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分子生物学英文文献

分子生物学英文文献
分子生物学英文文献

Mobile Genetic Elements 2:6, 267-271; November/December, 2012; ? 2012 Landes Bioscience

LETTER TO THE EDITOR

LETTER TO THE EDITOR

GAA repeats were shown to be the most unstable trinucleotide repeats in the pri-mates genome evolution by comparison of orthologous human and chimp loci.2 The instability of the GAA repeat in the first intron of the frataxin gene X25 is particu-larly well studied since it causes an inher-ited disorder, Friedreich ataxia (FRDA).3-6 I n Friedreich ataxia, once the length of the GAA repeat inside the frataxin gene (FXN GAA) reaches a certain threshold, the combined probability of its expan-sions and deletions in progeny of affected parents is about 85%.7 Deletions and con-tractions of the repeat in intergenerational transmissions can reach hundreds of base pairs.7 However, the FXN GAA repeat is much more stable in somatic cells.8 I t is relatively stable in blood, but shows some instability in dorsal root ganglia,9 which is responsible for some of the neurodegen-erative symptoms of Friedreich ataxia.5 GAA repeats were shown to be stable in FRDA fibroblasts cell lines and neuronal stem cells.10

The question why the FXN GAA repeat is so much more stable in somatic cells than in intergenerational transmis-sions remains open. Recent studies in FRDA iPSCs that are closer to embryonic cells than somatic cells models, showed expansions of the GAA repeat with 100% probability.10,11 It is intriguing that all cells Complexes between two GAA repeats within DNA introduced into Cos-1 cells

Maria M. Krasilnikova

Pennsylvania State University; University Park, PA USA

Keywords: replication, GAA repeat, Friedreich ataxia, genome instability, chromatin

Correspondence to: Maria M. Krasilnikova; Email: muk19@https://www.doczj.com/doc/cf10545807.html, Submitted: 10/08/12; Revised: 12/09/12; Accepted: 12/10/12https://www.doczj.com/doc/cf10545807.html,/10.4161/mge.23194in the iPSC cell lines that were analyzed were synchronously adding about two GAA repeats in each replication.

The studies focused on the FXN GAA repeat provided many valuable insights; however, human genome contains many other GAA repeats: the human X chro-mosome, for instance, contains 44 GAA stretches with more than 100 repeats in each. About 30 GAA repeats were detected on the chromosome 4.12 GAA repeats mostly originated from the 3' end of the poly A associated with Alu elements.13

I t is not known what makes repeats with the GAA motif most unstable com-pared with other trinucleotide repeats. It is possible that GAA repeats instability is caused by their ability to form non-B DNA structures. In vitro, GAA repeats can form triplexes,14,15 and sticky DNA structures.16 At the same time, hairpins 17 and paral-lel duplexes 18 have also been observed. When transcription is going through a GAA repeat, it can also form an R-loop, a DNA-RNA complex that leaves one of the complementary strands single-stranded.19 However, it is unclear whether these struc-tures indeed form in mammalian cells. If we assume that the instability of the GAA repeat is indeed associated with the struc-ture formation, it is still unclear why the structures would form in early embryo-genesis when the GAA expansion event in Friedriech ataxia is believed to occur,7 and do not form in somatic cells where the GAA repeat was shown to be more stable. I n our recent study, we hypothesize that the differences in chromatin structure are at least partially responsible for the differ-ences in the GAA repeats stability.1

The propensity of GAA repeat to form a triplex structure may strongly depend on the structure of chromatin at the repeat and surrounding area.1 Consistent with other studies, we observed that formation of chromatin at an SV40-based plasmid introduced into mammalian cells occurs gradually: 8 h after transfection there are only occasional nucleosomes at the plas-mid, while by 72 h the nucleosome struc-ture is already regular.20 Our analysis of replication stalling at the repeat revealed that the repeat affects replication only in the first replication cycle, when chromatin is still at the formation stage. We believe that replication stalling at GAA is caused by a triplex structure that the GAA repeat adopts during transfection or inside the cell. In the subsequent replication cycles, replication was completely unaffected by the presence of the repeat, which is likely to be due to the inhibition of triplex for-mation by tight chromatin packaging.1

