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Solid waste management in European countries

Review

Solid waste management in European countries:A review of systems analysis techniques

Ana Pires a ,*,Gra?a Martinho a ,Ni-Bin Chang b

a Departamento de Ciências e Engenharia do Ambiente,Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia,Universidade Nova de Lisboa,2829-516Caparica,Portugal b

Department of Civil,Environmental,and Construction Engineering,University of Central Florida,4000Central Florida Blvd.,Orlando,FL 32816,USA

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 19March 2010Received in revised form 27October 2010

Accepted 29November 2010Available online xxx

Keywords:

Solid waste management Systems analysis

Integrated solid waste management Sustainability

a b s t r a c t

In the past few decades,solid waste management systems in Europe have involved complex and multi-faceted trade-offs among a plethora of technological alternatives,economic instruments,and regulatory frameworks.These changes resulted in various environmental,economic,social,and regulatory impacts in waste management practices which not only complicate regional policy analysis,but also reshape the paradigm of global sustainable development.Systems analysis,a discipline that harmonizes these integrated solid waste management strategies,has been uniquely providing interdisciplinary support for decision making in this area.Systems engineering models and system assessment tools,both of which enrich the analytical framework of waste management,were designed speci ?cally to handle particular types of problems.Though how to smooth out the barriers toward achieving appropriate systems synthesis and integration of these models and tools to aid in the solid waste management schemes prevalent in European countries still remains somewhat uncertain.This paper conducts a thorough literature review of models and tools illuminating possible overlapped boundaries in waste management practices in European countries and encompassing the pros and cons of waste management practices in each member state of the European Union.Whereas the Southern European Union (EU)countries need to develop further measures to implement more integrated solid waste management and reach EU direc-tives,the Central EU countries need models and tools with which to rationalize their technological choices and management strategies.Nevertheless,considering systems analysis models and tools in a synergistic way would certainly provide opportunities to develop better solid waste management strategies leading to conformity with current standards and foster future perspectives for both the waste management industry and government agencies in European Union.

Abbreviations:ADEME,Agence de l ’Environnement et de la Ma?trise de l ’Energie;AWAST,aid in the management and European comparison of a municipal solid waste treatment for a global and sustainable approach;BMW,biodegradable municipal waste;CBA,cost e bene ?t analysis;CERA,comparative environmental risk assessment;DP,dynamic programming;DSD,Duales System Deutschland;DSSs,decision support systems;EASEWASTE,environmental assessment of solid waste systems and technologies;EC,European Community;EDX/EDI,electronic data exchange;EEA,European Environment Agency;EEC,European Economic Community;EIA,environmental impact assessment;EIONET,European environment information and observation network;EPR,extended producer responsibility;ERA,environmental risk assessment;ES,expert system;EU,European Union;EUDIN,European Data Interchange of Waste Noti ?cation System;FM,forecasting models;GHG,greenhouse gas;GIGO,garbage in,garbage out;GIP,grey integer programming;GIS,geographic information system;IMS,integrated modeling system;IOA,input e output analysis;ISWM,integrated solid waste management;IWM,integrated waste management;LATS,land ?ll allowance trading system;LCA,life cycle assessment;LCI,life cycle inventory;LP,linear programming;MCDM,multicriteria decision making;MFA,material ?ow analysis;MIP,mixed-integer programming;MIMES/WASTE,model for description and optimization of integrated material ?ows and energy systems;MIS,management information system;MSW,municipal solid waste;NIMBY,not in my backyard;NLP,non-linear programming model;OM,optimization models;ORWARE,ORganic WAste REsearch;PAYT,pay-as-you-throw;PET,polyethylene terephthalate;QAS,quality assurance system;RA,environmental and ecological risk assessment;SA,sustainability assessment;SD,scenario development;SDS,sustainable development strategy;SEA,strategic environmental assessment;SFA,substance ?ow analysis;SFINX,substance ?ow inter-nodal exchange;SM,simulation models;SoEA,socioeconomic assessment;STAN,subSTance ?ow ANalysis;SWIM,solid waste-integrated model;SWM,solid waste management;TASAR,tool for analyzing separation actions and recovery;WASTED,waste analysis software tool for environmental decisions;WHP,waste hierarchy principle;WISARD,waste-integrated systems for assessment of recovery and disposal;WRAP,Waste Resources Allocation Program;WRATE,waste and resources assessment tool for the environment;XML,extensible markup language.*Corresponding author.Tel.:t351212948397;fax:t351212948554.E-mail address:alp11931@fct.unl.pt (A.

Pires).Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Management

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Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2010)1e 18

1.Introduction

In the21st century,the sustainable management of municipal solid waste(MSW)will become necessary at all phases of impact from planning to design,to operation,and to decommissioning.As a consequence,the spectrum of new and existing waste treatment technologies and managerial strategies has also spanned from maintaining environmental quality at present to meet sustain-ability goals in the future.Such an orderly evolution allows both waste management industries and government agencies to meet common needs of waste management with greatest green poten-tial,to recycle materials out of waste streams,to enlarge the renewable energy supply,to seek for more socially acceptable options,and to preserve biodiversity and natural ecosystems simultaneously.To achieve such goals,all technical and non-tech-nical aspects of a solid waste management(SWM)system should be analyzed as a whole,since they are inter-related with one another and developments in one area frequently affect practices or activ-ities in another area(UNEP,2005).

Systems analysis techniques have been applied to handle MSW streams through a range of integrative methodologies in the last few decades.A total of?ve system engineering models and nine system assessment tools were formally classi?ed in this?eld to illuminate the challenges,trends and perspectives(Chang et al.,in press).It is worth knowing that the spectrum of these models and

assessment tools was classi?ed based on the following two domains although some of them may be intertwined with each other(Chang et al.,in press).They are:1)systems engineering models including cost e bene?t analysis(CBA),forecasting models (FM),simulation models(SM),optimization models(OM),and integrated modeling system(IMS),as well as2)system assess-ment tools including management information system(MIS)/ decision support system(DSS)/expert system(ES),scenario development(SD),material?ow analysis(MFA),life cycle assessment or life cycle inventory(LCA or LCI),risk assessment (RA),environmental impact assessment(EIA),strategic environ-mental assessment(SEA),socioeconomic assessment(SoEA),and sustainable assessment(SA).Fig.1holistically illustrates the interrelationships among these two domains from which fourteen technologies can be connected through such a technology hub in association with these two broad-based domains(Chang et al.,in press).In the core part,the?ve systems engineering models can be seen as the core technologies in which the cost e bene?t analysis may be used as a common platform in support of deci-sion making.Integrated modeling systems may?exibly concate-nate various optimization models including linear programming (LP),mixed-integer programming(MIP),non-linear programming (NLP),and dynamic programming(DP)models to address the system concerns in which the SM and FM can support the essential background in concert with CBA in the context of systems analysis.With such a core structure,the model-based DSSs can be constructed for separate or collective applications. Yet rule-based,knowledge-based or graphics-based DSSs or ESs can still be formed based on heuristic approaches.All of these core efforts may be enhanced by the rest of system assessment tools described by the eight outer https://www.doczj.com/doc/df5481759.html,munication among the eight triangles canalizes the information?ows that in turn improve the credibility of the?ve systems engineering models being formulated through MIS,DSS,and even ES.Overall, Fig.1leads to a sound realization of the structure between systems engineering models and systems assessment tools from which a systems analysis should be well balanced for generating environmentally benign,cost effective,ecologically sound,and socially acceptable solutions(Morrissey and Browne,2004;Chang and Davila,2007).

With such a tool,every community can tailor its own unique system to manage various components of the waste streams in a?exible manner(Najm et al.,2002).Yet how to smooth out the barriers toward achieving appropriate systems synthesis and integration of the?ve systems engineering models and the nine system assessment tools to aid in solid waste management prac-tices in European countries remains somewhat uncertain.It is the aim of this paper to present a thorough literature review and a critical analysis in sequence so as to answer the following key questions:1)what achievements have been reached so far?,2) what are the gaps in knowledge of waste management that we need to achieve in the context of sustainable development in the long run?and3)what are the research needs and future directions in systems analysis for SWM in European countries.At a practical level,discussions of this paper were limited to15European Union (EU)member states,facing the same driving forces with similar waste legislation to manage MSW systems.The EU is an economic and political union of27member states which are located primarily in Europe,Norway and Switzerland(non-EU members)were also included to understand how other countries within the region with similar waste management legislation applied the techniques of systems analysis to manage their waste management issues.Fig.2 illustrates the overall study boundaries.

The comparative analysis of this paper provides an all-inclusive view to minimize anomalies of SWM systematically,and should allow possible con?icts associated with different objectives asso-ciated with environmental,social,technical,and economic constraints to be confronted more rationally than heretofore.Such a development should enable more solidly based waste manage-ment strategies to be pursued,leading to conformity with current standards for both the waste management industry and govern-ment agencies in the EU.

2.Current waste management principles in the EU

After the commitments made at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro (1992),the European Council in2001adopted the?rst EU Sustainable Development Strategy(SDS).The overall aim of the renewed EU SDS is to support and promote actions enabling the EU to achieve

DSS

MIS

MFA

LCA

SEA

CBA

SoEA

EIA

NLP

IMS

MIP

Fig.1.The technology hub for solid waste management(Chang et al.,2009).

