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语言学教案资料

语言学教案资料
语言学教案资料

Chapter I Introduction

I What is linguistics?

Definition:Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It implies that linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the languages of all human societies. (Hu Zhuanglin)It tries to answer the basic questions, such as , what is language? What do all languages have in common? How does a child acquire his mother tongue? And many others.

Open the door, please!---to your intimate friend-- linguistic data

Can you open the door? ---to a common people-- linguistic data

Could you open the door? ---to a common people-- linguistic data

Would you mind opening the door? ---to an olderly or respectful person -- linguistic data

Polite principle ---general theories about language

In a word, linguistics studies the general principles upon which all languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in the societies in which they are used. (Hu Zhuanglin).

What the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them, then he formulates some hypothesis about the language structure. Then the hypothesis thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.

Supplementary knowledge:

To make his analysis as scientific as possible, the linguist is usually guided by four principles:

Exhaustiveness:the linguist should gather all the materials relevant to his investigation and give them an adequate explanation.

Consistency: there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.

Economy:the best statements are the shortest possible which can account most fully for all facts.

Objectivity: a linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis of data, allowing no prejudice to influence his generalization.(by Hu Zhuanglin)

II Scope of linguistics

The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.

Major branches of general linguistics:

Phonetics

The branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Articulatory phonetics, acoustic Phonetics, and Auditory Phonetics

Phonology

The branch of linguistics which studies sound patterns of languages. It identifies the set of speech sounds for each language, how they are arranged to form meaningful units, and function of each sound.

Morphology : it studies form of words. It identifies morphemes and looks into the ways the morphemes are arranged to form words.

Syntax: it studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. Semantics: It studies the meaning of language.

Pragmatics: It studies the meaning in the context of language use. Sciolinguistics; psycholinguistics; applied linguistics; etc.

III Some important distinctions in linguistics

①Prescriptive vs. descriptive

Descriptive study is to describe and analyze the language people actually use; e.g. People say/don’t say it. (to describe what the matter is.)

While prescriptive one is to lay down rules for ―correct and standard behavior in using language. e.g. Do/Don’t say it. (to prescribe what the matter should be.)

That the quality of linguistics is scientific shows nowadays study is descriptive.(Hu)

②Synchronic vs. diachronic

The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.

A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.

Most modern linguistic studies are synchronic.

③Speech and writing

④Langue an parole (P5) (by F. de Saussure)

a)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community, while parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.

b)Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.

c)Langue is abstract, it is not the language people actually use.

Parole is concrete ; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.

d)Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.

Parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.

⑤Competence and performance (P5) (by Chomsky)

Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.(P6)

Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not performance. He looks at language from a psychological point of view, and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.

Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.

⑥Traditional grammar and modern linguistics (P6)

Chapter I What Is Language

Part One Definition:

We use language every day. We live in a world of words. Hardly any moment passes without someone talking, writing, or reading. Indeed, language is most essential to mankind. Our lives increasingly depend on fast and successful use of language. What on earth does ―language mean?

He express himself in such a bad language that many misunderstood him.(the concrete act of speaking in a given situation, or expression one uses in speech in a instance)

Shakespeare’s language (idiolect; personal dialect)

Scientific language; formal language (particular variety or level of speech or writing)

He studies language.(the common features of all human languages)

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

(a)system: i.e. elements language are combined according to rules.

(b)Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what

the symbol stands for.

(c)Vocal: The primary medium for all languages is sound. Children acquire

spoken language before they can read or write.

(d)Human: Language is human specific.

Part Two Design features (识别特征)

a) arbitrariness: no connection between meanings and sounds. Different sounds

are used to refer to the same object in different languages.

b) Productivity: creativity One can create sentences he has never heard or

used .

c) Duality: sound and meaning(lower and higher level)

d)Displacement:It can be used to refer to contexts removed from the

immediate situation. It can be used to refer to a wide range of things, free

from barriers caused by separation in time and place.

e)Cultural transmission: It can be passed on from generation to the next

through teaching.

Part Three Functions of language

Phatic交流情感的, Directive指示的,

Informative提供信息的, Interrogative表示疑问的

,Expressive有表现力的, Evocative唤起的,

Performative表述行为的

?Phatic function refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.

Useless as phatic language may appear, its importance is immediately shown if it is omitted.

?When language is used to get the hearer do something, it serves a directive function. Imperative sentence.

?When language is used to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts, or to reason things out, it serves an informative function.

?When language is used to get information from others, it serves an interrogative function. All questions that expect answers.

?The expressive function is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Ejaculation.(突然说出)

?The evocative function is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer.

Joke, advertising and propaganda.

?Language is also used to ―do things‖, to perform actions.this called the performative function. Appropriate.

Part Four Homework

Linguistics is the Scientific study of language.

