Rev Ind Organ(2013)43:3–6
DOI10.1007/s11151-013-9395-7
Introduction:The Interstate Commerce Act of1887
Wesley W.Wilson
Published online:17July2013
?Springer Science+Business Media New York2013
The Interstate Commerce Act of1887(ICA)was signed into law on February4,1887, by President Cleveland.This Act,originally labeled“An Act to Regulate Commerce,”provided for regulation of interstate rail commerce in the United States.While the Act was originally passed to regulate railroads;it eventually was modi?ed and shaped the regulation of a wide variety of industries and markets that included motor carrier, electricity,telecommunications,and barge markets.Academically,the ICA also stim-ulated academic research for over100years on the rationale for regulation,optimal regulatory design,the estimation of costs and ef?ciency,demand,market power,the effects of mergers,and a wide variety of other issues.
The Act was passed after a period of tremendous growth in the rail network.The?rst steam locomotive was invented in England in1797,and in1827the?rst US railroad (the Baltimore and Ohio)was formed and began operations in1830.From those early days,the industry grew to about30,000miles of rail in1860,and in1869the Union Paci?c and Central Paci?c railroads connected to complete a transcontinental route. The industry continued to grow,reaching about150,000miles by1880,and reached its maximum of264,000miles in1916.
Along with the development of the industry came a number of issues.First,it became recognized that although the network was expanding,it was geographically dispersed.Hence,there were scores of shippers that had only one railroad that charged high prices that were protected by signi?cant entry barriers.Second,railroads have low marginal costs and high?xed costs,and while in some markets they enjoyed a monopoly position,in other markets they were confronted with competition.In some cases,this competition put extreme downward pressure on prices.Railroads formed W.W.Wilson(B)
Department of Economics,University of Oregon,Prince Lucien Campbell Hall Room435,Eugene,
OR97454-1285,USA
e-mail:wwilson@https://www.doczj.com/doc/dd7647504.html,
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4W.W.Wilson associations(cartels)to curb the downward spiral of prices on these latter routes.The result led to substantial differences in prices owing to different levels of competition and organization of?rms where multiple?rms competed.The result gave a variety of seemingly“unfair”rates,where the rate that was associated with a“short-haul”distance was higher than the rate of a“long-haul”distance for the transportation of the same commodity.
In response to the issues of high prices in some markets,dramatically?uctuating prices in other markets,preferential treatment of some shippers,price discrimination, etc.,shippers and policy-makers sought solutions.The Granger movement and laws of the1860and1870s are often cited as early attempts by Midwestern grain shippers to regulate the industry and gain relief from high https://www.doczj.com/doc/dd7647504.html,ws such as these failed,and court cases in the1880s dramatically limited non-federal options to curb monopoly pricing,cartelization,and rate discrimination.These led to a call for federal regulation, and in1887the Act was passed.
The collection of papers in this issue brings together a variety authors who cover topics that include:(1)A history of thought paper by John Brown;(2)The impetus for regulation by Kevin Henrickson and myself;(3)The effects of regulation on trans-portation costs by Bruce Blonigen and Anca Cristea and the effects of regulation on labor and the labor movement by James Peoples;and(4)Price discrimination papers by Kenneth Boyer,Timothy Brennan,and James MacDonald.While three papers on price discrimination may seem excessive,much of the ICA was about price discrim-ination,and these three authors have written papers that emphasize different themes and make markedly different contributions.
Policy is often shaped by individuals,and much of the nineteenth century had major scholars whose work in?uenced not only the ICA but also foreshadowed later developments in the?eld of economics.John Brown discusses a number of prominent scholars whose work in?uenced the ICA.He begins with a discussion of Adam Smith and laissez-faire doctrines and the challenges that were placed on these doctrines by the rapid development of rail.He then describes the work of Dionysius Lardner,whose work was very much of the ilk of early industrial organization and marginal analysis. Charles Adams and Arthur Hadley reinforced Lardner’s work,and Arthur Hadley pointed to the need for policies to deal with monopoly markets.Thomas Cooley,the fourth writer,was a legal scholar and the?rst chairperson of the interstate commerce commission(ICC).These works point to the failure of the market to guard against inef?cient networks and ruinous competition.These authors also point to de?nitions of price discrimination that are still used,to the need and justi?cation of associations to prevent excessive competition,and to the drive for regulation in the public’s interest.