A.Pires et al./Journal of Environmental Management xxx(2010)1e18 2

continuous improvement of quality of life for both current and future generations.This is expected to be achieved through the creation of sustainable communities capable of managing resources ef ?ciently,tapping the innovation potential of the economy,ensuring prosperity,environmental protection and social cohesion.These changes will bring about a sense of urgency in SWM.While short-term action is required for tackling operational issues in SWM,maintaining a long-term perspective of SWM also needs to be set out.The most recent legislation published by European Commission (EC)is the New Waste Directive 2008/98/EC (EU,2008),which re ?ects EU SDS and brings new challenges to SWM systems.New de ?nitions for waste,by-products and end-of-waste,result in the need for choosing appro-priate technologies that aim at improving the protection of human health and environment,promoting reuse and recycling,enhancing waste prevention programs via biowaste separate collection,and implementing extended producer responsibility (EPR)collectively.In addition,key challenges related to long-term waste management are climate change and energy use,linking SWM systems with the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG)emissions and the enhancement of energy recovery.Sustainable shipping of waste streams is thus an important issue in SWM too.Sustainable consumption and produc-tion,related to waste prevention programs have received wide attention in the nexus of resources conservation,recovery,and reuse.Social factors,including population growth and migration,become essential for the accurate forecasting of waste generation and esti-mation of the proper capacity of the SWM facilities.Public

health,

Fig.2.Groups of countries within the European Union (adapted from EEA,2007).

A.Pires et al./Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2010)1e 183

which used to be considered by LCA impact categories must be included through the application of a quality assurance system(QAS) for product control.All of them compound the structure of current SWM systems and deepen the need for systems analysis within the EU member states.

Proper consideration of the impacts of climate changes and resources scarcity has been mandatory in environmental management including SWM in Europe.Scarcity of resources has motivated new strategies at European level to promote life cycle thinking in waste management policies,and consequently,the problems of MSW management are tied with how to integrate economically feasible and environmentally sustainable practices holistically.Challenges arise with respect to interfaces between optimal planning and sizing of solid waste management facilities and optimal scheduling of waste?ows and throughputs while evaluating new system components and taking into consider-ation environmental and social costs,such as municipal taxes, user charges,capital opportunity costs and government grants and subsidies.These socioeconomic strategies,which were implemented only by a handful of industrialized countries in the world,might be extended to reduce waste generation and, simultaneously,de-link waste generation from economic growth.

An improved knowledge base in?uences the advancement of waste collection and shipping,resources use,and disposal alter-natives via substitution of more systematic modeling practices. The Thematic Strategy on the Prevention and Recycling of Waste (EU,2005)is an example of such a policy change.Improving the existing legislation,with simpli?cation and modernization effects on waste de?nition,end-of-waste criteria,recycling,recovery and disposal activities,is one of the guidelines which is crucial to continue into the next decade.In addition,climate changes have also forced new measures to be implemented at the EU level.They include promoting GHG emissions reduction through biowaste diversion from land?lls,improving energy ef?ciency at waste treatment and disposal facilities,promoting organic fertilizers (compost)in soils as an alternative to mineral fertilizers, enhancing quality in waste management outputs(like recycled materials)to reduce resource consumption,and raising materials’utility.Some social aspects in MSW management have also been made mandatory by EU regulations,like the SEA Directive,related to public participation with respect to the drawing up of certain plans and programs relevant to the environmental directive(EU, 2001).

To ultimately improve urban sustainability and offer the level of service required by the population,the ability to increase the reli-ability of green infrastructure systems with waste management functionalities,particularly through the proper interfaces between the partnerships of private and public sectors could be even more critical.Ultimately,not only mitigatory solutions related to climate change should comprise a part of the MSW management strategies but also challenges in adaptation are also made necessary for SWM, which are mainly related to waste treatment technologies.On the other hand,waste collection systems should be designed and operated so as to be capable of improving public health protection. For example,higher temperatures after climate change that may result in more biowaste degradation,thereby generating odor control problems which require further attention.More sophisti-cated societal measures,such as voluntary agreements on encour-aging responsibility among producers and consumers,which might become mandatory to reach an integrated solid waste management (ISWM),compound the decision making when arriving at consensus and involvement between stakeholders and decision makers during participation processes in different EU member states.This situation triggers an acute need to thoroughly review all the existing“state-of-the-art”systems engineering approaches and system assessment tools in order to reach such ISWM goals, particularly in EU member states with differing levels of economic development.These goals are necessary to facilitate a unique integration for tackling complexity with respect to multi-objec-tives,risk,and uncertainty characteristics in decision making as

a whole.

3.Systems analysis techniques

In systems engineering regimes,a system can be a set of related components or sub-systems,which interact with each other in some way.The properties of a system are de?ned by the whole of the sub-systems,their characteristics,and their relationships.The characteristics are related to the boundaries of the system depending on whether they are closed or open systems/sub-systems.With this de?nition,an MSW management system?ts the concept in which the technical aspects like land?ll,incineration, anaerobic digestion,composting and collection are sub-systems linked with one another through processed waste streams inter-nally and municipalities through managed truck?eets externally. The sub-systems make up part of the SWM system that has inter-actions between technical and non-technical aspects,both of which may in?uence the generation and shipping of waste to some extent.

Considering SWM systems,several systems analysis techniques have been applied to help decision making.These can be divided into two main groups as we mentioned above:systems engineering models and systems assessment tools.Their contribution to SWM systems will be summarized in the following sub-sections in concert with the concept.

3.1.Systems engineering models

Complexity in SWM system arises from siting facilities,selecting technologies,and comparing management options.To tackle the synergistic interfaces,systems engineering models can be helpful for promoting analysis based on cost e bene?t analysis(CBA),opti-mization models(OM),simulation models(SM),forecasting models (SM)and integrated modeling systems(IMS).Table1presents the contribution of systems engineering models to SWM system anal-ysis over the past few decades.It offers a systematic overview showing how the landscape of systems engineering models was conceptualized(complexes,structures,functionalities)and the relationship to other components in connection with Fig.1.

3.2.Systems assessment tools

Most of the time,after systems have been created and imple-mented,it is necessary to evaluate their performance and consider how improvements could be made,especially in answer to the increasing challenges promoted by regulation.Models that can help decision makers toward such goals are systems assessment tools. Such tools can be MIS,DSS,ES,SD,MFA,LCA,RA,EIA,SEA,SoEA and SA.Table2presents the contribution of systems assessment tools to SWM with signi?cant rami?cations on how the relationships between system assessment tools and systems engineering models are described when connected with Fig.1.As a consequence,the appropriate use of system assessment tools has such a large effect on the overall optimization especially in the context of IMS because the outputs from these tools are normally used as the primary inputs in models re?ecting socioeconomic,climate change,and managerial considerations.

A.Pires et al./Journal of Environmental Management xxx(2010)1e18 4

4.Systems analysis used for solid waste management in European countries

4.1.Methodology

Several types of SWM systems in European countries can be identi?ed and classi?ed.The characterization of these systems in the EU and its member states was mainly performed by the authors in2008and2009based on the databases developed by European Topic Centre on Sustainable Consumption and Production.In the case of Belgium and Spain,for example,the inquiry was made through the regional entities of Flanders and Catalonia,respec-tively.To understand which are the research needs and future directions in regard to the systems analysis techniques for SWM in European countries,a comparative analysis was also conducted in this paper for the distinction of relevant applications.

4.2.Waste management systems in European countries

From a life-cycle point of view,an all-inclusive MSW manage-ment system includes all essential operational units from collec-tion,to shipping,to treatment,to recycling,and to disposal.Yet the current European regulations promoting the hierarchy of waste management inevitably involve a wealth of waste management practices tied to policies,institutional settings,?nancial mecha-nisms,technology selection,and stakeholder participation.For instance,the land?ll directive promoted biodegradable municipal waste(BMW)management systems,which focus on building separate collection systems provided by local authorities through speci?c bins leading to separate,mandatory BMW treatment systems(Austria,Netherlands).Some of the EU member states applied economic instruments including Pay-As-You-Throw(PAYT) and an organic waste tax to create economic incentives for resi-dents to divert BMW from regular waste streams normally being collected by municipalities to speci?c collection avenues.They recognized that the diversion costs that each waste disposal authority would face would differ according to the particular circumstances(EIONET,2007a).For example,both BMW system and Land?ll Allowance Trading System(LATS)in the United Kingdom(UK)were launched to provide local authorities with the ?exibility to manage waste streams more effectively.The LATS system revolves around transferable allowances which enable the greatest amount of waste diversion to occur in areas where it is cheapest,and most practicable to do so.

The Packaging waste directive has also promoted similar incentives by using the“EPR system”and the“deposit-refund system”to ensure the maximum reuse and recycling.The most well known EPR system is the packaging waste Duales System

Table1

The contribution of systems engineering models to SWM systems(Chang et al.,in press).

Types of systems

engineering models

Description Contribution to SWM system

Cost e bene?t analysis To assess positive and negative

economic and physical effects

independently or support simulation

and optimization models for systems analysis Well-de?ned cost e bene?t models may translate environmental aspects into economic terms.However,

the intergeneration externalities are very dif?cult to address.