Here we show the data that strengthen our previous observations and extend it to one more structure: a complex between

We have recently shown that GAA repeats severely impede replication elongation during the first replication cycle of transfected DNA wherein the chromatin is still at the formation stage.1 Here we extend this study by showing that two GAA repeats located within the same plasmid in the direct orientation can form complexes upon transient transfection of mammalian Cos-1 cells. However, these complexes do not form in DNA that went through several replication rounds in mammalian cells. We suggest that formation of such complexes in mammalian genomes can contribute to genomic instability.

We studied replication of several SV40-based plasmids that contained two (GAA)57 repeats located at different posi-tions in Cos-1 cells (Figs. 1–3). I n each case, the cells were transiently transfected with 1 μg of each plasmid, and replication intermediates were isolated after about 30 h. This allowed us to observe replica-tion arcs that resulted from the plasmids that replicated for more than two rounds. However, some residual amount of the first replication cycle arcs can also be registered. Replication stalling at GAA repeats only occurs during the first repli-cation cycle of an SV40-based plasmid,1 hence we did not observe it in our system.For each of the plasmids, and for all patterns of restriction digests that we studied, we observed complexes between the two (GAA)57 repeats (indicated by red arrows in each of the figures). The migration of those complexes was differ-ent depending on the digest pattern, so the complexes were at different positions in 2D gel patterns, in agreement with our expectations based on their shapes.

We did not observe replication stalling associated with these complexes. When this complex is formed, it migrates signifi-cantly slower on 2D gels; the replication of plasmids that contain such complexes should result in an extra replication arc originating from the complex position. However, the number of molecules that form this complex is significantly lower than the overall number of plasmids, and there may be not enough material to observe their replication.

For the situation when the two GAA repeats were located in two different frag-ments upon PvuI digest (Fig. 1), we showed that the spot 3 (Fig. 1D ) (also indicated by an arrow in Fig. 1A ) con-tains both fragments: the spot hybridized to the probes corresponding to either of them (Fig. 1A and B ). However, the com-plex appears at the position that migrates slower than unreplicated plasmid in the second dimension upon AflI I I and ScaI digest when both repeats belong to the same fragment (Fig. 2). We suggest that this fragment contains a loop generated by the interaction between the two GAA repeats (Fig. 2C ) that slows it down in the second dimension, and has little effect on the mobility in the first dimension since

The method of two-dimensional elec-trophoresis 22,23 allowed us to analyze the replication progression through a DNA fragment containing two GAA repeats. In this method, the replication intermediates are isolated under non-denaturing condi-tions, digested by a restriction enzyme, and separated on two consecutive gel runs in perpendicular directions. The first direction runs in 0.4% agarose (that separates mostly by mass), and the second direction runs in 1% agarose (that sepa-rates by both mass and shape of a DNA molecule).

two GAA stretches. Two GAA repeats has been shown to readily form complexes, such as “sticky DNA,” in vitro,16 but it is not obvious whether it can also form inside the mammalian cells. The sticky DNA requires more than one GAA stretch to form.21 We studied the interaction of two GAA repeats located within the same plas-mid, but since the human genome contains at least several hundreds of long GAA motif repeats,12,13 this structure can theoretically form in the genomic environment as well. However, more experiments are needed to detect its formation in genome.