Henrickson and Wilson discuss the impetus and rationale for regulation and the passage of the ICA.Regulation of industry requires legislation that can re?ect public and/or private interests.Building on earlier work—e.g.,Gilligan et al.(1989)–they model Senate and Congressional voting in terms of variables that re?ect both rationales for regulation,but introduce novel measures of industry concentration,competition, and network characteristics.They then apply the same framework to analyze the voting patterns of the Regional Rail Reorganization Act of1973(the3-R Act),the Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act(the4-R Act),and the Staggers Rail Act of 1980.These latter bills re?ect the primary legislation that dealt with?nancial failure 123
Introduction:The Interstate Commerce Act of18875 of the industry in the1970s and introduced a new approach to regulating the industry. Interestingly,they?nd that many of the same factors that affected voting for the ICA remained nearly100years later.
Blonigen and Cristea examine the effects of the ICA.In their paper,they note that the ICA was passed,in part,to address rate discrimination and also to curtail the extreme volatility of rail prices as the industry and associations rotated between periods of cooperation and non-cooperation.Blonigen and Cristea examine differences in wheat prices between US cities and between European studies that are available from the early1800s through the early1900s.They use these prices,between locations in the US and between locations in Europe,to develop a measure of transport costs for wheat shippers US markets and for European markets(the control group).This allows them to analyze the effects of the ICA on rates and the volatility in rates using a difference-in-difference speci?cation to estimate the effects of the ICA.They?nd that while the ICA did not have a statistically important effect on rates,it did have a very signi?cant effect in reducing the volatility of transport costs,which provides strong evidence that the ICA stabilized rail cartel prices.
James Peoples points to the ICA Act and its in?uence on the labor movement and markets.He notes that the ICA led to regulation of a number of different industries, and the development of labor organization and rent-sharing.He discusses how much of the development of the labor movement is grounded in industries that were subject to ICC regulation and provides a concise review of the development of labor,labor unions,and the impact of legislation on labor.He concludes his paper with an analysis of the effects of deregulation on labor in trucking,bus,and rail markets from1983to 2011,?nding that wage rates fell after deregulation and are now about the same as those in other industry sectors or are substantially lower than those received prior to regulatory reform.Given these in?uences,one cannot help conclude that the nearly 100-year legacy of the1887ICA has eroded.
The?nal three papers by MacDonald,Brennan,and Boyer each deal with price discrimination but each covers distinct topics.Prior to the passage of the ICA,as in Blonigen and Cristea,there was considerable rate volatility.However,three was also considerable variability in rates from different origins.A major provision of the Act was in response to the observation that,in some cases,short-haul markets sometimes were observed to have rates per unit volume that exceed rates of longer-haul markets that had higher costs.
MacDonald describes price discrimination prior to passage of the ICA,post WWII, and post partial deregulation of the railroads.He points out that price discrimination was present in all periods,but policies were different.In particular,he notes that a primary focus of the ICA was on price discrimination,but shortfalls of the ICA limited its effectiveness until later legislation was passed.From1945to1975research focused on the basic idea that railroads were heavily regulated and unpro?table,which was accompanied by the development of new modes,the loss of traf?c to the new modes (and the introduction of other commodities that displaced mainstay rail traf?c and went to other modes),a continued emphasis on value-of-service pricing and pricing to meet competition,etc.During this regime one might conclude that price discrimination was necessary in regulation to ensure the?nancial viability of the railroads.In the 1980-present period,many regulations were lifted,rate bureaus were phased out,and
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6W.W.Wilson collective actions of railroads were limited.Contracts between shippers and carriers became commonplace.This changed the rate structure from rate equalization to shipper (individual)price discrimination.
Brennan compares and contrasts the two major“commerce”bills of the time period: the ICA and the Sherman Antitrust Act.In his study,he carefully describes the ICA and the Sherman Act and builds the case that while they both addressed market power, they had different objectives.The Sherman Act focuses on antitrust to promote welfare and ef?ciency,while,he argues,the ICA was almost entirely based on muting price discrimination and about shippers obtaining equal access to?nal consumers.Indeed, he concludes that“…the ICA and Sherman Act had precious little substantively in common;regulation and antitrust are hardly two sides of the same‘mitigate market power’coin.”
Boyer describes some of the pricing issues that have confronting policy-makers and then uses a relatively simple and stylized model of a rail network to examine rail pricing and price discrimination.He shows how the pattern of prices resulted in an inef?cient equilibrium as ef?cient prices were not always the pro?t-maximizing prices in his network.He?nds that pricing behavior led to incentives to build excess trackage and the failure of the ICC to de?ne appropriate rate structures.He also points to ICC behavior as maximizing access,which led to inef?cient levels of transportation and location for production and consumption.