Optimization model To reach the best solution among

numerous alternatives,considering

one or several objectives.Models have solved the following issues:

single network planning(Anderson and Nigam,1967;

Anderson,1968;Fuertes et al.,1974;Helms and Clark,

1974;Kuhner and Harrington,1975;Jenkins,1979;Clayton, 1976;Rao,1975)

dynamic,multi-period investment(Marks et al.,1970;

Marks and Liebman,1971)

size and site facilities(Chapman and Yakowitz,1984;

Li and Huang,2006a,b,2009a,b;Nie et al.,2007;

Li et al.,2007,2006,2008a,b;Huang et al.,2001,2002;

Xu et al.,2009)

manage infrastructures like land?ll(Davila et al.,2005) Models developed:WRAP(USEPA,1977)

Simulation model To trace the lengthy chains of continuous

or discrete events based on cause-and-effect

relations describing the operations in complex

systems and helping investigate the dynamic

behavior of the system(Wang et al.,1996).Models developed for SWM systems:SWIM(Wang et al.,1996), GIGO(Lawver et al.,1990;Anex et al.,1996),

AWAST(Villeneuve et al.,2009),

EcoSolver IP-SSK(Krivtsov et al.,2004),

TASAR(Tanskanen and Melanen,1999)

Forecasting model To characterize waste streams quantitatively

and qualitatively and construct a management

information system to accumulate information

over time.To predict waste generation,time-series

regression analysis(Katsamaki et al.,1998;

Navarro-ésbri et al.,2002),system dynamics models

(Dyson and Chang,2005),and other regression models

have been applied(Grossman et al.,1974).Models have related variables like population

(Grossman et al.,1974),

income level(Grossman et al.,1974;Beigl et al.,2005),

dwelling unit size(Grossman et al.,1974),

total consumer expenditure

and gross domestic product(Daskalopoulos et al.,1998), production measures,household size,age structure,

health indicators(Beigl et al.,2005),per capita retail

and tipping fees for waste disposal(Hockett et al.,1995)to waste generation,total income per service centre,people per household, historical amount generated,income per house and population (Dyson and Chang,2005).

Integrated modeling systems To improve synergistic connections among

different models,concatenating their

total functionalities.IMS have provided:

dynamic information of waste generation and waste shipping (Chang et al.,1993)

optimal capacity expansion patterns for waste-to-energy

and land?ll facilities over time(Baetz,1990)

Models developed:ORWARE(Dalemo et al.,1997;

Bj?rklund et al.,1999)

A.Pires et al./Journal of Environmental Management xxx(2010)1e185

Table2

The contribution of systems assessment tools to SWM systems(Chang et al.,in press).

Systems assessment tools Description Contribution to SWM systems

Management information system, decision support system

and expert systems Consists of different methods applied to

exchange and manage information;

used to help in decision making

MIS/DSS/ES have been applied:

to provide information storage and transmission

through countries(EIONET,2009)

to yield speci?c decision support(Chang and Wang,1996;

Barlishen and Baetz,1996;Haastrup et al.,1998;

Bhargava and Tettelbach,1997;AEA Technology,1998)

to relate waste stream characterization with implications

on shipping,processing and disposal of waste streams

(MacDonald,1996)

Scenario development To create hypothetical sequences of

events constructed for the purpose

of focusing attention on causal

processes and decision points

(Kahn and Wiener,1967)Has the ability to explore events(events in this case are policies and decisions taken)that might occur associated with SWM on a temporal scale.Such events can be inside or outside the SWM system.Fell and Fletcher(2007)have contributed with scenario developments for future lifestyle trends and forecasting based on lifestyle scenarios for waste composition

Material?ow analysis Consists of a systematic assessment

of the?ows and stocks of materials

within a system de?ned in space

and time(Brunner and Rechberger,2003)Software developed in MFA:SFINX(van der Voet,1995a,b), FLUX(Huijbregts,2000),STAN(TU Vienna,2009), DYNFLOW(Elshkaki,2000),GaBi(PE International,2006) and Umberto(IFU,2006)

Life cycle assessment Consists of a process to evaluate environmental

burdens associated with a product,process

or activity by identifying and quantifying

energy and materials used,wastes and

emissions released to the environment,

to assess impact of those energy and material

uses and releases and to identify and evaluate

opportunities that lead to environmental

improvements(EEA,2003)Models developed for SWM systems:IWM(White et al.,1995; McDougall et al.,2001),WASTED(Diaz and Warith,2006), WISARD/WRATE(Ecobilan,2004;Buttol et al.,2007), EASEWASTE(Christensen et al.,2007)

Risk assessment To relate environmental and human health risk to

accidents quantitatively,through a statistical evaluation

Help in the evaluation of transversal SWM systems

Environmental impact assessment A procedure that aims to ensure that the decision-making

process concerning activities that may have a signi?cant

in?uence on the environment takes into account the

environmental aspects related to the decision(Tukker,2000)

EIA associated to a speci?c project attempts to solve

controversial issues from the target project such as siting

issues originated from the NIMBY effect,technical issues

to justifying the choice of technology for emission reduction,

and even the rejection of the project(Chang et al.,2009).

In Europe,EIA is mandatory for land?lls and incineration plants

with regard to capacity limits through EU Directive85/337/EEC

(EU,1985),as amended by EU Directive97/11/EC(EU,1997).

A good example can be found in Barker and Wood(1999)

Strategic environmental assessment Consists of the environmental assessment of a strategic

action as a policy,a plan or a program

(Thérivel and Partidário,1999)

Its applicability is emphasized by EU Directive2001/42/EC

(EU,2001),to which it is obligated for the promotion and

elaboration of an SEA for SWM plans.More details can be

found out in Dutch Ten Year Program on Waste management

1992and2002(Verheem,1999)

Socioeconomic assessment Consists of computer-based practices

that apply integrated market-based

and/or policy/regulation requirements for SWM Has allowed the inclusion of user-charges,land?ll disposal fees, recycling credits,product charges,deposit-refund schemes, and producer-responsibility schemes into the decision making in SWM systems,promoting a more sustainable management of waste.For such purposes,several methodologies have been applied:CBA-based LP(Chang et al.,1997,1996),CBA-based MIP(Chang et al.,2005),CBA-based fuzzy goal programming (Chang and Wang,1997),fuzzy contingent valuation

(Chang et al.,2009),minimax regret optimization

(Chang and Davila,2007),GIP-based game theory

(Davila et al.,2005),CBA-based MCDM(Karagiannidis and Moussiopoulos,1997;Rousis et al.,2008),optimal control

of land?ll space(Chang and Schuler,1991)inexact

fuzzy-stochastic constraint(Li et al.,2009),IOA

(Brahms and Schwitters,1985;Franklin Associates,1999;

Gay et al.,1993;Hekkert et al.,2000;Joosten et al.,2000;

Patel et al.,1998;Nakamura,1999;Pimenteira et al.,2005)

Sustainable assessment Refers to the integration of different methodologies in such

a way that obtaining an analysis,an evaluation or a planning

that approaches several management

aspects in which sustainability

implications may be emphasized and illuminated SWM systems assessed to reach sustainable management, focusing on different aspects.Models developed:LCA-IWM (den Boer et al.,2007)and MSW-DST(Thorneloe et al.,2007; Weitz et al.,1999).Several methods have been combined to reach sustainability:Cherubini et al.(2008)have combined

LCA with MFA and energy analysis methods,Nakamura and Kondo(2002)used IOA and LCA to construct a waste

input e output model,Huppes et al.(2006)and Tukker et al. (2009)have combined both methods to obtain IOA with environmental extensions for different sections(including waste management sectors).A Geographical Information System (GIS)combined with LCI,EIA and optimization model has been promoted by Chang et al.(2008,2009)for land?ll siting

A.Pires et al./Journal of Environmental Management xxx(2010)1e18 6

Deutschland(DSD)(or Green Dot system)that was?rstly applied in Germany in the1990s and later on all over Europe(Buclet,2002). The basic idea of the DSD is to establish a privately organized channel assuring that all primary packaging can be collected from the consumers will then undergo a material-speci?c recycling process through the consumers and service providers.This is done through the so called“Green Dot”which is a label on packaging material used to identify the product belonging to the dual system during the consumption phase(Klepper and Michaelis,1994).As for these deposit-refund systems,Dansk Retursystem is one of the oldest ones,and has been in use since1984;it is applicable for re?llable,non-re?llable,reusable and disposal,and ready-to-drink beverages and mineral water bottles(Pro-Europe,2009).However, in Denmark there is no producer-responsibility scheme,namely no separate management system for packaging waste(Danish EPA, 1999;Pro-Europe,2009),making the costs for handling pack-aging waste uncertain,and resulting in a higher budget for waste management in local authorities(EEA,2005).

The remaining part of waste streams usually called residual household waste or mixed municipal waste still need to be cleaned up by municipalities and local authorities.The Danish Waste Model is a representative residual/mixed waste system as it is based on a join venture to form a coherent whole(Danish EPA,2001). According to the Danish EPA(2001),the structure of the SWM systems is characterized by the following principles:1)the system includes all types of waste(e.g.household,industrial and hazardous waste);2)the responsibility for the SWM lies solely with the local authorities(council),which are responsible for estab-lishing capacity for waste management and for providing infor-mation on how to dispose of the waste produced within the local council,irrespective of whether this waste originates at households or trade and industry(EIONET,2007b);3)the duty to assign waste treatment and disposal facilities lies with the local authorities,and waste generators are bound to those who use them;4)?nancing of the system rests on the polluter-pays principle(PPP);and5)waste collection and waste treatment rest on the principle of source separation(EIONET,2007b).With these principles,the systems boundaries are quite well de?ned,such as packaging waste collection created by local authorities was managed by an external system.Considering the main waste streams in MSW e residual waste,BMW and packaging waste e a review on SWM systems in European countries may be summarized in Table3.