Figure 1. A complex between two (GAA)57 repeats within the same plasmid. Plasmid replication intermediates were isolated from Cos-1 cells 30 h after transient transfection. Intermediates were digested by restriction enzymes indicated in the plasmid maps, and separated by two-dimension-al neutral-neutral agarose gel electrophoresis as described previously.1 The gel was transferred to a nylon membrane and hybridized to one of the probes indicated in the plasmid maps as green lines. A position of the complex at the 2D gel pattern depends on the restriction digest of the replication intermediates (indicated by a red arrow). (A ) Two-dimensional electrophoresis of replication intermediates digested by PvuII that places each repeat within a separate fragment. The membrane was hybridized with probe 1 indicated in (C ). The names of the plasmids GAAGAA, GAACTT, etc., reflect the orientation of the GAA repeats within the plasmid (GAAGAA means that the two GAA stretches are in the direct orientation). (B ) The same membrane was stripped of probe 1, and re-hybridized with probe 2 (C ). (C ) The scheme of the plasmid that was used in the experiment in (A and B ). Two different fragments that resulted from the PvuII digest are shown in red and blue. The positions of GAA repeats are shown in black. They can be in the direct or the reverse orientations in this plasmid. (D ) The scheme of the 2D gel in (A ). Spot 1: unreplicated blue fragment, spot 2: unreplicated red fragment that appears because of the cross-contamination of probe 1 with probe 2 due to their preparation from the same plasmid with a restriction digest. Spot 3: a complex between the red and the blue fragments. Spikes 3-2 and 3-4 may result from double-stranded breaks in the plasmid during transfection that make one of the arms of the complex in spot 3 shorter.

it has the same mass as the unreplicated fragment.

The complexes formed only when the two GAA stretches were positioned on a plasmid as direct repeats (GAAGAA and CTTCTT in the plasmid names). The inverted repeats GAACTT and CTTGAA did not form complexes as shown in Figures 1 and 2. This is in agreement with the sticky DNA formation in supercoiled plasmids containing two GAA repeats that has been previously shown in vitro.16 In sticky DNA, the two GAA strands that are in the antiparallel orientation, and the CTT strand, form a stable complex stabilized by Mg2+-dependent reverse-Hoogsteen triads. However, the sticky DNA complex fell apart upon heating in the presence of EDTA, which removes the Mg2+ ions necessary for its stability,16 while we did not detect any changes in spot 3 upon heating the intermediates with EDTA (Fig. 3B). We suggest that in our case the complex may be different from the canonical sticky DNA. It may be based on Hoogsteen base pairing where the Mg2+ is not needed and a slightly acidic pH has a stabilizing effect.24 It has been shown that this type of structure forms within long GAA stretches in vitro even at a pH that is close to neutral.15 We also cannot exclude that the complexes are hemicatenated molecules connected at GAA repeats with Watson-Crick pairing.25

The complexes between the two GAA repeats persisted only until the plasmids went through one replication round. DpnI restriction enzyme is a frequent-cutter that digests all DNA that contains strands syn-thesized in bacteria: it cleaves DNA that is methylated at GATC by dam methyl-ase, which is only present in bacteria, but not in mammalian cells. Extensive DpnI digest that we performed, cleaved the ini-tial DNA used in transfection, as well as the products of the first replication cycle

A complex between the two repeats within the same fragment slow down its progres-sion in the second dimension of the 2D gel. The same plasmid as in the Figure 1 was used in this experiment, however, they were digested with different enzymes. (A) Replication intermediates were digested with AflIII and ScaI, placing both repeats within the same fragment. The complex of two GAA repeats results in a slowly migrating structure that is shown by a red arrow. (B) A map of the digest of the same plasmid as in Figure 1 with restriction enzymes ScaI and AflIII. Here both of the repeats are located within the same fragment shown in blue. (C) The scheme of the 2D gel in . Spots 1 and 2 are the same as in Figure 1D. Spot 3: a looped intermediate that resulted from the interaction of the two GAA repeats.

A complex between the two GAA repeats does not form in plasmids that went through more than two replication rounds in mammalian

cells. Two-dimensional gels of replication intermediates of a plasmid containing two (GAA)

57 repeats were obtained as described in the Figure 1

) Two-dimensional gel of replication intermediates digested by AflIII (placing the two repeats at two different fragments). A red arrow indi-cates the position of the complex between the two GAA-containing fragments. (B) The same replication intermediates were incubated at 80°C in the presence of 10 mM EDTA for 10 min; the pattern of the 2D gel did not change. (C) The same intermediates were additionally digested with

10 units of DpnI for 2 h prior to loading. The spot at the position indicated by an arrow in Figure 1 A is not present in this picture. An additional spot that appeared in this pattern is likely not a part of the pattern, and is probably due to some contamination. (D) A map of the plasmid that was used in