What forms the core of linguistics?

phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics & pragmatics

Who is the father of modern linguistics? F.de Saussure

Can you tell the differences between traditional grammar & modern linguistics?

What is language?

What the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication?

What functions does the language perform in the following examples?

1 Good heavens! My god! Expressive有表现力的

2 jokes make you laugh. Informative提供信息的

3 I declare the meeting open. Performative表述行为的

4― who takes my pen?‖Interrogative表示疑问的

5 how are you? Phatic交流情感的

What is the function of design features of language?

Can you name the design features of language?

6. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think it acceptable?

1)( A) It is I. (B) It is me.

Y ou think A is acceptable because subject case should be used after me. This is not prescribed by Latin rules.

2) (A) Who did you speak to? (B) Whom did you speak to ?

Y ou should say B is acceptable.

3) (A) I haven’t done anything. (B) I haven’t done nothing.

B is wrong, because double negation shows affirmation.

7. There are many reasons for us to explain the differences between user’s competence and performance in language use, can you give me some?

课后小结

Chapter II Phonology

1)I N T R O D U C T I O N

Speech and writing are the two media or substances used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing.(can you give some examples to illustrate this statement?

Phonic medium of language: is constituted by the limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication

Speech sounds: the individual sounds within the phonic medium of language. They are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in the linguistic communication.

2)D E F I N I T I O N

Phonetics studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their descriptions, classifications and transcriptions.

More explanation: Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language.

To be more specific, it is the scientific which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.

speaker ===========>hearer

Articulatory →acoustic→auditory

The diagram shows:

1. Articulatory Phonetics, from speaker’s point of view, studies how to articulate the speech sounds.

2. auditory Phonetics , from hearer’s point of view, studies how to perceive the speech sounds.

3. acousticPhonetics studies how the sound wave travels through air.

3)O R G A N S O F S P E E C H

The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the pharyngeal cavity, the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.

The pharyngeal cavity: lungs---- windpipe----glottis (part of the larynx)----vocal cords.

The vocal cords may be held together tautly---vibration----voiced consonants and all vowels.

The vocal cords are drawn wide apart----air go through without causing vibration----voiceless consonants.

The oral cavity: this is the most important cavity. Tongue( front, back, blade and tip)---uvula---soft palate(velum)---hard palate---the teeth ridge(alveolus)---teeth---lips The nasal cavity: three nasal consonants [m,n], ɡ]

4)T R A N S C R I P T I O N

Phonetic transcription: is a method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.

The international phonetic association devised the international phonetic alphabet in 1888.

The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages(roman letter, italics, Greek letters) to represent one speech sound.

Diacritics: a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinction than the letters alone may possible do.

Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only. Used in textbooks and dictionaries.

Narrow transcription: transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. Used by phoneticians in the study of speech sounds.

5)C L A S S I F I C A T I O N O F S P E E C H S O U N D S

An initial classification will divide the speech sounds in England into two broad categories: vowels and consonants.

The essential difference between them is that in the production of vowels the air stream coming from the lungs meet no obstruction whatever. In the production of consonants it is obstructed in one way or another.

Consonants can be classified in two ways: in terms of manner of articulation and in terms of place of articulation.

Manner:

Stops ,fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals, glides

Place:

Bilabial, labialdental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, golttal.

Refer to the table on page 20

Q:how many phonetic features can we use to describe a consonant?

V owel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.

The part of raising tongue: front, central& back.

The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, and open.

The shape of lips: unrounded and rounded

The length of the sound: long (tense) vowels and short (lax) vowels

All we have talked is about the monophthongs, which are pure vowels having an unchanging quality.

Diphthongs: or is called a gliding vowel involves a change in quality within the one vowel. It glides from one element to a second element, and usually the first part is more prominent than the second. referring to the table on page 21

S U P P E L M E N T

What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?

Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?

How are the english consonants classified?

What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?

Circle the words that begin with a sound as requried:

(a)a bilabial consonant (b) a velar consonat

Mad sad bad rad pad had lad Nod god god pod rod

(c) a labiodental consonat (d) an alveolar consonant

Rat fat sat mat chat vat pat Nick lick sick tick kick quick

(e) a dental consonant

Lie buy thigh thy tie rye

6)Homework

Do exercises on page 31-32.

Draw two diphthong diagram

课后小结:

Chapter II Phonology

I Phonetics and phonology

Both of them take the speech sound as their object of study.

They differ in their approach and focus.

Phonetics: is of a general nature and studies all the speech sounds used in all human language. Production, phonetic features, classification and transcription. Phonology: is language specific. How speech sounds in one language form pattern and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in communication. (examples: P.23)

e.g.[l] in the word leap[li:p] and peel[pi:l] is pronounced differently, which is phoneticians are interested in. The former one is called clear [l] while the latter one is called dark [l].

