名或相应的英文姓名表达。地名、团体名、机构名，使用惯用译名。无惯用译名的，可自行翻译，必要时附注原文。 7）法律、法规、规范性文件等名称应采用官方或既定译法，其他文件、著作、文献名称采用既定译法。 8）缩写词首次出现时,应附注全称译文。经前文注释过或意义明确的缩写词，可以在译文中直接使用。 9）译文的章节条款项的编号，应与中文版一致。
各专业课程英文翻译(精心整理) 生物及医学专业课程汉英对照表 应用生物学 Applied Biology 医学技术 Medical Technology 细胞生物学 Cell Biology 医学 Medicine 生物学 Biology 护理麻醉学 Nurse Anesthesia 进化生物学 Evolutionary Biology 口腔外科学 Oral Surgery 海洋生物学 Marine Biology 口腔/牙科科学 Oral/Dental Sciences 微生物学 Microbiology 骨科医学 Osteopathic Medicine 分子生物学 Molecular Biology 耳科学 Otology 医学微生物学 Medical Microbiology 理疗学 Physical Therapy 口腔生物学 Oral Biology 足病医学 Podiatric Medicine 寄生物学 Parasutology 眼科学 Ophthalmology 植物生物学 Plant Physiology 预防医学 Preventive Medicine 心理生物学 Psychobiology 放射学 Radiology 放射生物学 Radiation Biology 康复咨询学 Rehabilitation Counseling 理论生物学 Theoretical Biology 康复护理学 Rehabilitation Nursing 野生生物学 Wildlife Biology 外科护理学 Surgical Nursing 环境生物学 Environmental Biology 治疗学 Therapeutics 运动生物学 Exercise Physiology 畸形学 Teratology 有机体生物学 Organismal Biology 兽医学 Veterinary Sciences 生物统计学 Biometrics 牙科卫生学 Dental Sciences 生物物理学 Biophysics 牙科科学 Dentistry 生物心理学 Biopsychology 皮肤学 Dermatology 生物统计学 Biostatistics 内分泌学 Endocrinology 生物工艺学 Biotechnology 遗传学 Genetics 生物化学 Biological Chemistry 解剖学 Anatomy 生物工程学 Biological Engineering 麻醉学 Anesthesia 生物数学 Biomathematics 临床科学 Clinical Science 生物医学科学 Biomedical Science 临床心理学 Clinical Psychology 细胞生物学和分子生物学 Celluar and Molecular Biology 精神病护理学 Psychiatric Nursing 力学专业 数学分析 Mathematical Analysis 高等代数与几何 Advanced Algebra and Geometry 常微分方程 Ordinary Differential Equation 数学物理方法 Methods in Mathematical Physics 计算方法 Numerical Methods 理论力学 Theoretical Mechanics 材料力学 Mechanics of Materials 弹性力学 Elasticity 流体力学 Fluid Mechanics 力学实验 Experiments in Solid Mechanics 机械制图 Machining Drawing 力学概论 Introduction to Mechanics 气体力学 Gas Dynamics 计算流体力学 Computational Fluid Mechanics 弹性板理论 Theory of Elastic Plates 粘性流体力学 Viscous Fluid Flow 弹性力学变分原理 Variational Principles inElasticity 有限元法 Finite Element Method 塑性力学 Introduction of Plasticity
第二部分 控制理论 第1章 1.1控制系统的引入 人类控制自然力量的设计促进人类历史的发展,我们已经广泛的能利用这种量进行在人类本身力量之外的物理进程?在充满活力的20世纪中,控制系统工程的发展已经使得很多梦想成为了现实?控制系统工程队我们取得的成就贡献巨大?回首过去,控制系统工程主要的贡献在机器人,航天驾驶系统包括成功的实现航天器的软着陆,航空飞机自动驾驶与自动控制,船舶与潜水艇控制系统,水翼船?气垫船?高速铁路自动控制系统,现代铁路控制系统? 以上这些类型的控制控制系统和日常生活联系紧密,控制系统是一系列相关的原件在系统运行的基础上相互关联的构成的,此外控制系统存在无人状态下的运行,如飞机自控驾驶,汽车的巡航控制系统?对于控制系统,特别是工业控制系统,我们通常面对的是一系列的器件,自动控制是一个复合型的学科?控制工程师的工作需要具有力学,电子学,机械电子,流体力学,结构学,无料的各方面的知识?计算机在控制策略的执行中具有广泛的应用,并且控制工程的需求带动了信息技术的与软件工程的发展? 通常控制系统的范畴包括开环控制系统与闭环控制系统,两种系统的区别在于是否在系统中加入了闭环反馈装置? 开环控制系统 开环控制系统控制硬件形式很简单,图2.1描述了一个单容液位控制系统, 图2.1单容液位控制系统 我们的控制目标是保持容器的液位h 在水流出流量V 1变化的情况下保持在一定 可接受的范围内,可以通过调节入口流量V 2实现?这个系统不是精确的系统,本系 统无法精确地检测输出流量V 2,输入流量V 1以及容器液位高度?图2.2描述了这 个系统存在的输入(期望的液位)与输出(实际液位)之间的简单关系, 图2.2液位控制系统框图 这种信号流之间的物理关系的描述称为框图?箭头用来描述输入进入系统,以及