Figure 1A and B. Spot 1, unreplicated blue fragment; spot 2, unreplicated red fragment (which appeared due to contamination of probe 1 with other plasmid sequences). Spot 3, a complex between the blue and the red fragments. A very faint duplicate Y arc from replication of the second fragment originates from spot 2. The spikes originating from spot 3 can be interpreted the same way as

11. Ku S, Soragni E, Campau E, Thomas EA, Altun G, Laurent LC, et al. Friedreich’s ataxia induced plu-ripotent stem cells model intergenerational GAA·TTC triplet repeat instability. Cell Stem Cell 2010; 7:631-7; PM I D:21040903; https://www.doczj.com/doc/cf10545807.html,/10.1016/j.stem.2010.09.014.12. Siedlaczck I , Epplen C, Riess O, Epplen JT. Simple repetitive (GAA)n loci in the human genome. Electrophoresis 1993; 14:973-7; PM I D:7907288; https://www.doczj.com/doc/cf10545807.html,/10.1002/elps.11501401155.13. Chauhan C, Dash D, Grover D, Rajamani J, Mukerji

M. Origin and instability of GAA repeats: insights from

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14. Gacy AM, Goellner GM, Spiro C, Chen X, Gupta G, Bradbury EM, et al. GAA instability in Friedreich’s

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Length-dependent structure formation in Friedreich ataxia (GAA)n*(TTC)n repeats at neutral pH. Nucleic

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K, Pandolfo M, Griffith JD, et al. Sticky DNA: self-association properties of long GAA.TTC repeats in

R.R.Y triplex structures from Friedreich’s ataxia. Mol

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20. Chandok GS, Kapoor KK, Brick RM, Sidorova JM, Krasilnikova MM. A distinct first replication cycle

of DNA introduced in mammalian cells. Nucleic

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21. Sakamoto N, Ohshima K, Montermini L, Pandolfo M, Wells RD. Sticky DNA, a self-associated complex

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intermediates by two-dimensional agarose gel elec-trophoresis. Methods Enzymol 1995; 262:613-27; PM I D:8594382; https://www.doczj.com/doc/cf10545807.html,/10.1016/0076-6879(95)62048-6.

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because they contain one strand synthe-sized in bacteria.

The replication intermediates digested with DpnI did not contain the spot 3, cor-responding to the complex between two GAA stretches (Fig. 3C ). We suggest that the absence of the complex is due to the chromatin coverage of the plasmid that accompanies replication. This is similar to our observation that GAA repeats only block replication during the first replica-tion round, until the chromatin is formed. The replication blockage that we have pre-viously observed is consistent with forma-tion of a triplex that occurs in transfected DNA only prior to nucleosome cover-age.1 Here, the complex between the two (GAA)57 repeats also occurred only with-out the chromatin structure. The absence of the complex in replicated DNA also shows that the complexes that we observe are not an artifact of the isolation and sub-sequent treatment of our intermediates, since then they would exist in at least some fraction of the replicated DNA as well.The question remains whether the non-B DNA structures can form within GAA repeats in mammalian cells since their formation requires DNA stretches that are not folded in chromatin. A win-dow when these complexes can form during development is the spermatogen-esis when the maturing sperm chromatin changes from nucleosome- to protamine-bound assembly.26 Another opportunity to form complexes comes when the chroma-tin of a sperm and an egg restructure after the fusion of the gamets.26,27 This is asso-ciated with degradation of protamines and nucleosome deposition, as the zygote DNA may lack a compact chromatin structure.28 It should be noted that the expansions in Friedreich ataxia were traced to the early divisions of the zygote.7

An opportunity for the complexes to form may also exist in cancer cells. It is known that some regions of their genome are overmethylated and convert in hetero-chromatin, while other regions are under-methylated, which may promote a loose chromatin packaging.29,30

It is not clear whether the two-repeats complexes would compete with triplex structure formation within each individ-ual (GAA)57 repeat. It is possible that both of them exist and contribute to overall

genomic instability. However, a separate study is necessary to determine whether these structures indeed have a biological role.

Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest

No potential conflicts of interest were

disclosed.Acknowledgments This study was supported by NI H grant GM087472, and research grant from Friedreich’s Ataxia Research Alliance to

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M. Sea urchin zygote chromatin exhibit an unfolded nucleosomal array during the first S phase. J Cell Biochem 1995; 59:161-7; PM D:8904310; https://www.doczj.com/doc/cf10545807.html,/10.1002/jcb.240590205.

(完整版)分子生物学试题及答案(整理版)

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答:配体→膜受体→第二信使→效应蛋白→效应。(3)试以肾上腺素、干扰素、胰岛素、心纳素为例,阐述其信息转导过程。 答:①肾上腺素:cAMP-PKA途径; 过程:首先肾上腺素与其受体结合,使G蛋白被激活;然后G蛋白与膜上的腺苷酸环化酶相互作用,后者将ATP转化为cAMP;最后cAMP磷酸化PKA,从而产生一系列生物学效应。 ②胰岛素:受体型TPK途径; 过程:胰岛素与其靶细胞上的受体结合后,可使其受体中的TPK激活,随后通过下游的Ras途径继续传递信号,直至发生相应的生物学效应。 ③干扰素:Jak-STAT途径; 过程:首先干扰素与受体结合导致受体二聚化,然后受体使JAK(细胞内TPK)激活,接着JAK将下游的STAT磷酸化形成二聚体,暴露出入核信号,最后STAT进入核内,调节基因表达,产生生物学效应。 ④心钠素:cGMP-PKG途径; 过程:心钠素与其受体结合,由于该受体属于GC型酶偶联受体,具有鸟苷酸环化酶的的活性,因此结合后可直接将GTP转化为cGMP,进而激活下游的PKG,最终产生一系列的生物学效应。

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2001-2013年武汉大学分子生物学研究生入学考试真题

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修复系统可以造成DNA变异,与这一系统有关的一套基因平时受到一称为 的抑制蛋白所抑制,它发挥抑制作用是结合在一段约20bp长的称为 的DNA序列上,当DNA损伤时,另一种蛋白质称为 把这种抑制蛋白水解后,修复系统的基因才会被激活。 6. 真核细胞中有三种依赖于DNA的RNA聚合酶分别合成不同的RNA,RNA pol I负责合成,RNA pol II负责合成,RNA pol III负责合成。 7. 大分子互相作用是分子生物学的重要内容,包括蛋白质之间、蛋白质与DNA或RNA之间的互相作用,蛋白质有四种重要的结构花式与大分子互相作用有关,这些结构花式是, , 。 8. NO是气体小分子信号,它可由脱氨产生,它的作用方式是直接与 酶作用使产生cGMP(环式GMP)。 9. 真核mRNA的5’ 端通常有帽子结构,3’ 端有polyA。在polyA上游有一保守序列称为polyA信号,其序列为 。polyA能提高mRNA的翻译水平是由于:

(完整word版)医学分子生物学

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分子生物学(英文版)

Chapter 3 Nucleic Acid 1. Physical and chemical structure of DNA ●Double-stranded helix ● Major groove and minor groove ● Base pairing ● The two strands are antiparallel ● G+C content (percent G+C) ● Satellite DNA Satellite DNA consists of highly repetitive DNA and is so called because repetitions of a short DNA sequence tend to produce a different frequency of the nucleotides adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine, and thus have a different density from bulk DNA - such that they form a second or 'satellite' band when genomic DNA is separated on a density gradient. 2. Alternate DNA structure Two bases have been extruded from base stacking at the junction. The white line goes from phosphate to phosphate along the chain. O is shown red, N blue, P yellow and C grey. 3. Circular and superhelical DNA DNA can also form a double-stranded, covalently-closed circle. These circular molecules are often coiled into a superhelix, the formation of which is catalyzed by enzymes called topoisomerases. 4. Denaturation of DNA Denaturation: A transition from the native to the denatured state DNA denaturation: also called DNA melting, is the process by which double-stranded DNA unwinds and separates into single-stranded strands through the breaking of hydrogen bonding between the bases.