This collection of papers offers a development and review of economic thinking that affected not only the form of regulation but also foreshadowed much of economic writing that came later.The writings provide,in collection,much of the history of railroads in the1800s but also the problems that attached to the industry and its growth that required the legal framework to evolve.They also point to the collection of public and private interests in shaping regulation.These include not only the political interests of that time but also the shaping of the labor movement.There is also much in these writings that points to the problems of the industry in the1900s and the legislative attempts to deal with the problems.Finally,there are three related but distinct papers on price discrimination.These include discussions not only of the growth of the railroads in the1800s,but also the decline of the railroads in the1900s and how policy changed over the different periods.
Taken together,this collection of papers offers historical accounts of the industry and economic thought that shaped the ICA and that were foundational in much of the development of industrial organization,labor,and theories of regulation. Reference
Gilligan,T.W.,Marshall,W.J.,&Weingast,B.R.(1989).Regulation and the theory of legislative choice: The interstate commerce act of1887.The Journal of Law and Economics,32,35–61.
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科技论文写作指南 (依据中国科技论文在线网站的相关内容改编) 返回 科技论文是科技发展及现代化建设的重要科技信息源，是记录人类科技进步的历史性文件。什么是科技论文？它与一般的科技文章有什么不同？怎样写好科技论文？这些都是广大科技工作者感兴趣的问题。因此，本站刊登“科技论文写作指南”，以期进一步提高科技论文的整体水平。 一、科技论文的含义 科学技术论文简称科技论文。它一般包括：报刊科技论文、学年论文、毕业论文，学位论文 ( 又分学士、硕士、博士论文 ) 。科技论文是在科学研究、科学实验的基础上，对自然科学和专业技术领域里的某些现象或问题进行专题研究，分析和阐述，揭示出这些现象和问题的本质及其规律性而撰写成的文章。也就是说，凡是运用概念、判断、推理、论证和反驳等逻辑思维手段，来分析和阐明自然科学原理、定律和各种问题的文章，均属科技论文的范畴。科技论文主要用于科学技术研究及其成果的描述，是研究成果的体现。运用它们进行成果推广、信息交流、促进科学技术的发展。它们的发表标志着研究工作的水平为社会所公认，载入人类知识宝库，成为人们共享的精神财富。科技论文还是考核科技人员业绩的重要标准。 二、科技论文的特点 1．科学性 科学性又称真理性，是保证学术论文质量的最基本的要求。科学性的内涵通常可分解为真实性、准确性、可重复性、可比性和逻辑性。 （1）真实性 文案大全
论文必须内容真实，资料可靠。作者要求具有严谨的治学作风和实事求是的科学态度，做到科研设计缜密，努力避免技术性失误，并且客观地记述科研数据，尊重事实，不凭主观臆断和个人好恶随意取舍客观数据或歪曲结论。 （2）准确性 论文的数据、引用的资料应准确无误，其结论和评价应恰如其分地反映客观事物及其运动规律。要求作者仔细观察实验过程，并对实验数据进行精确记录；写作时要选择最恰当的词语，仔细推敲相近词在表述上的细微差别，力争把写入的内容准确到表述出来。 （3）可重复性 读者如采用论文介绍的技术和方法，在相同的条件下，应获得与论文相同的结果和结论。只有在研究中真正揭示了研究对象的内部联系，并掌握了该对象的变化规律，才能保证论文结果和结论的可重复性。这就要求作者科研设计必须合理，写作时要详细介绍必要的、关键的内容，尤其是自己创新或改进的技术和方法，以便读者可重复出同样的结果。有了可重复性的成果，才有推广和应用价值，也才有确定的经济价值和社会价值。 （4）可比性 论文的结果可与其他相同或相近的课题已报道的结果进行比较，以确定其是否具有先进性。这就需要设立对比观察，并用统计学的方法处理观察结果。没有可比性的论文，其可行程度会大大降低。 （5）逻辑性 论文要求必须脉络清晰，结构严谨，论证的展开应符合思维的客观规律。这就要求作者在选题、提出假设、搜集素材、推断结论以及论文写作的全过程中，都必须严格遵守逻辑学的基本规律，不能出现违背逻辑学原理和规律的错误。 文案大全
1.Traveling alone Please talk about traveling alone according to the following hints 1) Describing traveling alone 2) Advantages of traveling alone 3) How to prepare for a solo travel Nowadays,traveling alone is not uncommon, most people love traveling alone becaus e of the feeling on their roads.Traveling alone can open you up to unique personal ex perience in new place. If you love freedom,Traveling alone is your best choice.When you are traveling alone, your time and budget（预 算） are your own! It's all up to you how much time to spend someplace, what your daily modes（方 式） of travelwill be！ And it's easier to make friends with the locals. Solo travel can be a great opportunity for reflection and moving at an individual pace. Traveling by y ourself, you only have to please yourself. But you should prepare for your solo travel ,too.Without a thoughtful preparation,your traveling won’t be so successfully. You ha ve to prepare all your need before setting off.Like medicine,ID card,passport,camera and so on.A solo travel means you may be lonely and bored,so bring some interesting magizines to make your travel more funny. And the last,do what you want! Teacher’s Questions: 1)Would you like to travel in a group or alone? (Why or Why not?) Yes.Because it’s an unusual experience for me to learn how to be more independent,and I also enj oy the unconstraint. 2) What places are your ideal destinations if you are traveling solo? Why do you t hink so? HaiNan island.Because the scenery there is very charming and I can eat bananas and coconut as many as I can. 2. Staying Healthy The following are ways some people try to stay healthy. Please offer your comments. 1) Regular exercise 2) Balanced diet 3) Good living habit Health is the most precious（珍贵 的） wealth we have,so it is important to take good care of our health,here are some advice to help you to stay healthy. There is an old saying says:An apple a day keep doctor away.A balance diet is import
如何指导学生书写正确规范的汉字 陈舒郭沫若先生说：“培养中小学生写好字不一定要人人都成为书法家，总要把字写得合乎规格，比较端正、干净，容易认。指导学生把汉字写好，不仅是学生在校完成各项书面作业的需要，也为今后学习和工作打下良好的书写基础。这样养成习惯，能够使人细心，容易集中意志，善于体贴人。草草了事，粗枝大叶，独行专横，这容易误事的。练习写字可以逐渐免除这些毛病。”组织开展规范汉字书写的教育，小学语文教学任重而道远。 学好、写好汉字是我们对中华民族传统优秀文化的继承和发展。但随着现代科学的发展，电脑打字的普遍应用，书写已经开始慢慢淡化了。有不少小学生写字坐的姿势不正确和执笔不规范，书写水平有所下降，写字不规范、卷面不整洁，马虎潦草，甚至错别字还不少，学生写出来的汉字根本谈不上外形美。结合本人多年的练字经历和写字教学体会来谈一谈，怎样才能指导学生用钢笔（含铅笔）写出一手规范化汉字呢？ 一、正确的思想认识 学生字体的好坏与教师的思想认识是有一定关系的，有些教师由于课程多，作业多，为了赶进度，在布置作业时往往不考虑学生的实际情况，无论学习优差统一一样的作业量，有些学生基础较差，因作业量较大但又怕完不成作业挨批，就干脆支差应付作业草草完成，字体的好坏就根本不在考虑范围内，更不要说规范端正了。有些教师看
到学生作业潦草再看看孩子那么小不忍心让孩子撕了作业重写，就将就这能看清楚对错即可，这样得想导致学生的字体只会越来越不好。这就说，教师是低年级孩子的引路人，在某种程度上，教师的话在学生心中就是圣旨，所以教师在写好规范字上一定要端正自己的思想，让孩子从幼小的心灵里就懂得必须写规范字。 一、正确的坐姿 学习正确、规范书写汉字，养成良好的写字习惯，是小学生语文学习的基本任务之一。要想写好好汉字，必须关注学生写字的姿势是否正确，没有正确的书写姿势，写好汉子简直是难上加难。我认为正确的书写姿势是：写字前组织学生：身坐正，肩放平，两脚微微分。做到“三个一”：手离笔尖一寸，胸离桌子一拳，眼离书本一尺；这些基本的做法只要做到了才是做到了写好汉字的基本功。 二、正确的方法 1．向学生详细讲解执笔的指位、高低和角度，并且为学生做示范，指导学生掌握正确的执笔姿势。 2．及时检查并进行个别指导。学生错误的执笔姿势表现多样，教师在教学过程中要及时检查，对个别学生要进行指导，及时纠正错误。 3．各学科教师和家长要共同对学生进行监督。学生在写作业时，各学科教师都要做好监督和指导工作，发现问题及时纠正。教师还要与家长共同合作，及时对学生的书写过程进行监督和指导。教师在做好指导的同时，还要教学生做手指手腕操，及时缓解学生书写疲劳。
中国海洋大学本科生课程大纲 课程属性：公共基础/通识教育/学科基础/专业知识/工作技能，课程性质：必修、选修 一、课程介绍 1.课程描述（中英文）： 文献综述与科技论文写作是一门有助于提高学生研究能力的综合性课程。其目的就是使学生获得一定的文献信息收集、整理、分析与提炼能力，初步掌握科技论文的写作规范。课程具体内容包括文献的分类，电子文献检索技术，文献的合理使用，学术论文的写作规范、撰写方法等。 Literature review and scientific paper writing is a comprehensive course to improve students' research ability. Its purpose is to enable students to acquire certain literature information collection, organization, analysis and refining ability, and get the principle rules and standards of scientific paper writing. The specific content of the course includes literature classification, electronic literature search technology, literature reference rules, writing standards of academic papers, etc. 2.设计思路： 课程针对对象主要为本专业即将开展毕业论文（或毕业设计）的高年级学生，其目的就是使学生通过本课程的系统学习，全面掌握科技文献检索和科技论文写作的方法，有助于其课程论文或毕业论文的顺利完成，为将来走上工作岗位或进一步的深造 - 1 -