The clear [l] is used before a vowel, such as loaf, while the dark [l] is used at the end of a word after a vowel or before a consonant, such as tell, quilt. This is a phonological conclusion.

I I P h o n e,P h o n e m e,A l l o p h o n e

Phone: is a phonetic unit or segment. All the speech sounds we hear and produce in a communication are all phones. (narrow p23) a phone does not distinguish meaning.

e.g. [p], [p h], [i:], [l], [l~], [l︹],[f], [t], [s]

Phoneme: is a phonological unit. It can distinguish meanings.( bad & dad). It is an abstract unit. It is not a concrete sound, but be realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (example2)

e.g.The above phones can be grouped into these phonemes: [p], [i:], [l],[f], [t], [s] Allophone: the different sounds which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of the phoneme. The different realizations of one phoneme in different phonetic context. (example3)

e.g. 1. [p] and [p h] are the allophones of the phoneme [p]

2.[l], [l~] and [l︹] are the allophones of the phoneme [l]

III Phonemic Contrast, Complementary Distribution, Minimal Pair

1. If the similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast,e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit], [r?up] and [r?ub]

2. All the allophones of the same phoneme [l] ( [l], [l~] and [l︹]) complement each other in distribution (in different phonetic environments), the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution

3. If subsituting one sound for another can result in a change of meaning, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.

e.g. pill & kill; pill & till; till & kill; kill & dill; dill & gill --- a minimal pair

All these sound combinations constitute a minimal set.

e.g. pill, kill, till, dill & gill--- a minimal set

beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat --- a minimal set

I V P h o n o l o g i c R u l e s

Sequential rules: there are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called sequential rules.

P 26: examples and two S-rules.

Assimilation rule: the assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by ―copying ‖a feature of a squential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.

If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is REGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION

The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is PROGRESSIVE ASSIMILA TION.

Deletion rule: tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.

Sign, design, paradigm. Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant

V S u p r a-s e g m e n t a l F e a t u r e s

Supra-segmental: the phonological properties of units larger than the segment—phoneme, such as the syllable, word and sentence. And the study of these phonological properties of units is called supra-segmental phonology. And the principal supra-segmental features usually include stress, length, pitch and concurrent patterns of three are collectively known as intonation.

Stress: one kind of supra-segmental features, for which, the smallest unit of application is syllable. When we say a certain syllable is stressed, we mean it’s pronounced with a relatively greater amount of energy. The stressed syllable sounds louder than the unstressed.

Two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress.

The location of stress in English distinguishing meaning. This is showed in the following ways:

1. The shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word. (noun---verb)

Referring to examples on p. 29.

2 to English compounds, the stress of the word always falls on the first element. But to the noun phrase, the stress falls on the central noun.

Blackbird, black bird;

3 Two kinds of combination of –ing and nouns. One is the –ing form serves as a modifier of the noun.: dining- room. The stress falls on the first syllable.

The other type of –ing + noun combinations, the noun is actually the doer of the action indicated by the – ing form. Sleeping—baby. For these combinations, the primary stress falls on the head noun.

Sentence stress: in the sentence, the parts of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns.

To give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in a sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed.

Tone(音高): is also called pitch variation, which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes; the tone is a supra-segmental feature. The meaning-distinction function is important in tone language(声调),such as Chinese.

Intonation: is the combination of pitch stress and length variations.

English has four basic types of intonation. The falling one, the rising one, the fall-rising one and the rise- fall one.

Different tones can make the same consequence of words may have different meanings.

That’s not the book he wants. falling one--fact

That’s not the book he wants. rising one—question, uncertainty

That’s not the book he wants. fall-rising—implies there is some other book he wants

Y ou are a student. falling one--fact

Y ou are a student. rising one—question, uncertainty

Y ou are a student. fall-rising—implies surprise from the age, phisical appearance or way of behaviour

I can’t eat anything. falling one—fact—I can eat nothing.

I can’t eat anything. fall-rising---implies there are particular things that I can eat.

Intonation has four grammatical functions:

1 indicating different sentence types by pitch direction.(falling tone---statement, rising tone- interrogative)

2 indicating different connotative meaning.e.g. I can not eat anything. (falling–nothing; rising- some certain thing.)

3 imposing different structure on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units.(those who bought quickly made a profit.)

4 bring parts of a sentence into prominence by placing the nucleus on the syllable concerned.(John likes fish.)

VI 作业、讨论题、思考题

?1 Define the following terms:

?Allophone phoneme minimal pair complementary distribution suprasegmental

?2 Answer the following questions:

?How is a phoneme different from a speech sound?

?What are the grammatical functions of intonation?

课后小结:

Chapter Three Morphology

I Definition of Morphology

MORPHOLOGY: refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.

MORPHOLOGY is generally divided into two fields: the study of INFLECTIONS (also called inflectional morphology) and of WORD- FORMA TION (also called lexical or derivational morphology).