分子生物学电子版(修正版)

:小核RNA,只存在于细胞核或者核质核仁中的一类小分子量的RNA,具有独特功能并且独立存在的实体,约为70-300个核苷酸,可参与真核生物的RNA剪接。 :即干扰RNA,一类小分子量的RNA,可以高效,特意地阻断体内同源基因的表达,促使同源mRNA降解,诱使细胞表现出特定的基因缺失。 3.核酶:一类具有催化活性的核糖核酸,呈锤头状,参加RNA的剪切和降解。与RNA酶有显 着区别,它是RNA,后者是蛋白质。 4.反义RNA又称调节RNA,是指能与特定mRNA互补结合的RNA片段,即碱基序列正好与有 意义的mRNA互补的RNA分子。 5三链DNA:是在DNA双螺旋结构基础上形成的,由多聚嘧啶核苷酸或者多聚嘌呤核苷酸与 DNA双螺旋形成的。/由于双螺旋的一股轻微折叠后,该股中的碱基可与双螺旋的碱基以 Hoogsteen氢键相连如TAT、CGC、TAA、CGG。 :即RNAi干扰,siRNA高效特异地阻断体内同源基因表达,促使同源RNA降解,诱使细胞表现出特定基因缺失的表型的现象。 < 7.何谓反义RNA其功能和医学意义如何答:又称为调节RNA,是指能与特定mRNA互补结合 的RNA片段,也即碱基序列与有意义的mRNA互补的RNA分子。功能:a阻断mRNA的翻 译,b抑制DNA复制和mRNA的转录,c选择性的关闭基因。意义:参与基因调控:可用于 基因治疗(病毒、肿瘤); 8什么叫做核酶如何发挥作用有何应用价值答:即一类具有催化活性的核糖核酸。主要催化 RNA的剪接反应和剪切反应。应用意义:通过设计合成特异性切割病毒以及病毒的RNA的 核酶,对病毒和肿瘤的基因治疗将发挥重要作用。 9.何谓RNAi其作用机理和应用前景如何 答::即RNAi干扰,siRNA高效特异地阻断体内同源基因表达,促使同源RNA降解,诱使细胞表现出特定基因缺失的表型的现象。作用机理:分为起始阶段和效应阶段。起始阶段Dicer 酶以依赖ATP的方式切割外源性的双链RNA为小分子干扰RNA,清除病毒,阻断转座子表 达;效应阶段小分子干扰RNA结合核酶复合物形成RNA诱导活化的复合物及RISC,然后RISC 结合至mRNA转录本上并切割它,从而发挥作用。应用前景:大通量研究基因功能的工具; 基因敲除中的应用;用于基因治疗;基因表达的调控。 第二章 1移动基因:又叫转位因子(transposable elements),由于它可以在染色体基因组上移动,甚至可在不同染色体间跃迁,故又称跳跃基因(jumping gene)。 2断裂基因:真核细胞的结构基因,其核苷酸序列中含有与氨基酸编码无关的DNA间隔区段,从而被分割成不连续的若干区域。将这种编码序列不连续,有间隔区段的DNA片断称为断 裂基因 3 RNA剪接:将断裂基因的内含子删除和表达子连接并最终形成成熟mRNA的过程。 ; 4 重叠基因:不同基因的核苷酸序列有时为相邻两个基因共用,将核苷酸彼此重叠的两个基 因称为重叠基因。 5 假基因:在珠蛋白基因簇各片段核苷酸序列分析时发现,除了有正常的功能基因之外,还 有功能失活的特殊序列片段,它不能行使表达功能。该类核苷酸序列中存在的无表达功能的 畸变核苷酸序列片段。 6 卫星DNA:又称随体DNA,不编码蛋白质和转录RNA的小片段高度重复一类小片段DNA序 列,多富含GC碱基在DNA浮力密度实验中会在主峰旁形成些小峰,形似卫星分布而称之。 一般5-10bp短序列,人类为171bp,保护和稳定染色体 7 基因组:表示某物种单倍体的总DNA。对于二倍体高等生物其配子的DNA总和即为一组基 因组不同生物基因组数目不同。

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