In addition to existing SWM systems handling related material and cash?ows at scales,there is also a need for building up proper information exchange platforms capable of offering decision makers the basis for the assessment of relevant projects,programs, and plans.Member states must provide information to supply European waste information systems like Eurostat,EIONET,and ReportNet.Eurostat’s main role is to process and publish compa-rable statistical information at European level(Eurostat,2009).The Eurostat data centre on waste is responsible for providing robust data,indicators and other relevant information for assessing the effectiveness of the community waste policy(Eurostat,2009).The functions of the Eurostat information system are divided into four sectors which correspond to the various stages in the processing of data from their collection to their dissemination including production(collection,validation and storage of the data and meta-data),storage of the reference data(acceptance of the information), use of the reference data(visibility/security and?nd/deliver),and dissemination of information(Dubois,1997).

EIONET is a collaborative network of the European Environment Agency(EEA)and its member states,connecting National Focal Points in EU and accession countries,European Topic Centres, National Reference Centres,and Main Component Elements. EIONET provides a mechanism whereby National Focal Points in European countries can make documents available to the EEA and also retrieve documents of interest from the EEA.The integrated electronic workplace environment allows online collaboration between environmental personnel across Europe.EIONET supports the collaborative process and reduces the reporting burden for environmental protection agencies across Europe(EEA,2002).

ReportNet aims to develop common tools and a shared infor-mation infrastructure as the European Environmental Information System;and it is based on a set of inter-related tools and processes which all build on the active use of the World Wide Web(EIONET, 2009).ReportNet is EIONET’s infrastructure for supporting and improving data and information?ows(EIONET,2009).With this platform,ReportNet also aims at providing an effective network infrastructure whereby collaboration can be achieved so that the environmental reporting burden of the EU member states can also be reduced(EEA,2002).

https://www.doczj.com/doc/df5481759.html,parative analysis

To understand how to deal with multiple alternatives and a plethora of outcomes regarding systems analysis for SWM in European countries,a comparative analysis was conducted based on218applications in this paper.Such a comparative analysis is presented in Fig.3.Sometimes the assessments conducted for waste management overlap with several SWM systems simulta-neously;such cases happened when a speci?c decision maker responsible for waste management at a geographical area of interest is the same as the decision maker inside such boundaries handling several sub-systems.

Fig.3clearly indicates that1)more cases were associated with MSW,2)the studies on residual/mixed waste and packaging waste streams were received equal emphasis,and3)BMW received the least attention.Such phenomena can be explained by the fact that the BMW system is less established in European countries,as opposed to other parts of the https://www.doczj.com/doc/df5481759.html,paring the relative distribution between groups of models and tools for systems analysis,the most common practices for waste management in European countries are those using various systems assessment tools rather than system engineering models.Table4further con?rms the same observations after the realization of application metrics of systems assessment tools.

The comparison across the boundaries implies that systems assessment tools have been applied to evaluate and help in decision making based on environmental issues have great potential to integrate other aspects,like economics or social impacts.Given that EU regulations have given emphasis to EIA in SWM,the inclusion of EIA has become favored by decision makers at national,regional, and local levels.Thus,the primary stage of decision analysis nor-mally leads to assess a suite of management options,evaluate managerial and strategic plans,and collect and share information. Likewise,climate change and resources depletion are emerging issues of most concern,which are even more in?uential when managing SWM,and decisions and policies were oftentimes made with the aid of LCA or LCI in public institutions.

With fewer applications,systems engineering models were capable of studying waste production processes and assessing the interactions in numerous types of SWM systems addressing impacts from technical to social,and to economic perspectives. However,such applications are not easy to implement since the necessary assumptions being made may or may not be realistic.As a consequence,systems engineering models have not been applied to the same extent as systems assessment tools in EU member states.Oftentimes,these models are not geared toward helping decision makers’needs.Their contribution is often limited to use a mathematical functional form structured to derive strategic

A.Pires et al./Journal of Environmental Management xxx(2010)1e187

Table3

Waste management systems in European countries.

Country Residual/mixed waste system BMW system Packaging system

Austria Yes,with ban of land?ll

regulation for BMW Yes,being mandatory

with penalties

Alstoff Recycling Austria system(Green Dot Dystem)e EPR

Bonus Holsystem(commercial packaging waste)e EPR

?ko-Box for beverage carton containers

Pet2Pet for polyethylene terephthalate(PET)bottle

Deposit-refund system for beverage containers but

only mandatory for re?llable plastic beverage containers

ARO system for wastepaper

AGR system for glass

ArgeV for lightweight fraction

Belgium Yes,with cash tax,residual

waste and/or environmental

tax and organizations like Fost Plus

Yes,with PAYT Fost Plus(Green Dot System)e EPR

Denmark Yes,with collection fee based

on polluter-pays principle Yes,but is voluntary

and only for garden waste

Dansk Retursystem e deposit-refund system

Packaging glass system:recycling schemes

Wastepaper and waste cardboard system:recycling

schemes are mandatory

Packaging tax

Finland Yes,with waste charge:

sorted materials pays less Yes,promoted by

information instruments

Suomen Palautuspakkaus Oy(Palpa)e deposit-refund system

for packaging waste,including beverages

Newspaper,copy paper and other paper products

and packaging waste e EPR

Beverage containers e packaging tax

(exemption or lower tax rates only if package is part

of a returnable deposit scheme)

France Yes,with fees Exists but not consolidated Eco-Emballages(Green Dot System)e EPR

Germany Yes Bio-Bin system and

other mandatory systems Duales System Deutschland e EPR Deposit-refund system

Greece Yes,with fees to cover the service No Green Dot System called HERRCo e EPR

KEPED e packaging waste system for waste oils

Supermarkets as individual systems

Ireland Yes,with PAYT Exists but not consolidated Repak e Green Dot system e EPR

Italy Yes,with municipal waste tariff Yes Consorzio Nazionale Imballaggi(CONAI)(Green Dot System)e EPR Luxembourg Yes.With PAYT system Yes(green bins) Valorlux(Green Dot System)e EPR

Netherlands Yes,with levy Yes,mandatory Compulsory deposit return systems for re?llable glass bottles

and one-way packaging

Nedvang e EPR

Stichting Retourverpakking Nederland e one-way deposit-bearing

PET containers for soft drinks and water larger than0.5L

Wastepaper and waste cardboard e EPR

Norway Yes,with waste tariffs Yes,with organic waste tax Norsk Resy AS e packaging waste and corrugated and solid board

packaging e EPR

Norsk GlassGjenvinning AS for glass

Norsk MetallGjenvinning AS for metal

Gront Punkt Norge for plastic packaging,beverage cartons

and carton packaging

Norsk Resirk AS e deposit-refund system for beverage packaging,

steel and aluminium cans,plastic bottles non-re?llable

Portugal Yes,by water consumption fee No Sociedade Ponto Verde(Green Dot System)e EPR

Valormed(Medicine packaging waste)e EPR

Mar?o mineral water system(private)e deposit-refund system for

one-way PET bottles of Mar?o trend mark

Spain Yes for Catalonia,with

a land?ll tax,incineration tax Only in Catalonia for

municipalities with>5000

inhabitants

Ecoembes SL(Green Dot System)e EPR

Ecovidrio,for glass packaging e EPR

Sweden Yes Yes EPR for several waste streams like packaging and wastepaper

Deposit-refund systems for cans,plastics and glass bottles

Returpack e deposit-refund system for all plastic and metal

beverage containers for ready-to-drink beverages,including

re?llable glass bottles

Switzerland Yes,with Canton tax Yes,whenever possible Beverage bottles e EPR

Reusable packaging e deposit-refund system

PET-Recycling Schweiz e packaging PET one-way e EPR

IGORA for aluminium cans e EPR

Ferro-Recycling for tinplate e EPR

VetroSwiss for glass e EPR,mandatory system

Disposable packaging in PVC e obligatory deposit

Wastepaper and cardboard system related to municipalities/

local authorities

United Kingdom Yes,land?ll tax only for

companies,local authorities

or other organization

Yes,LATS and for garden

waste(from civic amenity)

PRN system e EPR

PERN system e EPR A.Pires et al./Journal of Environmental Management xxx(2010)1e18

guidelines and/or orientations in an SWM system.Sometimes,the mathematical outputs are contradictory with existing ideas that have already embedded in decision makers ’minds.In such cases,CBA may be de ?ned or re ?ned well to ?t in the LCA framework in the decision making arena,the application potential may be improved.Table 5further con ?rms the observations across MSW,residual/mixed waste,packaging waste,and BMW after the reali-zation of application metrics of systems assessment tools.