Unit1 1. 背离传统需要极大的勇气。(departure, enormous) {It takes an enormous amount of courage to make a departure from the tradition.} 2. 汤姆过去很腼腆，但这次却非常勇敢能在大庭广众面前上台表演了。(performance, bold) {Tom used to be very shy, but this time he was bold enough to give a performance in front of a large audience.} 3. 很多教育家认为从小培养孩子的创新精神是很可取的。 (creative, desirable) {Many educators think it desirable to foster the creative spirit in the child at an early age.} 4. 假设（assume）那幅画确实是名作（masterpiece），你觉得值得购买吗？(worthwhile) {Assuming (that) this painting really is a masterpiece, do you think it's worthwhile to buy / purchase it?} 5. 如果这些数据统计上是站得住脚的，那它将会帮助我们认识正在调查的问题。(throw light on , investigate, valid) {If the data is statistically valid, it will throw light on the problem we are investigating.} Unit2 1) 该公司否认其捐款有商业目的。(deny, commercial) {The company denied that its donations had a commercial purpose.} 2) 每当他生气的时候，他说话就有一点结巴。(stammer) {Whenever he was angry, he would begin to stammer slightly.} 3) 教育是我们家庭最看重的传统，这就是为什么我父母从不带我到昂贵的饭店吃饭，却送我到最好的私立学校上学。(cherish) {Education is the most cherished tradition in our family. That’s why my parents never took me to dinner at expensive restaurants, but sent me to the best private school.} 4) 手术康复后不久，他失业了，因此经历了人生的又一个困难阶段。(shortly after, go through) {Shortly after he recovered from the surgery, he lost his job and thus had to go through another difficult phase of his life.} 5) 与我们的富裕邻居相比，我们的父母就相当穷了，但是他们总是努力满足我们最起码的需求。(affluent, minimal) {In contrast to our affluent neighbors, my parents are rather poor, but they have always tried hard to meet our minimal needs.} Unit3 1) 科学家们找到火星上有水的证据了吗？(proof) {Have scientists found proof of water on Mars?} 2) 计划委员会已经将建核电厂的可能地点缩小到了两个沿海城镇。(location, narrow down) {The planning committee has narrowed down the possible locations for the nuclear power plant to two coastal towns.} 3) 任何一个有尊严的人都不会一辈子依靠社会救济过活。(welfare)
大学英语（B）1翻译练习参考译文 1、元宵节是春节后的第一个重要节日。元宵节的习俗在全国各地不尽相同，其 中赏花灯（lanterns exhibits）、猜灯谜、吃元宵等是几项最常见的民间习俗。据说， 吃元宵的习俗起源于汉代，唐宋时期开始盛行。如今，元宵已成为人们的日常饮 食之一，在超市一年四季都可以买到。 The Yuanxiao Festival is the first important festival after the Spring Festival. Although customs of the festival vary from region to region, the most common ones include appreciating lantern exhibits, trying to solve riddles written on lanterns, and eating yuanxiao. It is said that the custom of eating yuanxiao originated from the Han Dynasty and became popular during the Tang and Song periods. Nowadays, yuanxiao has become a food in people’s daily life, which is available in supermarkets a ll the year round. 8、如今，越来越多的大学生抱怨很难找到好的工作。造成这一现象的原因如下： 首先，大学生把在校的大多数时间都用在了专业学科的学习上，只有当他们开始 找工作的时候，才意识到自己缺乏必要的专业培训。其次，大学生之间的竞争也 越来越激烈，这导致任何一名大学生找到工作的机会都变小了。 Nowadays, more and more university students complain about having great difficulties in finding a good job. The reasons f or this phenomenon are as follows: First, college students spend most of their time at school studying academic subjects and it is only when they start looking for a job that they realize they lack necessary job training. Second, competition among graduates has become more and more fierce. And this results in a decreased chance for any individual graduate to find a job. 7、杭州是中国著名的六大古都之一，已有两千多年的历史。这个城市不仅以自 然美闻名于世，而且有着传统的文化魅力。不仅有历代文人墨客（men of letters） 的题咏，而且有美味佳肴和漂亮的工艺品。