Topics for Oral test 1. Which great leader do you admire most? What qualities did/does he/she have? bill gates 2. Which do you cherish more, your friendship with a good friend or your romantic relationship? obviously, friend is easy to make, but lover is kind of hard to seek for. Since relationship between friends might be not that close compared to romantic relationship, I will probably take it serious and cherish this sweet relationship. Also, I believe that my friends will support me and our relationship won’t be tense and freezing because of this. As the Chinese saying goes, once you got a boyfriend or a girlfriend, you may leave your friends out of your mind. I partly agree this, and when I fall in love, especially at the very beginning, I think I will cherish it more than friendship. 3. What factors would you consider first if you were to find a job (even a part-time job)? I will first consider whether this company and the offered position is high potential. I think high potential is a quality that is vital for the company’s future development and its personnel’s self improvement. Every one need a room to promote and realize one’s self-value. Another factor I concern is—its location. I’d like to work and live in big cities because big cities offer so many opportunities and a higher salary while small cities can’t. 4. Whom do you usually turn to when in trouble, vour parents or your friends? They know me better than anyone else and their vision is wide, their thoughts are mature.
安靖小学微型课题 《如何指导学生规范书写》课题方案 一、指导思想 写字是对历史的尊重，是中华文明的传承。写字不仅仅可以巩固识字，也不仅仅是一项技能训练，它是一个接受文化熏陶、形成良好习惯、培养高尚品质的过程，是…个磨练意志、陶冶情操、学习做人的过程。“让学生写好字，其意义远远超出写字本身。”为深入贯彻新课程改革中提出的教育“以人为本”的发展思路，落实新课程标准中提出的“使学生养成良好的写字习惯，正确的写字姿势，并有一定的写字速度，具备正确书写汉字的能力”，特制定本方案。 二、活动目标 通过对教师、学生有计划、分步骤的系统训练和培养，使教师和学生共同成长，形成正确的写字观、养成良好的写字习惯。 1、提高教师写字能力。首先，在教师中形成写好字的良好风气，使每位教师从书法中找到乐趣，并使书写质量不断提高。 2、锻炼学生写字能力。使学生自觉纠正不良写字习惯，逐步养成正确的写字姿势。养成在写字前观察、思考和写规范字的习惯，克服在作业中依赖橡皮的毛病，把''写出一手好字”当成自己的一项技能，养成“提笔即练字”的习惯。逐渐提高写字速度和质量，努力使学生的写字水平上一个新的台阶。 3、陶冶学生情操。让学生从小掌握汉字的写字技法提高写字技能，从写字
中发现美，进而去创造美，在创造美中体验成功的快乐，在快 乐中修身养性，陶冶情操。 三、组织保障 组长：李新梅 成员：彭燕、王香兰、钟洁 三、实施步骤 第一阶段：调查分析，制定计划 班主任、语文教师和各科任教师协助，对学生“写”的现状进行调查分析，对坐姿、握笔方法、书写要求等进行指导。班级确立阶段目标，制定班级小学生良好书写习惯养成教育工作计划。组织学生学习计划，明确目标。向学生提出正确的导向，引导学生确定自己的阶段奋斗目标，各学科渗透良好写字习惯养成教育活动。 第二阶段：针对“现状”开展活动。 1、学生练习。每天进行书写练习。班长将学生练习的作品准时上交教导处，进行量化评比。 2、教师练习。学校提供练习用纸，教师每周练习五张，周五下午第一节下课时上交作品，每交一张计一分，期末进行总评，计入教师量化。 第三阶段：学校及各班总结表彰 四、具体措施 (-)师生共同努力，整体提高写字能力。 (%1)教师的示范板书、作业批改及评语书写等均要求字迹工整、清楚、端正，一丝不苟，做学生的表率，并对学生的作业进行“作业完成质量”
A NSWER KEY Part One: Essay Writing 1 An Introduction to Writing Activity (Point and Support in a Paragraph), pages 5–6 Point:There are drawbacks to moviegoing. Support: 1. Inconvenience b. Long time to find parking spot and long walk to theater d. Sticky floor 3. Other moviegoers a. Running kids b. Laughing, shouting teenagers Activity (Introductory Paragraph), 8 1. c 2. b 3. a 4. a. Inconvenience of going out b. Temptations of the theater c. Behavior of some patrons Activity (Body: Supporting Paragraphs), 9–10 1. To begin with, I just don’t enjoy the general hassle of the evening. 2. b. Parking lot is always jammed d. Tickets may sell out, and theater is crowded e. Tickets cost up to $8 each 3. Second, the theater offers tempting snacks that I really don’t need. 4. b. 2) chocolate bars 3) Milk Duds 5. Many of the other patrons are even more of a problem than the concession stand. 6. a. Little kids race up and down the aisles b. Teenagers talk back to the screen, whistle, make funny noises Activity (Concluding Paragraph), 10 1. a 2. c Review Activities, 18–20 Answers will vary. 2 The Writing Process Activities (Freewriting, Questioning, Making a List, Clustering, Scratch Outline), 25–31 Answers will vary.