Table 6presents individual efforts in each country level;apparently all European countries involved can be classi ?ed into three groups according to their application of systems analysis methodology.Countries that have mostly applied systems analysis techniques include Italy,Sweden,the United Kingdom,and Denmark;countries with a moderate number of applications include France,Germany,Austria and Finland;and countries with low interest in such applications include Spain,Greece,Ireland,Luxembourg,Portugal,Belgium,the Netherlands,Norway and Switzerland.Why do such discrepancies occur,given that all EU member states are under the same European guidelines?It is mainly due to national differences in waste management policies within each country.In countries where more systems analysis practices have been applied,the driving forces for the applications are related to the need for solving multi-faceted environmental issues linked with various facilities while complying with inter-national,EU,regional,and local regulations.

Sweden,a country where sustainability principles were heavily promoted by national/international entities and its waste management policies were born based on EPR,can be selected as a particular case.Such sustainability principles have in ?ltrated into the municipality level,such as Stockholm,which is the city where the development of models to aid in decision making of SWM was favored.In Denmark,the packaging refundable system was assessed due to the presence of the Packaging Waste Directive.In Italy,due to a legal action against it within EC in a waste crisis that had plagued Naples and the Campania region for more than ten years,Mastellone et al.(2009)conducted an MFA to provide scienti ?c support for decision makers who were managing the waste crisis.These three cases,including Sweden,Italy,and Denmark,concur with our observations.

Concerning countries which have applied systems analysis techniques only moderately,motivations for doing so are based on the political concern with regard to environmental impacts due to SWM.For example,in France,Ecobilan-Pricewaterhouse Coopers developed several assessments for Agence de l ’Envir-onnement et de la Ma?trise de l ’Energie (ADEME)concerning SWM.Additional motivations were tied to the need to comply with European regulations and to manage the waste streams in a sustainable way.As for those European countries with no prevalent applications of systems analysis techniques,the true reason is that they were lacking sustainable development concepts and communication channels among stakeholders in the waste management regime.

Even though some European countries did not promote systems analysis practices for SWM solely,it did not imply that the issues of SWM were ignored.LCI/LCA was deemed the most popular system assessment tool in the EU so far.In the nexus of environmental management and industrial ecology,LCA is actually a normalized method in connection with the norm family ISO 14040(2006).In reality,LCA may be integrated with other system assessment tools while standing up to close scrutiny and achieving a higher level of evaluation for SWM system wide.In addition,further advantages via applying LCA/LCI can be assured by the elaboration of envi-ronmental indicators in the scope of ISO 14025(2006)(Gallo et al.,2009).Both ISO 14040and ISO 14025allow the gap to be bridged between waste management and industrial ecology.For example,at this juncture,the Netherlands applied LCA,MFA,CBA and EIA collectively to materials management,which includes product use phase and waste production phase.

SA models,mainly developed in Sweden,were the second mostly applied system assessment tool in the EU for SWM because of the possible linkage between SWM and energy recovery (e.g.,waste-to-energy)given the presence of a large number of inciner-ation plants.Besides,the ORganic WAste REsearch (ORWARE)model,mainly developed in Sweden,combines the concept of LCA and MFA to simulate and assess MSW and BMW systems.This type of system analysis that is considered highly novel in Sweden has been widely applied.On the other hand,the application of MIS/DSS/ES,the third mostly applied systems assessment tool in the EU,is related to the need to provide information ?ows among the EU member states and to evaluate how member states carry out legislative measures.Such a mandatory process was de ?ned simultaneously by several European Directives and Regulations,like EU 91/692/EEC (EU,1991),EU 2003/35/EC (EU,2003),and Waste Statistics Regulation no 2150/2002(EU,2002).Almost all European countries had already developed MISs at regional and national levels,like in the North Rhine-Westphalia region in Germany,Italy,Denmark (ISAG information system),United Kingdom,and Austria.Such MISs may also improve connections of waste producers and consumers,which have been channeled for possible waste exchange activities almost all over Europe.Many European projects in this direction have been developed.A salient case co-developed by Austria,Belgium,Germany,and the Netherlands is the EUDIN (European Data Interchange of Waste Noti ?cation System)which is an electronic data interchange plat-form for waste transportation control within,into and out of Europe boundaries.It consists of an electronic data base that enables an electronic exchange of the data of the noti ?cation form and the movement/tracking form (EUDIN,2002).Such an infor-mation sharing platform can be further integrated and improved to develop more powerful ESs and DSSs for waste management.Further justi ?cation for the use of MIS/DSS/ES has been for the siting of infrastructures like land ?lls and incineration plants since some systems engineering models for siting infrastructures can be handled by GIS to make spatial interactions comprehensive and understandable for decision makers instead of domain experts in SWM systems (Chang and Wang,1996;Barlishen and Baetz,1996;MacDonald,1996;Haastrup et al.,1998).

5.Future perspectives of systems analysis for solid waste management in Europe

5.1.Current status and limitations

The assessment of SWM by using systems analysis techniques allows decision makers to learn about total system complexity.A quantifying complexity factor requires evaluating interfaces.Whereas system assessment tools provide a wealth of

composite

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Residual/mixed waste

BMW

Packaging waste

MSW

Systems engineering models Systems assessment tools

Fig.3.Systems analysis applied in solid waste management systems in Europe.

A.Pires et al./Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2010)1e 189

measures of complexity inside procedures/components and between them,joint formulation of human factors and physical/ biochemical features in system engineering models in concert with those well-de?ned procedures/components brings about a consid-erable contribution to the improvement of SWM.Such a successful joint endeavor across the boundaries between models and tools can be evidenced by the development of EUDIN,LATS,Green Dot system,and ORWARE.

Without good practices or guidelines,however,such joint endeavors inevitably tend toward the cost-effectiveness principle. For example,a potential social factor that can drive the imple-mentation of systems analysis toward a cost-ineffective condition is

Table4

The purposes of systems assessment tools.

SWM systems Systems assessment tools References

MSW To collect and share information?ows in SWM Nationale Reststoffenbeurs,1986;Waste Exchange UK,2000;CIWM,2003;

Dall et al.,2003;Becker et al.,2007;Denmark Waste Exchange,2008;

LUA NRW,2006;International Synergies Limited,2007;Fahy,2007;

Economie,2008;Jean-Gerard,2008;APA,2008;IHK Recyclingborse,2008;

IWEN,2008;EIONET,2009;Mochty,2009

To understand environmental impacts in SWM system with respect to pollutant fate and transport,or the waste itself Dahlbo and Assmuth,1997;Obernosterer and Brunner,1997;

Powell et al.,1996,1999;D?berl et al.,2002;Melloni et al.,2003;Bolze,2004; Beigl and Salhofer,2004;Sokka et al.,2004;Ecobilan,2004;Xaráet al.,2005; Kirkeby et al.,2005;Badino et al.,2007;Mastellone et al.,2009;

Rigamonti et al.,2009a,b;Frakgou et al.,2009

To assess SWM plans,regulations,policies,and strategies EU,1997;Bj?rklund et al.,1999;Saarikoski,2000;Arbter,2001;

Moberg et al.,2002;Aum?nier,2002;Ministry of the

Environment Government of Japan,2003;

Salhofer et al.,2005,2007;Pladerer et al.,2007;SEA Wiki,2007;

Escalante et al.,2007;Buttol et al.,2007;Cheshire County Council,2007;

SEPA,2007b;Pisoni et al.,2009;NLWA,2009;Desmond,2009

To assess options for decision making in SWM systems Sundberg,1993;Karagiannidis and Moussiopoulos,1997;

Sivertun and Le Duc,1998;Ljunggren,1998,2000;Wilson,2002;Reich,2002;

Fiorucci et al.,2003;Karagiannidis et al.,2003;Skordilis,2004;Mu?oz et al.,2004;

Costi et al.,2004;Viotti et al.,2005;Eriksson et al.,2005;Reich,2005;

Gentil et al.,2005;Dornburg and Faaij,2006;Jansen and Gerlo,2006;

Minciardi et al.,2007;SEPA,2007a;Ulli-Beer et al.,2007;Bovea and Powell,2006;

Rodríguez-Iglesias et al.,2007;Cherubini et al.,2008;Gallo et al.,2009;

de Feo and Malvano,2009;Federico et al.,2009;Ekvall et al.,2009;

Tunesi and Rydin,2009;Abeliotis et al.,2009

To site infrastructures Lahdelma et al.,2002;EEA,2003

To assess part of the system including waste production steps with respect to perspectives Finnveden et al.,2002;Fell and Fletcher,2007;Bovea et al.,2007; Grosso et al.,2008;Karadimas and Loumos,2008

Residual/

mixed waste To collect and share information?ows in SWM LUA NRW,2006

To assess environmental impacts related to

SWM infrastructures

Harrop and Pollard,1998;Coutinho et al.,1998;Snary,2002;

Allgaier and Stegmann,2003;Verro et al.,2003;Capuzzo and Farina,2003;

Cossu et al.,2003;Boerboom et al.,2003;Marques and Hogland,2003;

Belgiorno et al.,2003;Bel?ore et al.,2005;Zorzi et al.,2005;

Morra et al.,2005,2006;Masi et al.,2007;Bour and Zdanevitch,2007;

Cangialosi et al.,2008;Moutavtchi et al.,2008;Perkoulidis et al.,2010

To assess SWM options and the system itself Loeschau and Rotter,2005;van der Linden and Torfs,2005;

Chanchampee and Rotter,2007

To evaluate operations occurring in the SWM system

(collection,treatment,and disposal)