MORPHEMES

MORPHEME: the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.

For instance: ―barks‖ consists of two morphemes in orthographic forms: ―bark‖ and ―-s‖, neither of which can be further divided into other smaller meaningful units.

Undesirability: un---desire---able---ity

Words may consist of one morpheme or more than one morphemes.

II Classificaton of words

1)Content words and functional words

All the nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are the content words; while the other categories including conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns are functional or grammatical words.

2.Open class words and close class words (开放性词类和封闭性词类)

Open class words:is also called ―content words‖. It includes: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. They make up the largest part of the vocabulary and new members are added with the development of the society.

Beatnik, 新新人类, 中巴, 挺英雄的,etc. are added to this group with the development of the society.

Closed class words: is also called ―grammatical or functional words‖. It includes: conjunction, preposition, articles and pronouns. They are relatively few words and now members are not usually added.

Some people wanted to use ―e‖to replace ―he‖or ―she‖in order to avoid sex discrimination, but failed.

3) Variable and Invarialble words

Variable words are the words containing inflective endings, where one could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; and part of the word remains relatively constant, thus each ordered series constitutes a paradigm.

e.g. follow; follows, following, and followed; so follow is a variable word. Invariable words don’t have inflective endings,

e.g. since, before, although, hello, and please etc.

I I I.D e r i v a t i o n a l&I n f l e c t i o n a l All morphemes are divided into two main types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.

A free morpheme is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as ―bed‖, ―tree‖, ―sing‖ and ―dance‖.

A bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as ―-s‖in ―dogs‖, ―-al‖ in ―national‖.-----affix

Affix is the collective term for the type of formation that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Naturally, affixes belong to the type of ―bound‖ morpheme.

Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into inflectional and derivational types. For instance,

inflectional derivational

●walk-s sleep-y--suffix

●walk-ing nation-al--suffix

●star-s amaze-ment--suffix

●watch-ed dis-order—prefix

●boy-’s Multi-media—prefix

●to drive Affectionate--suffix

●it is wet today Alcoholic--suffix

●has noticed Computerize--suffix

●Intercollegiate—prefix

●Telecommute—prefix

●Physician--suffix

●American--suffix

A root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. It is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.

A root can be either free morpheme (black in blackboard, blackbird and blacksmith) or bound morpheme (-ceive in perceive, receive and conceive).

Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of INFLECTIONS and of DERIVATION.

INFLECTION is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.

E.g. table/ tables; apples/ apples; talk/ talks/talking/talk ed; boy/boy’s.

DERIVA TION refers to the processes of word variations signalling lexical relationships. It can be divided into two sub-types also.

IV Morphological rules

The ways words are formed are called Morphological rules.

adj.-→adj.(v. -→adj) un—accept—able

adj.-→adj.(v. -→adj) un—think—able

adj.-→adj.(v. -→adj) un—decide—d

adj.-→adj.(v. -→adj) un—simplifi—ed

×adj.-→adj.(adj) un—sad

×adj.-→adj.(adj) un—brave

So ―un—‖ is not productive.

adj.-→n. sincere-→sincerity

adj.-→n. scarce-→scarecity

adj.-→n. ferocious-→ferocity

×adj.-→n. fierce-→fiercity

√adj.-→n. fierce-→fiercenes s

V. Ways of Word Formation

Compounding e.g. manhandle, sleepwalk

Derivation e.g. childless, colorful

Conversion e.g. to dirty, a buy

Backformation e.g. emote, edit

Clipping e.g. prof, ad

Blending e.g.motel, smog

Acronym e.g. CALT, W AR

Initialism e.g. CIA

(to be discussed in Chapter 7)

VI作业、讨论题、思考题

Do Exercise on page 40-41

Break up each of the following words into its parts and put the morphemes correctly in one of the columns:

free bound inflectional derivational

Pauperize ____ _____ ______

Buyers _____ ______ ______

Disenchanted_____ ______ ______

Reassuringly _____ _____ ______

Chapter Four S y n t a x(1)

1.W h a t i s s y n t a x

(1)Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. Although we have many syntactic theories, we here only study the simplest and most fundamental

one------transformational rule because it is the best known approach in syntactic analysis and because it is the most basic one.

(Definition on page 42.)

(2) Traditionally, a sentence is seen as a sequence of words. The study of sentence of formation involves a great deal of the study of the word, such as, the classification of words in terms of part of speech, the identification of functions of words in terms of subject, predicate, etc. and the simple rules that govern the organization of these categories into larger structural units. 2.C A T E G O R I E S

(1) Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun or a verb. These parts of speech and functions are sometimes called categories. The term category is also more specifically used for the defining properties of units like noun and verb, for example, the type of meaning that words express, the type of affixes that they take, and the type of structures in which they can occur. For example, the noun is usually said to have the categories of number, gender, case; and the verb the categories of tense, aspect, voice.