英文论文Introduction的写作技巧 —as a "hook" to attract the readers 学术论文中的引言(Introduction)是对全文内容和结构的总体勾画（The purpose of the Introduction is to stimulate the reader’s interest and to provide pertinent background information necessary to understand the rest of the paper.Without an introduction it is sometimes very difficult for your audience to figure out what you are trying to say. There needs to be a thread of an idea that they will follow through your paper）。The introduction section shows the questions that shoul d be answered for the readers once they finish reading the “Introduction”. 1 引言的内容与结构布局 引言的主要任务是向读者勾勒出全文的基本内容和轮廓。它可以包括以下五项内容中的全部或其中几项： 1）介绍某研究领域的背景、意义、发展状况、目前的水平等； 2）对相关领域的文献进行回顾和综述，包括前人的研究成果，已经解决的问题，并适当加以评价或比较； 3）指出前人尚未解决的问题，留下的技术空白，也可以提出新问题、解决这些新问题的新方法、新思路，从而引出自己研究课题的动机与意义； 4）说明自己研究课题的目的； 5）概括论文的主要内容，或勾勒其大体轮廓。 如何合理安排以上这些内容，将它们有条有理地给读者描绘清楚，并非容易之事。经验告诉我们，引言其实是全文最难写的—部分。这是因为作者对有关学科领域的熟悉程度，作者的知识是渊博、还是贫乏，研究的意义何在、价值如何等问题，都在引言的字里行间得以充分体现。 我们可以将引言的内容分为三到四个层次来安排。第一层由研究背景、意义、发展状况等内容组成，其中还包括某一研究领域的文献综述；第二层提出目前尚未解决的问题或急需解决的问题，从而引出自己的研究动机与意义；第三层说明自己研究的具体目的与内容；最后是引言的结尾，可以介绍一下论文的组成部分。 第一层：1) Introducing the general research area including its background, importance, and p resent level of development……2) Reviewing previous researc h in this area……… 第二层：Indicating the problem that has not been solved by previous research, raising a relevant
科技论文写作规范 国家标准GB7713-87规定：“引言(或绪论)简要说明研究工作的目的、范围、相关领域的前人工作和知识空白、理论基础和分析、研究设想、研究方法和实验设计、预期结果和意义等。引言应言简意赅，不要与摘要雷同，不要成为摘要的注释。一般教科书中已有的知识，在引言中不必赘述。比较短的论文可以只用小段文字起着引言的效用。学位论文为了需要反映作者已掌握了坚实的基础理论和系统的专门知识，具有开阔的科学视野，对研究方案作了充分论证，因此有关历史回顾和前人工作的综合评述，以及理论分析等，可以单独成章，用足够的文字叙述”。 引言的目的是给出作者进行本项工作的原因,企图达到的目的。因此应给出必要的背景材料,让对这一领域并不特别熟悉的读者能够了解进行这方面研究的意义,前人已达到的水平,已解决和尚待解决的问题,最后应用一两句话说明本文的目的和主要创新之处。引言最基本一点是介绍主要研究成果。 有的作者常常不在引言中指明他们的重要发现，或从摘要中删除那些重要的研究成果，而到论文的后部分才指明。对科技论 归纳、 ，Results， ●材料与方法（怎么研究这个问题） 材料包括：材料来源、性质、数量、选取和处理事项等。 方法包括：实验仪器、设备、实验条件、测试方法等。 ●结果（你发现了些什么） 以图或表等手段整理实验结果，进行结果的分析和结果的讨论，包括：通过数理统计和误差分析说明结果的可靠性，可重复性，范围等；进行实验结果与理论计算结果的比较（包括不正常现象和数据的分析）；结果部分的讨论（结果直接相关部分，如讨论内容涉及全篇，应留在讨论部分进行）。值得注意的是：必须在正文中说明图表的结果及其直接意义；复杂图表应指出作者强调或希望读者注意的问题。 ●讨论（这些发现有什么科学意义） 讨论部分也称结论或建议，其目的是综合说明全文结果的科学意义。结论应写得象法律条文，即只有一种解释，不能模棱两可，不用“大概、也许、可能”等词。结论应简练，不用“通过理论分析和实验验证可得如下结论”等废话。结论要注意分寸，不
《规范汉字书写的要求》教案 商丘市睢阳区郭村镇初级中学X X X 教学目标： 1、明确规范汉字书写的要求。 2、指导学生练习，使学生规范、端正地书写汉字。 教学过程： 一、导入： 二、规范汉字书写的要求 （一）、执笔姿势 怎样掌握正确的执笔姿势呢？ 首先，在执笔的手上找准四个与笔的接触点，第一点在拇指指尖；第二点在食指指根骨节凸起处；第三点在食指指尖；第四点在中指第一关节与指甲边中间的位置。 然后，把拇指及食指合成蟹钳形状，拇指和食指把笔杆钳合起来，当中指稍用力向上顶，拇指和食指向下压，笔杆便可锁紧，做到指实掌虚。（二）、笔顺规则 笔顺规则大致有这样几种： 一般规则： 1、先撇后捺：人八入 2、先横后竖：十王干 3、从上到下：三竟音 4、从左到右：理利礼明湖