Ecobilan,2004;Bergsdal et al.,2005;Emery et al.,2007;Wittmaier et al.,2009

To site infrastructures Vaccari et al.,2005

To assess policies and economic instruments Nilsson et al.,2005;Bj?rklund and Finnveden,2007

Packaging waste To collect and share information GS1,2008

To assess management options for a speci?c packaging material,considering environmental perspectives Finnveden et al.,1994;Kaila,1998;Ryberg et al.,1998;Person et al.,1998a,b; Widheden et al.,1998a,b;Frees et al.,1998,2004;Detzel et al.,2003; Pancaldi et al.,2005;Schmidt et al.,2007;Dahlbo et al.,2007

To assess management options for a speci?c packaging

material considering targets to be established

Dalager et al.,1995;Fehringer and Brunner,1997

To analyze the speci?c parts of the system, including collection,treatment,and disposal Baumann et al.,1993;Finnveden and Ekvall,1998;Holmquist,1999; Ruteg?rd,1999;Ibenholt and Lindhjem,2003;Ecobilan,2004

To assess and compare different SWM systems applied to a speci?c packaging waste Frees and Weidema,1998;Ekvall et al.,1998;Jahre,1998;

Ekvall and B?ckman,2002;Hischier et al.,2005;Heilmann and Winkler,2005; Dahlbo et al.,2005;Vercalsteren et al.,2007

To assess policies Bruvoll,1998;W?ger et al.,2001

BMW To assess and improve the system,including

environmental perspectives Bj?rklund et al.,2000;Wassermann et al.,2003;Shmelev and Powell,2006; Güereca et al.,2006;Schmidt and Pahl-Wostl,2007;EUNOMIA,2007

To understand environmental impacts in SWM

system with respect to pollutant fate

and transport,or the waste itself

Boldrin and Christensen,2007

To understand the source of the waste streams Purcell and Magette,2007,2009 To compare system outputs with substitute products Eriksson et al.,2002

To compare technologies applied to the collection, treatment and disposal in SWM systems Edelmann and Schleiss,1999;Danish EPA,2003;Lang et al.,2006a,b

A.Pires et al./Journal of Environmental Management xxx(2010)1e18 10

the NIMBY (Not in my backyard)syndrome.More human factors that may tilt the balance/scales of the SWM system should be certainly included to address the impacts from socioeconomic conditions,policy instruments,and regulatory requirements such as EU Directives,national regulations,and regional or local plans and strategies.With the aid of the technology hub proposed in Fig.1,which pinpoints the synergistic effect between system engineering models and system assessment tools,the SWM communities become able to get over the hurdle of system complexity to some extent.A salient case of regulatory requirement is the mandatory EIA and SEA for some speci ?c cases due to the emergency of European Directives 85/337/EEC (EU,1985)and 2001/42/EC (EU,2001),respectively.While European Directives with mandatory targets and features are signi ?cant,national policy instruments may drive more incentives to achieve the prescribed goals by a more cost-effective,ef ?cient,and forward-looking way.In this pathway,CBA,LCA,MFA,and others may be glued together to support high-end analysis.

5.2.Gaps on knowledge of waste management

All of these system complexities may encourage the creation of a system of systems (SoSs),which may include large-scale concurrent and distributed sub-systems in relation to the WHP.In

other words,each SoS might be a collection of task-oriented or dedicated sub-systems that pool their resources and capabilities together to obtain a more speci ?c goal from an integrated solid waste management perspective.The selected system assessment tools in support of developed scenarios are the workhorses that may enrich the SoS and empower the systems analysis when dealing with contemporary,emerging challenges.These challenges include but are not limited to climate change,resource depletion,and energy crisis as they are the long-term challenges facing SWM communities.Systems engineering models in concert with system assessment tools may be capable of contributing to a fundamental understanding of environmental,technical,economic and social aspects of SWM systems in response to these challenges.To quantify the pros and cons of each alternative at the EU or national level,however,green accounting might be an additional tool for tackling these challenges at different scales.

With the increase of stakeholders ’involvement,information ?ows in and out of the SWM systems increase the complexity.Additionally missing data and information in terms of both quan-tity and quality can make such high-end systems analysis dif ?cult to advance.Thus,the need to effectively and ef ?ciently collect data through identi ?able data sources,recognized pathways,and involved agencies,may be justi ?ed with respect to the related complexity via the development of MISs,ESs and DSSs.The need for

Table 6

Number of published articles studying SWM systems in European countries.Countries

AT BE DE DK ES FI FR GR IE IT LU NL PT SE UK NO CH Total Systems engineering models

CBA 1002001010000232012FM 4001100120000010010SM 000001300000001117OM 001002030100000007IMS 000001000000001002Systems assessment tools

MIS/DSS/ES 2172001114111130026SD 000000000001001002MFA 2120120001000000110LCA/LCI 1271362130010021751272RA 1000001007010120013EIA 000001000000100002SEA 4000010011020030012SoEA 0020000003000410212SA

10010503250101020131Total

218

Note:Country abbreviations e AT (Austria),BE (Belgium),DE (Germany),DK (Denmark),FI (Finland),FR (France),GR (Greece),IE (Ireland),IT (Italy),LU (Luxembourg),NL (Netherlands),NO (Norway),PT (Portugal),CH (Switzerland),SE (Sweden),ES (Spain),UK (United Kingdom).Bold numbers represent meaningful countries concerning the number of published articles in systems analysis (more signi ?cant in systems assessment tools).

Table 5

The purposes of systems engineering models.SWM systems Systems engineering models References

MSW

To predict solid waste production

Brahms and Schwitters,1985;Dennison et al.,1996a,b;Andersen et al.,1998,Patel et al.,1998;EEA,1999;Navarro-Esbríet al.,2002;Lebersorger et al.,2003;Beigl and Lebersorger,2009

To optimize the system for choosing the best option

Kaila,1987;Hokkanen and Salminen,1997;Gottinger,1988;Cosmi et al.,1998;Komilis,2007To assess recycling rate Huhtala,1997

To site infrastructures

Mitroupoulos et al.,2009

To analyze speci ?c parts of the system Tanskanen and Melanen 1999;Villeneuve et al.,2005,2009To assess the system MCCK and Consultancy,1998Residual/mixed waste To site infrastructures

Arnold and Terra,2006

Packaging waste

To analyze how to reach recycling targets Radetzki,1999;Angst et al.,2001

To study/predict waste production

Bach et al.,2004;Maunder et al.,2006

To analyze the speci ?c parts of the system,like collection,treatment disposal

Hanley and Slark,1994;Powell et al.,1995;Tucker et al.,1998;W?ger et al.,1998;Ekvall and B?ckman,2001;Petersen and Andersen,2002To understand and know social cost and bene ?ts of different packaging waste systems Vigs?,2004

To assess policies McHenry et al.,2003BMW

To assess the system

Le Bozec et al.,2009

A.Pires et al./Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2010)1e 18

a Quality Assurance System(QAS)to enhance con?dence in data and information products can be assured.Such electronic platforms (e.g.,MIS,ES,and DSS)would be helpful to support decisions and facilitate research to gain deeper knowledge in SWM.Only this way will it become possible to reach the end-of-waste criteria,sup-porting waste recycling,treatment and disposal and create a more sustainable management.

5.3.Research needs for the future

SDS is a precautionary principle and European directives have re?ected it to some extent.However,waste prevention programs at the EU level should have an important role in system analysis because failures can occur in association with environmental, economic and social aspects.These waste prevention plans in SWM systems generally have multi-objective,interactive,dynamic,and uncertain features that complicate the applications of modeling and assessment techniques.The application of EPR,such as the Green Dot system,should be expanded as an integral part of modern SWM systems,since it may provide a possible route to maximize resources utilization and con?rm the sustainability.To achieve this goal,carrying out site-speci?c and process speci?c CBA,MFA,LCA,EIA,etc would be required.With these site-speci?c and process speci?c inputs,next-generation systems engineering models would be able to re?ect environmental impacts through an integrated approach.It should lead to consider more options across waste treatment technologies at all planning,construction,and operational stages,and evaluate more policy instruments to promote waste prevention,reuse and recycling.

To achieve these high-end decision analyses,systems engi-neering models may be simultaneously and?exibly integrated with system assessment tools in the context of IMS or may be sequen-tially applied in multiple stages so that the results from one model or tool are the inputs needed for the next one.Given that the New Directive of Waste de?nes public participation in the assessment of waste management plans and waste prevention programs through SEA,conducting such quantitative decision analyses should include more stakeholders in the decision making process.With this trend, future CBA,LCA,MFA,EIA and SEA might become a multitude of essential models and/or tools that may be mandatory in speci?c situations.On many occasions,we envision that LCA should be designed based on the framework of MFA since the object to be assessed is a process,not a product.Besides,an MIS would be essential to manage information?ows from different sources, support large-scale systems analyses in search of some adaptive solid management strategies,and assess not only technology-based options but also market-based instruments.

6.Conclusions

MSW management is normally seen as a major decision making issue with respect to sustainable development in all local communities of the EU.Due to the lack of appropriate system analysis methodologies to de?ne,evaluate,optimize or adapt their waste treatment strategies and to meet the progressive targets set up at the EU level,this paper reviews all the possible trends,and evaluates the present situation of SWM systems in the EU countries in terms of waste processing systems,policy and decision making issues.Facing all regulatory agencies,industrial,and municipalities in the EU,whereas the Southern EU countries(e.g.Portugal,Greece, Spain)require developing measures to implement more integrative SWM systems and reach the objectives of the EU directives,the Central EU Countries(e.g.Germany,Austria,The Netherlands, United Kingdom,France)and certain Northern countries(e.g.Norway)need models and tools in order to rationalize their tech-nological choices and management strategies.