(2) Words in human languages is that they can be grouped into a relatively small number of classes, called SYNTACTIC CA TEGORIES. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories. In traditional grammar only about eight categories, but in modern theories, people added such non-traditional categories as determiner (Det), degree words (Deg) and qualifier (Qual).

The word level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built. (noun, verb, adjective and

preposition) and minor lexical categories (determiner, degree word, qualifier, auxiliary and

A word’s syntactic category is identified by its meaning, inflection and distribution. Referring to the book on page 44.

3. Phrase categories and their structures

(1) Phrases are syntactic units that are built around a certain word category (central element of a phrase). The category of a phrase is determined by the central word’s category: be aware of (adj. phrase)/ know about (verb phrase). And four mostly discussed phrasal categories are: The pretty girl (NP) often dream (VP)

V ery beautiful (AP) mainly about (PP)

(2) Phrases are formed either by one word or by more than one element. Whether formed of one or more than one word, they consist of two levels, phrase level and word level (On page 45.)

(3) Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head (中心成分the word around which a phrase is formed), specifier (标志成分words on the left side of the heads function as) and complement (补足成分words on the right side of the heads). THIS PART WILL BE DISCUSSED DETAILEDLY IN THE LA TER PART.

4.P h r a s e S t r u c t u r e R u l e

(1) Phrase structure rule is such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up phrase. (Examples on page 46)

(2) What is XP rule?

XP can be different phrases, because X stands for the head N,V,A or P.

XP→ (SPE) X (COMP) (双层结构)

XP Rule:其中的X可以表示任何的词类(N V ADJ ADV)

XP

Specifier Head Complement

XP → (Specifier) X (Complement)

(3) What is X- theory? When the head and complement form another intermediate level, which is called X-. It can be further grouped into HEAD & COMPLEMENT.

XP → (SPE) x-

x- → x (complement)(三层结构树形图)

It is common practice to eliminate the intermediate level of phrase structure in most published words unless it is absolutely essential to the point being discussed.

X ̄Theory:当短语中的HEAD 和Complement 共同组成一个介于词汇和短语之间的结构,这个结构被称作Xˉ.因此,XP 就变为两层了。

XP

Specifier X (Head) Complement

5. Coordination rule (P48)

(1 ) Coordination exhibits four important properties

(2) XP → X * Con X

5.作业、讨论题、思考题:

Revision exercises on page 64,1-2.

课后小结:

Chapter Four S y n t a x(I I)

I L i n e a r o r d e r a n d h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e;

1 The dog hit John.

John hit the dog.

John the dog hit.

英语中句子成分顺序的改变会引起意义的改变,所以句子成分的顺序是很重要的。

2. 句子是几个不同的而又相互连贯的部分组成的,这些组成成分(constitutes)又是具有意义的独立的小部分。

The company wanted a new advertising campaign.

组成成分之间既是线性的,又是有层次的。

Business executives eat at really fancy restaurant. (画线或括号表示)

我们也可以用树形图表示(tree diagram)

We can show ambiguities clearly by drawing tree diagram.

We can attach labels to bring out ambiguities by drawing tree diagram.

I I P a r t s o f s p e e c h a n d s y n t a c t i c c a t e g o r y

1. 在传统语法中,英语词汇有十大词类(Parts of speech).

2. Syntactic category: a word’s distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.

能在句子中起到相同作用的词构成相同的句法范畴(NP n,VP v,AP a,ADP adv,DET,PP p,S,PRONOUN,Coordinating conjunctions)

NP: (John found ) the ball / Mary / mailman / it / most dogs / many Americans / a huge loveable bear / a student from Brazil / the table in the corner / the people that we interviewed / Bill and his dog;

VP: run; like Mary; give a prize to John; believe that dogs are smart; want to go; sleep soundly; can lift 100 pounds; is wearing sunglasses; go home and have a beer, is smart AP: smart, very fat; more clever than Tom; certain to win; as crazy as John;

ADP: soundly; as fluently as John

DET: the ,a , these, his, every, much, little, three, five

S 这个句法范畴中可以包括名词短语和动词短语等句法范畴,但S 也可以成为别的句法范畴的一部分。

the fact that it is raining (NP)

discover that it is raining (VP)

glad that it is raining (AP)

(I wonder) if it is raining (ADP)

(I would go) though it is raining (ADP)

这种包含在其他句法范畴中的句子,称作embedded sentence ,我们可以把上面的树形图表示成标明句法范畴的树形图,这种树形图又称作labeled tree diagram.

III作业、讨论题、思考题

请把下面的句子用有标记的树形图表示出来:

1. the child found the puppy.