5、先外后里：问同司 6、先外后里再封口：国圆园圈 7、先中间后两边：小水承 补充规则: 1、点在上部或左上，先写点：衣立为 2、点在右上或在字里，后写点：发瓦我 3、上右和上左包围结构的字，先外后里：厅座司 4、左下包围结构的字，先里后外：远建廷 5、左下右包围结构的字，也先里后外：凶画 6、左上右包围结构的字，先外后里：同用风 7、上左下包围结构的字，先上后里再左下：医巨匠 （三）、笔画 在写字教学中，很多学生学习基本笔画时，会按照最标准的基本笔画形态一遍遍地反复，却不知一个字中如果有两个及两个以上相同的笔画，得有长短、轻重、正斜、俯仰、收放等变化；如果有两个及两个以上相同部分组成的字，则应分清主次、大小、强弱等，要力戒雷同，以达到参差错落，变化有致。 １、点的变化 小尽心江兴点 这类字书写时要注意点的形态，有左侧点、右侧点、竖点、长点等等，笔法到位，相互间顾盼呼应。 ２、横的变化
The introduction presents first, with all possible clarity, the nature and scope of the problem investigated. 2, it briefly reviews the pertinent literature to orient the reader. 3, it states the method of the investigation and the reasons for the choice of a particular method. 4, it states the principal results of the investigation. 5, it states the principal conclusions suggested by the results, which lets the reader follow the development of the evidence. The introduction is to introduce the paper. Thus, the first item mentioned above (definition of the problem) is the cardinal one. And, obviously, if the problem is not stated in a reasonable, understandable way, readers will have no interest in the solution. Presenting the problem in a meaningful way can impress readers with the brilliance of the solution after readers laboring through the paper. The literature review and choice of method presented in such a way make the reader understand what the problem was and how to resolve it. The statement of principal results and conclusions plays the role of the capstone in the instruction. This road map from problem to solution is so important that a bit of redundancy with the abstract is often desirable. The introduction has a “funnel”shape, moving from broad and general to narrow and specific. In the introduction it begins with information on the importance of the overall topic, then identifies an unresolved question about that aspect, and finally says how the current research addressed the question. An introduction structured like this provides a helpful and hospitable welcome. The paper may well be read by people outside the narrow specialty, therefore, the introduction defines some specialized terms or abbreviations.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/dd7647504.html, 中国科技论文参考文献 一、中国科技论文期刊参考文献 [1].走向繁荣的中国科技期刊研究——庆祝《中国科技期刊研究》创刊25周年. 《中国科技期刊研究》.被中信所《中国科技期刊引证报告》收录ISTIC.被北京大学《中文核心期刊要目总览》收录PKU.被南京大学《核心期刊目录》收录CSSCI.2015年10期.刘雪立. [2].《中国科技期刊研究》创刊25周年感悟. 《中国科技期刊研究》.被中信所《中国科技期刊引证报告》收录ISTIC.被北京大学《中文核心期刊要目总览》收录PKU.被南京大学《核心期刊目录》收录CSSCI.2015年10期.马智. [3].《中国科技期刊研究》论文被WebofScience数据库引用分析. 《中国科技期刊研究》.被中信所《中国科技期刊引证报告》收录ISTIC.被北京大学《中文核心期刊要目总览》收录PKU.被南京大学《核心期刊目录》收录CSSCI.2014年9期.鲍国海. [7].《新疆医科大学学报》被“中国科技核心期刊”收录的启示. 《中国科技期刊研究》.被中信所《中国科技期刊引证报告》收录ISTIC.被北京大学《中文核心期刊要目总览》收录PKU.被南京大学《核心期刊目录》收录CSSCI.2013年4期.周芳. [8].中国科技核心期刊网站建设现状. 《中国科技期刊研究》.被中信所《中国科技期刊引证报告》收录ISTIC.被北京大学《中文核心期刊要目总览》收录PKU.被南京大学《核心期刊目录》收录CSSCI.2011年5期.程维红.任胜利.路文如.严谨.王应宽.方梅. [9].《电力系统自动化》和《高电压技术》入选“第2届中国精品科技期刊”. 《电力系统自动化》.被中信所《中国科技期刊引证报告》收录ISTIC.被EI收录EI.被北京大学《中文核心期刊要目总览》收录PKU.2011年24期. [10].中国科技服务业区域非均衡发展及影响因素研究. 《科技管理研究》.被中信所《中国科技期刊引证报告》收录ISTIC.被北京大学《中文核心期刊要目总览》收录PKU.被南京大学《核心期刊目录》收录CSSCI.2016年1期.张清正.魏文栋.孙瑜康. 二、中国科技论文参考文献学位论文类