一般来说，游览杭州西湖及其周边景 点花上两天较为合适。到杭州旅游，既令人愉快，又能得到文化享受。 Hangzhou, one of China’s six ancient capital cities, has a history of more than 2,000 years. It is famous not only for its natural beauty but also for its charm of cultural traditions. Besides many poems and inscriptions by men of letters through the dynasties, it also boasts local delicacies and pretty handicrafts. Generally speaking, a two-day tour of West Lake and scenic spots around it is advisable for a tourist. As a tourist, you will find it a pleasant and culturally rewarding trip to Hangzhou. 6、说到中国古代的科技文明（civilization），人们自然就会想到“四大发明”，即 指南针、火药、造纸术和印刷术。这四种发明是古代先进科技的象征，具有重大 的历史意义。它们对中国古代政治、经济、文化的发展产生了巨大的推动作用， 也对世界的文明进程产生了巨大影响。 Speaking of ancient Chinese civilization in science and technology, people will naturally think of the Four Great Inventions, namely the compass, gunpowder, paper-making and printing. These four inventions are symbols of ancient China’s
英语专八考试翻译评分标准 英译汉评分标准：按照“忠实60% + 通顺40%”的标准整体打分 优秀 （100-90）良好（89-90）中等（79-70）及格（69-60） 不及格（59分 以下） 忠实60% 原文的信息全 部传达，语气 和文体风格与 原文一致 除个别次要信息有 疏漏之外，原文的 重要信息全部传 达，语气和文体风 格与原文一致 有少量理解错误 或个别漏译，但主 要精神与原文一 致 有个别重大错误或 遗漏，部分信息含 混，但总体上基本 达意 误译、漏译较 多，不能传达 原文主要精神 通顺40% 断句恰当，句 式正确。选词 妥帖。段落之 间、句子之间 互应自然，有 一定文采 选词较正确、得体。 句子组织与安排符 合汉语规范 拘泥于英文的句 式，行文不够顺 达，但没有重大的 选词和句式错误 语句不够连贯，行 文灰色，有个别重 大的选词和句式错 误 用词不当，行 文不通顺，语 言不符合汉语 规范 汉译英评分标准：按照“忠实60% + 通顺40%”的标准整体打分 优秀（100-90）良好（89-90）中等（79-70）及格（69-60）不及格（59分以下） 忠实60% 原文的信息全部 传达，语气和文 体风格与原文一 致 除个别次要信息 有疏漏之外，原文 的重要信息全部 传达，语气和文体 风格与原文一致 有少量理解错 误或个别漏译， 但主要精神与 原文一致 有个别重大错 误或遗漏，部分 信息含混，但总 体上基本达意 误译、漏译较 多，不能传达 原文主要精 神 通顺40% 句式处理恰当， 选词妥帖，英语 比较地道 语言基本合乎英 语规范。行文比较 流畅 有个别句子结 构错误和词不 达意现象。行文 不够流畅 有逐字硬译，不 符合英语表达 习惯的现象。句 子不连贯，比较 费解 有大量的语 法和用词错 误。1/3以上 的句子生搬 硬套，不知所 云
新视野大学英语翻译答案 Unit 1 一. 汉译英 1.对于网络课程，学生不仅可以选择何时何地学习，在回答问题 之前他们还可以有时间思考答案。 Not only can students choose when and where to learn for an online course, but they can also take time to think through answers before making a reply. 2.网上学习的想法使她非常兴奋，而他认为网上学习毫无疑义和 用处。 She is excited by the idea of online learning while be considers it meaningless and useless. 3.与以英语为母语的人交谈是非常有益的体验，从中我们能学到 许多东西。 Communicating with native English speakers is a very rewarding experience from which we can learn a lot. 4.如今，越来越多的人可以利用互联网查找他们需要的信息。 Today, more and more people have access to the Internet through which they look for the information they need. 5.他要她放弃工作在家照顾孩子，但是她觉得这个要求太过分 了。 He wants her to give up working and stay home to look after the children. She feels, however, that this is too much for her. 6.既然我们已经学完这门课程，就应该多做些复习。 Now that we have finished the course, we shall start doing more revision work. 二. 英译汉 1.I’ll never forget the teacher who showed me that learning a foreign language could be fun and rewarding. Were it not for him, I would not be able to speak English as well as I do now. 我永远都不会忘记那位老师，是他告诉我学外语是有趣的、有 价值的。如果没有他，我的英语说得不会像现在这样好。 2.No other language lets you experience the cultures of the world like English. With a strong knowledge of the English language, you can have wonderful cultural adventures