2. A woman found a cake in the cupboard.

3. Preview Transformaton, Deep Structure and Surface Structure

Chapter Four S y n t a x(I I I)

I Revision

Since we have learned a lot of linguistic knowledge, now let’s check whether we have already grasped them, or see whether English linguistics is useful.

Take a student’s graduation paper for an example:

―This thesis is through metaphor…… to discuss the literature context‖-----

―This thesis is exploring into the literature context by analyzing metaphors in the novel.‖

Comments: In fact, these students do not make up sentences one after another. They do not express their ideas one after another. They just cram all the lexical items and ideas in a bag for the teachers to choose. T eachers often find it a really difficult and big task to arrange the lexical items and ideas for the students. So, to cut it short, teachers have to ask them to rewrite the whole essay.

English linguistics is very helpful for us to use the language correctly.

More examples:

Coordination rule seems very simple. But students still make many mistakes.

―can control and the adjustment own individuality effectively.‖---

―They can control and adjust their own individuality effectively.‖

―The psychologically healthy loves life deeply, can feel happy sincerely and pleasure in the life, look forward to the glorious future positvely.‖---

―The psychologically healthy people love life sincerely. They will feel happy deeply and take a positve attitude towards future.‖

I I T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l-G e n e r a t i v e G r a m m a r

TG grammar is firstly put forward by an American linguist called Chomsky in the middle of 1950s’. this theory is mainly composed of three parts: syntactic component; phonological component and semantic component.

其中句法部分由两部分组成:基础部分(the base)和转换规则(transformational rule). The base includes phrase structure rules and a lexicon. And the base forms the deep structure which

decides the meaning. And the deep structure will generate the surface structure with the transformational rules. The phonology will transform the abstract surface structure into the sound that we hear. (画图出来) 下面我们分别来学习句法部分的两种句法规则:短语结构规则和转换规则。

III PS rule

1 definition of PS rule (P46)

2 利用PS rule 可以将下面的句法范畴改写如下:

NP→(Det) N (PP)

Pro

VP→(Qual) V (NP) (PP)

AP→(Deg) A (PP)

PP→(Deg) P (NP)

S →NP VP

3 利用这个别PS 原则我们就能生成有标记的树形图了。

比如:wolves like sheep.

Sheep eat apples.

Americans dislike pears.

Most sheep like these apples.

画出树形图并且写出运用的规则。

4增加句子数量和长度的方法:

(1)使用连词and / or

John likes books.

John, Bill and Mary like books.

Mary walked to Zeko’s house, delivered the letter, ran home,

and downed a six-pack.

John likes books, Bill likes money, Mary likes work and Zeko likes films.

NP →NP (or/and) NP

VP →VP (and) VP

S →S (and) S

(2)使用嵌入句式

VP →Vs that S

John knew that Mary believed that Bill snored.

除了句子弹S 的循环出现外,NP,VP,PP,AP也可以循环出现。

The brightness of the coloring of the lettering on the cover of the report.

I V X P r u l e47—53(a s k t h e s t u d e n t s t o r e a d t h i s p a r t b y t h e m s e l v e s a n d e x p l a i n

s i m p l y).

我们要熟悉今天会用到的术语和它们的意义。

(I) P 46 XP Rule:其中的X可以表示任何的词类(N V ADJ ADV)

XP

Specifier Head Complement

XP→(Specifier) X (Complement)

P 47 X ̄Theory:当短语中的HEAD 和Complement 共同组成一个介于词汇和短语之间的结构,这个结构被称作Xˉ.因此,XP就变为两层了。

XP

Specifier X (Head) Complement

(II)Phrase Elements

P49 Specifiers

Complements:重点是P 50

当一个不独立的句子做动词的Complement 时,引导这个从句补语的引导词叫做Complementizers (补语成分),缩写为Cs。Cs 引导的这个从句叫做Complement Clause (补语从句)。Cs 加上Complement Clause 一起叫做Complement Phrase (补语从句)缩写为CP。整个包含这个CP的大句子叫做Matrix Clause(主句)。

分析p50 的例子。

Modifiers

(III)句子S 也可以看做是一个短语,也可以用PS Rule 来分析。那么我们按照Phrase 的成分和结构来分析句子。

Head :句子的Head 是一个抽象的范畴曲折形式(Infl),它表示句子的时态和搭配关系。Specifier:由句子的NP来充当

Complement:由句子的VP 来充当

Infl P (=S)