With a thorough literature review and elaborate investigation on how the system analysis techniques were developed and applied in these EU countries,a few future foci in research pre-sented were also organized in this paper for public and private sectors to determine their future strength,thereby achieving the sustainability goals easily.These few milestones required for future development can be carved up front for EU members as follows: Deepen the structure of systems engineering models in the context of IMS which may incorporate more multi-faceted features covering economic,environmental,social,ecological, political;cultural,and managerial aspects for the sustainability assessment of current and future SWM systems.

Provide synergistic tools to account for uncertainty associated with economic,environmental,social,ecological,political;

cultural,and managerial aspects for SWM systems.

Develop large-scale system analysis techniques in order to combine system assessment tools such as EIA,LCA,MFA,and even green accounting with systems engineering models such as optimization models to assess global warming potential, energy saving,and resources conservation practices so as to achieve sustainable waste management goals.

Investigate both carbon and water footprints for all waste management alternatives as an integral part of system analysis leading to support complicated decision making and policy analyses under the global change impacts.

Improve current waste management informatics such as MIS, DSS,and ES for the ful?llment of targets of environmental management and data reporting requirements to the EU in the context of cyber infrastructure applications.

Conduct more cohesive CBA to support resources conservation plans such as Green Dot or the deposit-refund systems e packaging waste in SWM systems proposed by European Directives and incorporate more advanced assessments in terms of economic,environmental or social behavior of such systems with the aid of some system assessment tools such as LCA and MFA.

Expand all ideas described above at different spatial and temporal scales.

With these efforts above,it is believed that the trends of current SWM systems and the perspectives of future SWM in association with the potential applications via integrating a plethora of different systems engineering models with a variety of system assessment tools should lead to improved insights and generate a suite of better management policies and strategies needed for the future.

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solidworks工程图图纸模板下载

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复制所选。三、创建工程图的图纸格式和模板 1．【新建】→【工程图】→按下图做如下设置→【确定】2．【图纸】右键→【编辑图纸格式】 1．在图幅区域以外的地方（如下图的红色区域）鼠标左键单击一下，然后按“ctrl+V”，将图框粘帖进工程图中2．此时屏幕显示 4．【插入】→【工程视图】→【模型】→浏览打开“工程图范例.sldpRt”文件，插入一个主视图（我选择了1：1的比例），再按esc键。此时屏幕显示 5．重新编辑图纸格式 6．双击“（材料）”，选择链接属性选中【图纸属性中所指定视图中模型】，做如图设置，选中 material 7．类似的做以下链接（单位）——公司名称（图名）——sw－文件名称篇二：solidworks工程图模板制作 solidworks工程图模板制作一、创建一个零件模板 1．选择材料：如“普通碳钢” 2．定义单位：

幸福在那一刻绽放作文600字(免费下载)

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放假了作文700字爽死了，终于放假了。这天终于盼到了。一大早还在做美梦时，老妈的一连串的唠叨又传来了说：＂放假了，别一天到晚就知道看电视、玩手机的…… “烦死了，有完没完呀，好不容易放假，饶了我吧！”我心里嘀咕着，这些话耳朵听得都起茧子了，只在床上嗯了声。可没过10分钟，妈妈又把我叫醒说：“我不放心，起来我带你去你舅舅家去‘穿线’”。啥，去穿线，有没有搞错，那哪里是我这个“千金小姐”亲自做的，假期还不让我休息休息，娱乐娱乐，再说还有一大堆作业等着我呢。刚想反驳，可是看着妈妈那张黑脸，我知道答案写在脸上了，已经没有商量的余地了。心里一百个不情愿，豪无表情地跟妈去舅舅家“打工”，一路上，总是想着我的同学们一定在睡觉玩游戏……可我却被我妈叫去打工，真是的，又不给我钱，真不知道她怎么想的？到了舅舅的工厂，轰隆隆的机器轰鸣声，人们忙碌地工作着。我找了个位置坐下，开始我都不知道那些一堆一堆的是什么，迷惘的呆呆地看着。但毕竟来了又不能不给妈的面子，于是我跑到群姐姐那去问了几遍，明白了：白色的叫端子，别的叫双线或单线。因为我初学工，小学徒，只能打下手能做一些简单的活。姐姐微笑看着我，俨然一个大师傅的模样，我小心翼翼听着要领：白色的端子凸起的部位当正面，依次穿两根红根红线，再次穿黑线，最后才穿灰线，顺序不能颠倒。别看这样很简单，其实这里面也是很有学问的。你一不留神就错了，一错这个成品就毁了，我慢慢地体验这其中的乐趣，这是我第一次尝试，我发现了这其中的奥妙，你越穿越熟练，逐渐掌握了一些简单的技巧。我现在得感谢妈妈，在老妈的逼迫下，我得到了不一样的感受，因为这是我第一次独立。放假了，我在工厂穿线，变得心灵手巧，你在哪里呢？

作文要素

[一】搞清楚各种文体的结构，要素。 1，记叙文：第一，要交代明白。无论记人记事，还是写景状物，一般都要交代明白时间、地点、人物、起因、经过、结果。否则文章就不完整。第二，线索清楚。虽然观察的角度、记述的方式可以不同，但每一篇文章都应当有一条关联材料、统贯全篇的中心线索，否则文章就会松散。第三，人称要一致。无论用第一人称“我”记述，还是用第三人称“他”记述，都要通篇一贯。第四，要有条理。一篇好的记叙文，最重要的就是条理。乱七八糟的文章，就算是字字珠玑、妙语连珠也不受青睐。记叙文以记叙为主，但往往也间有描写、抒情和议论，不可能有截然的划分。它是一种形式灵活、记叙事件的文体。记叙文一般由时间（指事件发生的时间）、地点（指事件发生的地方）、人物（指事件的中心人物）、事件（起因、经过、结果）构成。 2，议论文：议论文是对某个问题或某件事进行分析、评论，表明自己的观点、立场、态度、看法和主张的一种文体。议论文有三要素，即论点、论据和论证。议论文有三要素：论点、论据、论证。根据题目写出一个观点，再加以阐述说明，重要的是要有说服能力，三要素缺一不可，下面的仔细看看，以后就可以多试着写作，这样作文才可以有长进。此外，还要多记一些名言警句和名人事例，以便在作文中更好的应用。 3，说明文；第一，内容上的科学性。说明文的内容必须真实准确，以确凿的材料为依据，如实反映客观事物的特征、本质及规律，具有严密的科学性。第二，结构上的条理性。事物和事理有时往往是比较复杂的，为了给读者以明确的认识，说明其特征时必须有一定的条理和顺序。常见的说明顺序有时间顺序(程序顺序也是时间顺序的一种)、空间顺序和逻辑顺序。这种说明顺序往往体现在文章的结构层次上，所以阅读说明文时，理清结构层次与把握说明顺序是一致的。第三，语言的准确性。说明文的实用性很强，语言表达“失之毫厘”，其结果就会“谬以千里”，所以说明文语言要求准确无误，给读者以科学的认识。在科技飞速发展的今天，说明文的应用越来越广泛，各门学科的教科书、科普读、知识小品、解说词、说明书等都是说明文。可以说，说明文和我们日常学习、生活、工作有着非常密切的联系。说明方法：常见的说明方法有举例子、作引用、分类别、列数字、作比较、列图表、下定义、作诠释、打比方、摹状貌、作假设这11种。小学常见的有：举例子、列数字、打比方、分类别、作比较。中学常见的有：举例子、列数字、打比方、分类别、作比较、作引用、画图表、下定义、作诠释、摹状貌。 “作假设”小学和初中不常用，一般是到高中和大学才可能学到。【二】定题目题目不宜抽象，最好简单明了，太过抽象导致扣分；范围要小，题目范围大了，导致自己在写作时思路乱，也导致老师难以阅读。【三】作文开头，结尾。开头，结尾不宜超出第五行{100字}，特别是中考，容易扣分。开头结尾都要点题，中心思想要突出，尽量引出下文，最好开门见山。开头第一句要考虑清楚，第一句容易影响后面的思路。【四】技巧一、一种体裁