NP Infl VP

Infl 在具体的例子如果有助动词,那么Infl 就是助动词。如果没有助动词,Infl 则表现为该句子动词时态的抽象表达。

见课本p53 的两个例子

V Transformational rules

这一部分中我们将会讨论两种句式的短语结构分析。

(一)是一般疑问句子,又分为两种情况。

(1)是句子中有明显的助动词。又叫做Auxiliary Movement

语言学概论复习大纲讲课讲稿

语言学概论复习大纲

导言 一、解释以下概念并指出其区别 语言学语文学小学 二、语言学理论在指导语言实践上有哪些作用? 第一章第一节 一、名词解释 语言的主观性 二、举例说明 1、语言的两大社会功能 2、信息传递中接受存在的方式 三、论述:语言是人类社会传递信息第一性的、最重要的手段第一章第二节 一、名词解释 语言能力 二、举例说明:语言的民族性 三、简答 1、语言和思维的关系 2、语言思维功能的生理基础 3、聋哑人的语言问题与思维特点 四、论述 1、儿童语言习得与思维的发展过程基本一致

2、思维能力的普遍性和思维方式的特殊性 第二章第一节 一、名词解释 1、征候 2、心理现实 二、辨析概念的区别与联系(定义区别相同点分点答题) 1、语言和言语 2、征候与符号 3、语言与符号 三、简答 1、语言符号与心理现实之间的关系(分点答题不举例) 2、怎么理解“人的心理现实是不断增量的” 第二章第二节 一、名词解释 1、语言符号的线条性 2、语言符号的组合关系 3、语言符号的聚合关系 二、举例说明:语言符号的任意性 三、论述 1、语言符号系统是一种分层装置 2、语言层级装置靠语言单位的组合和替换来运转

第二章第三章 一、名词解释 语言能力 二、简答 1、人的语言能力是先天具备的,但后天的语言环境决定着人的语言能力的现实和维持 2、语言是其他动物与人类之间无法逾越的鸿沟 三、论述 人类语言符号和其他动物“语言”的根本区别 第三章第一节 一、名词解释 1、音标 2、国际音标 二、辨析区别和联系 语音学和音乐学 三、简答 1、语音与自然界声音的异同 2、语音学研究的诸方面 第三章第二节 一、名词解释 1、纯音

中国语言学史复习资料教学提纲

中国语言学史期末复习资料 一、名词解释 1、雅学:《尔雅》首创按意义分类编排的体例和多种释词方法,对后代词书、类书的 发展产生了很大的影响,后人模仿《尔雅》创作了一系列以“雅”为书名的词书, 如《小尔雅》、《广雅》、《通雅》等,而研究雅书又成为一门学问,被称为“雅学”’。 2、小学:“小学”这个名词最初跟学校有关系的,《大戴礼记》云:“及太子少长,知 妃色,则入于小学。小学者所学之官也”;汉代小学指童蒙识字课,也即语言文字 方面的学问;隋唐时代小学概念扩大;唐代以后“小学”成为文字学、音韵学、训 诂学的总称。 3、《切韵》:隋代陆法言所著,是韵书中影响最大的一部,按四声分卷,共五卷;平 生分上下两卷,上、去、入各一卷,共分韵部193部,记音简略,先释义,后记音。 在汉语音韵学当中,《切韵》被看作是整个语音史的中枢,又是研究历代语音系统 和现代各方言因素的首要研究系统。 4、《广韵》:全名《大宋重修广韵》,陈彭年等奉赦编撰,这是目前保留下来最早的, 最完整的韵书,根据前代《切韵》、《唐韵》等韵书修订而成,共分为五卷(平声分 上下两卷,上、去、入各一卷)分206韵。 5、《干禄字书》:是唐中的一部正字书,作者颜元孙。干禄,求禄位,学好写字就能 求得禄位,是科举时代的字体标准。 6、《说文解字》:由东汉经学家、文字学家许慎所著,简称《说文》,根据文字的形体, 创立540个部首。系统阐述汉字的造字规律,是中国第一部即后代所说的字典。 7、因声求义:是传统的训诂方法之一,是指通过对汉字声音线索的分析来探求字义。 8、字书:字数是研究字形和根据字形以考证音义的书,包括(1)学童识字课本,如 《急就篇》等;(2)解释汉字形体、读音和意义的书,如(汉)许慎的《说文解字》,(梁)顾野王的《玉篇》,(宋)司马光等的《类篇》,(清)《康熙字典》等。(3) 刊正字书的书,如(唐)颜元孙的《干禄字书》,(宋)张有的《复古编》等。 9、秦代三书:李斯《仓颉篇》、赵高《爰历篇》、胡母敬的《博学篇》在历史上被称为 秦代三书。“秦代三书”的社会作用有两个:一是规范了文字书写形体,二是成就 了一部权威的蒙学知识教材。 10语文学:是文字或书面语言的研究,特别注重在文献资料的考证和文字的训诂,这种研究比较零碎和缺乏系统性。 11 语言学:研究对象是语言本身(口语与书面语),研究的结果可以得出科学的、系统 的、全面的语言理论。 12 声调:普通话中有四个声调,通常叫四声即阴平、阳平、上声、去声。 13反切:古代的一种记音方法,用两个字拼出另一个字的读音,取上字之声母,用下字之韵母及声调,拼出被切字的读音。 14 《中原音韵》:元.周德清著,他认为“言语一科,欲作乐府,必正名语,欲正名语 必思中原之音。”根据元朝的北曲用韵,把韵部分析归纳为19韵部。 15 《玉篇》:南朝梁.顾野王撰,是中国古代一部按汉字形体,分部编排的字书,是我 国第一部按部首分门别类的汉字字典。 16 大小徐:指徐铉、徐渭兄弟二人,两人俱精通文字,对说文有着重要的研究,号“大 小徐”。 17 籀文:古汉字中一种书体的名称,西周末和春秋初的文字,字体与秦篆相近,又称 “大篆”、“籀书”。 18 古文:指战国时期盛行于六国的文字。

1 语言学教案 导论zsl

1.什么是语言:语言是人类独有的以言语形式进行表达和理解的一种音义结合符号系统,是客观世界与人的主观条件相结合的产物。1.语言是一种系统;1.是人类独有的,主要包括人类的口头语言和书面语言;3.是一种音义结合体;4.其表现形式是言语;5.语言用于交际的方式是通过言语进行表达和理解;5.是客观世界与人的主观条件相结合的产物。 2.语言的三个性质:语言是人类最重要的交际工具、语言是思维工作、语言是一种符号系统。前两个性质是语言的功能,后一个性质是语言的结构特点。 3. 如何理解语言的全民性? 语言是特殊的社会现象,具有全民性,它与社会相互依存,是人们交流思想、进行交际的工具。没有语言,就无法形成人类社会。语言具有全民性可以从三个方面理解:其一,语言没有阶级性。作为人们交际工具的语言,不是为一个阶级服务,而是一视同仁地为整个社会,为社会各阶级服务。其二,语言不同于思想。在阶级社会中,人们的思想是有阶级性的;而语言是没有阶级性的。其三,语言不同于客观事物。语言所代表的客观事物(如“国家”、“军队”等)、语言所代表的感情(如“正义”、“邪恶”等)是有阶级性的,但代表这些事物或感情的词是没有阶级性的。因为不同阶级的人对这些词都有共同的理解。 4. 什么是语言学?语言学就是研究语言的科学,或对语言的科学研究。以人类语言作为研究对象,讨论它的性质、起源和结构原理的成为普通语言学。以某一具体语言(如汉英、英语等)为研究大学的成为XX语语言学,如汉英语言学、英语语言学,等等。具体语言是研究是普通语言学的基础,因为语言的共性结构原理都是从具体的语言的研究中总结出来的。语言学作为一门独立的科学诞生的很晚,至今也不过二百多年的历史。 5.言学的对象和任务 对象:以语言为研究对象的一门学科。 任务:研究语言的性质、结构、分类、发展等这些语言方面的理性知识。 6.语言的定义特征?也叫语言的本质特征,是指那些把人类语言与其他动物“语言”区分开来的定义特征。一般有5个,它们是任意性、二层性、创造性、移位性和文化转移性。 任意性是瑞士语言学家索绪尔(现代语言学之父,他的著作《普通语言学教程》于二十世纪初出版,标志着现代语言学的诞生。)提出的,是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系。任意性具有3个不同的层次;(1)语素音义的任意性,(2)句法层面上的任意性,(3)任意性和归约性。 二层性是指语言的两层结构特点,即上层结构(符号层:有意义的单位)和底层(语音层)。 上层音义结合的符号层语素-词-短语/词组-句子有意义无限 底层语音层音位无意义有限(几十个)创造性是指语言的能产性。词语通过新的使用方法能表达新的意思,并能立刻被没有遇到过这种用法分人所理解。语言的创造性一方面来源于语言的二层性,使用者可以通过组合基本的语言单位,无止境的生成句子,大多数都是以前没有过或没有听过的。语言的创造性另一方面来源于递归性,因为它有制作无穷长句的潜力,语言的递归性为这种潜力提供了理论基础。 移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。移位性给予我们的心智的好处在于它使我们有可能用抽象的概念来交谈或思考。 文化转移性是指语言不是天生的,而是后天学习的来的。 7.语言的起源 P7。 摹声说(bow-wow):远古时代,人们居住在野生环境中模仿动物发出的声音,语言表从此而来。拟声词在对自然声音的模仿程度上是非常不同的,此理论缺乏有力的证据。 感叹说(pooh-pooh):我们上古祖先在艰难生活中,常本能的发出表示痛苦、愤怒和高兴的声音。几乎所有的语言中感叹词数量都非常有限,使这一理论存在问题。 哼育声说(yo-hi-ho):原始人共同劳动时,他们发出有节奏的哼育声,逐渐发展成单调的语调然后变成语言。哼育声与实际的语言相差太大。这一理论至多是猜想。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后习题(语言学与语言教学)【圣才出品】

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