初一作文我眼中的幸福600字八篇

【篇一：我眼中的幸福】有人说，幸福是彼此牵挂，它能让亲人间的感情更加亲密，它能让朋友间的感情更加深厚，它甚至能让陌生人心手相携。是啊，能被人时刻牵挂着，或想念一个自己深爱的人的一颦一笑，确实能让幸福溢满心间。有人说经历是一种幸福，经历成功的欢乐，经历生活的锤炼，经历天真无邪的童年，经历活力四射的青春，都足以让自己沐浴在幸福的光环下。还有人说幸福是一种感觉，幸福是一种心境，幸福是一种体现。幸福有着深刻的内涵，每个人的内心深处都有自己对幸福的独特感悟。我眼中的幸福是每天沐浴在爸爸妈妈精心编织出的爱的阳光下。在妈妈眼中，我永远是一个长不大的孩子，时刻需要大人的细心呵护。每天品尝着妈妈精心做的饭菜，每天都能品尝到妈妈特有的爱的味道，这时内心就会被幸福填得满满的。每天都穿着妈妈洗得干干净净的衣服，衣服上肥皂的清新的味道，就像妈妈爱的味道，闻起来让人心旷神怡。曾经读过这样一首诗：疼你，用骂表示;爱你，用唠叨抒发;想你，却叮嘱你不要想家。孩子啊，这就是妈妈。你远走，她向你挥手，还没有转身早已泪如雨下，给你看的却总是一个快乐的妈妈每次读到这里，我都会感动得一塌糊涂。爸爸也很爱我，他善于用富有哲理的话来启发我、鼓励我。快要期中考试了，我一天比一天紧张，神经也绷得紧紧的。爸爸看不过去，就鼓励我说：无论学习多么艰辛，我们都会陪你一起度过。我相信你一定会坚强地扬起自信的风帆，一定能到达理想的彼岸，与成功握手，与鲜花拥抱，要相信自己哦。听着爸爸鼓励的话语，幸福与感动填满心间，暗下决心，我一定要努力取得优异成绩。这就是我眼中的幸福。只要你用心感悟，幸福其实很简单。【篇二：我眼中的幸福】有件东西它虚无缥缈却让真情意切得人看得清清楚楚，他没有具体的形态，也没有对应的颜色，在孩子眼中，他就是一块甜甜的糖，在少年眼中他就是一张打满红勾的试卷世界上到处有它的身影，只要有欢笑的地方就有它，只要有快乐的地方就有它，只要有美好的地方就有它聪明的你，猜到了吧!我想说的就是它——幸福。有人曾说，他眼中的幸福必定是三代同堂，其乐融融的画面，因为这种亲情的幸福往往是最温暖的，最有情的。也有人曾说，他眼中的幸福，是雪后自愿的为别人铲出一条道路，让别人走的舒坦，因为互助的幸福往往是最为珍贵的，最为难得的。

放假的感觉真好六年级作文

放假的感觉真好六年级作文放假的感觉真好六年级作文无论是在学校还是在社会中，大家都写过作文吧，作文根据体裁的不同可以分为记叙文、说明文、应用文、议论文。还是对作文一筹莫展吗？下面是小编精心整理的放假的感觉真好六年级作文，仅供参考，欢迎大家阅读。 “时光如水，生命如歌”在白驹过隙间，我们又送走了一个紧张而奋斗的学期，迎来又一个愉快的寒假。走出校门，我兴奋得蹦蹦跳跳，像一只活泼可爱的小兔子。今天天气特别好，虽然在冬天，可是却出了冬日里第一抹阳光，我心想：这是老天爷为我祝贺吗?仰望着天空，发现今天的天更蓝，云更白，草更绿，花更艳了。我抬头，让耀眼的阳光尽情的洒在我脸上，闭着眼，嘴角微微勾起来，轻快的踢着路边的小石子。放假的感觉真好!走出学习的世界，到小区花园，尽是一片“冬景”：纷纷落落的雪花，落满了这个小区。掉在地上，像是铺了一层地毯似的;掉在大树上，就像給大树铺了一件雪

白的衣裳似的;掉在我身上，我轻轻抚摸它们，凉凉的，不一会就化了。无聊时，我就给小伙伴打电话，问他们有没有时间出来玩。一个人待在家里时，我还一边观赏雪景，一边听着古典音乐，心里像吃了蜜一样甜，那种紧张的学习压力霎时就没有了，只留下放假的快感。放假的感觉真好!放假时我更有更多的’时光去阅读，去书的世界里遨游：去和保尔探讨“钢铁是怎样炼成的”，和斯巴达克斯一起去古罗马探险，和唐吉珂德闯荡世界，和亚哈船长出海捕白鲸，和高尔基一起去拜访《母亲》，顺便到《神奇的花园》捉昆虫，到《汤姆叔叔的小屋》接受《麦琪的礼物》，与《包法利夫人》谈谈《天方夜谭》，到《草房子》里去找桑桑，和《茶花女》去讨论《理智与情感》《傲慢与偏见》的关系，去尽享《童年》的快乐。放假期间有说不尽的快乐，我喜欢放假!

作文课《抓住细节》教学设计

作文课《抓住细节》教学设计本单元的写作要求是“抓住细节”，这一单元的写作目的是指导学生抓住细节，刻画人物，表达情感。教材中首先指出什么是细节描写;接着列举《阿长与山海经》中的例子帮助学生更好理解;然后通过回忆学过的课文内容，简短记录记忆深刻的细节的方式，更好的体会细节描写的作用;最后提示学生细节描写要注意的问题：要学会抓住真实、典型、生动的细节进行描写，才能更好地表现事物特征或作者情感。二、学情分析七年级学生的写作类型主要以写人叙事的记叙文为主，他们虽然有小学六年写作经验的积累，但是缺少对人物、生活细致的观察。记叙事件不具体，很笼统，描写人物和写景状物时，不会抓住细微处具体刻画，造成文章空洞，缺少细节，不能很好刻画人物，表达情感。因此，对学生进行细节描写的指导与训练尤为重要。

三、教学目标 1.了解细节描写及常见类型，理解细节描写在写作中的作用。 2.学习捕捉生活的细节，描写生动的细节。 3.在写作中运用细节描写来表达情感。四、教学重点掌握几种细节描写的方法并会运用。五、教学难点学会运用典型、生动的细节来表达真情实感。六、教学准备

学案：人物描写分析材料七、教学时数一课时八、教学过程 (一)对比句子——明确什么是细节描写导语：请同学们读两个句子，帮助老师判断哪一句更好。句子1：烈日当空，火热的太阳炙烤着大地，热极了。句子2：烈日当空，火热的太阳炙烤着大地，道路两旁的庄稼热得低下头，弯下腰;河里的水烫手;地里的土冒烟。出示任务：1.你认为哪一个句子好?为什么?

2.第2句比第1句增加了一些内容,说说增补了哪些内容? 3.什么是细节描写：细节描写是对人物、景物、事件等表现对象的细微而具体的刻画。小结：根据表现内容，细节可以大致分为肖像细节、语言细节、动作细节、景物细节等。大家之所以认为第二个句子好，正是因为与第一个句子相比较，第二句对周边景物进行了更加细致的描写，更好表现了天气的炎热。因此，要想更好表情达意，抓住细节描写是非常重要的。 (二)欣赏典型细节描写——体会细节描写作用 1.有一天，我在家听到打门，开门看见老王直僵僵地镶嵌在门框里……他面色死灰，两只眼上都结着一层翳……他简直像棺材里倒出来的，就像我想象里的僵尸……

把幸福定格在心中作文600字4篇

把幸福定格在心中作文600字4篇把幸福定格在心中作文600字4篇在生活、工作和学习中，大家都尝试过写作文吧，作文一定要做到主题集中，围绕同一主题作深入阐述，切忌东拉西扯，主题涣散甚至无主题。相信很多朋友都对写作文感到非常苦恼吧，下面是小编为大家收集的把幸福定格在心中作文600字4篇，希望对大家有所帮助。把幸福定格在心中作文600字篇1 无论你是已攀上了顶峰，还是被困于巨谷深渊，细细回味，原来生活并不缺乏幸福。 ——题记儿时的家很小、很旧，而在这个破陋的小屋子里，虽什么都缺，但不缺的是爱，是幸福，是感动，家穷我和妹妹都知道，一天的三餐几乎没有什么变化,身上的衣服连想找个补缝缝都难，可是爸爸硬是用那双已被磨肿了的肩，支掌着这个家支撑着我们的心灵，并东拼西揍的借钱，供我和妹妹这个两个女孩子上学!“上学”对当时的我们是一种什么样的意义?----奢华的，是我们做梦也不敢想象的!

家里，实在是拿不出什么钱了，可是，镇里唯一一家小学，离我家真的好远，于是，接送我和妹妹的唯一交通工具便是爸爸那宽厚的背，新的一天又来临了，我们照常上学，怀塞着几本旧本，争着闹着上了爸爸的背，依稀记得，我在左妹在右，当我们哼着小调走在一条“羊肠小道”时，突然，爸爸停住了，我们顺着爸爸的目光向前望去，前方唯一的路口，被昨夜因暴风雨刮倒的大树给n住了!爸爸出神的望着远方，有些窘迫的说:“孩子，今天……今天就不上学了吧.”我和妹妹咬着唇低下了头，抠着旧书的拐角，一声不吭，爸爸顿了顿，像是下定了什么决心似的，他一咬牙:“走!咱们继续上学去!”于是，我们又继续唱着小调，折回去又绕道而行，那一次，爸爸的背湿了，我和妹妹的眼眶也湿了，可是爸爸仍是迈着稳健的步伐向学校走去，终于，学校到了，我和妹妹像两只飞回自然的鸟冲进了校园，我一转脸，爸爸的眸子里荡漾的尽是浓浓的父爱，爸爸的嘴角一直上扬，透出爸爸的憨实朴素，幸福把浪温的情怀和严峻的现实交织在一起，形成一只余韵不绝的歌，而那时,幸福就真的定格在那永恒的一秒，现在，家里已很有钱了，爸爸已买了车，而我，再也无法爬回爸爸的背了。把幸福定格在心中作文600字篇2 袅袅炊烟在一间破旧的小屋上方升起，飘来的那阵却是