1.Shared Bikes in Foshan 佛山共享单车 My name is Zhong Jian. I’m from Big Data Class 2,Group 5.I like playing basketball and listening to music.Thank you. That’s my introduction.Now ,let’s welcome our next presenter. What do you think of going to the park by bike? As far as I am concerned, the development of Shared bikes in Foshan is very good. We can see Shared bikes everywhere on the street, we can use them easily, and the price is right. I think it is for this reason that Shared bikes have developed so quickly. Of course, the development and widespread use of Shared bikes has also facilitated our daily life. Do you think bike sharing is convenient? 2.Celebrating birthdays 庆祝生日 In my opinion, celebrating birthdays is a very common thing. This is because this day is the day we come to this beautiful world, so that we can have a mother's Day of course. When we celebrate our birthdays, we should also be grateful to our mothers for taking care of us. 就我看来，庆祝生日是一件很常见的事情。这是因为这一天是我们来到这个美丽世界的一天，让我们可以拥有眼前的一切。当然也是母亲的受难日，在我们庆祝自己生日的时候，我们也要感恩我们的母亲，感谢母亲对我们的照顾。 3.Business negotiation 商务谈判 For me, I think business negotiation is to exchange for their own interests. People on both sides want the other side to give in, not to give in. Business interests make everyone hope to get the result they want. However, the result is generally a compromise between the two sides. 对我来说，我认为商务谈判就是为了各自的利益而交流。两边的人都希望对方可以让步，而不希望自己让步。商业利益让大家都希望从中可以获得自己所想要的结局。可是，结果一般都是需要双方让步。 你认为商务谈判的主要意义是什么？ What do you think is the main significance of business negotiation? 4.Globalization 全球化 In my opinion, globalization is an inevitable trend, and no one can reverse it. Every country or country is the beneficiary or victim of globalization. The key is how to deal with the trend of globalization. I believe that only by taking the initiative to meet globalization can we benefit from it. 就我看来，全球化是一个必然的趋势，任何人都没有办法去逆转全球化。每一个或者每一个国家都是全球化的受益者，当然也可能是受害者，其中的关键是我们需要处理好如何去面对全球化这一趋势。我相信，只有积极主动去迎接全球化，才能够从中获利。 全球化中谁获得的利益最大？ Who gains the most in globalization? 5.Anti-smoking in Foshan 佛山禁烟 In my opinion, it is a good thing to ban smoking in Foshan. Of course, banning smoking is not only a good thing in Foshan, but also a good thing all over the world. Because smoking is harmful to health, second-hand smoke makes many innocent people die, which is the reality we have to face. If we see these facts, we will know that banning smoking is a good thing.
中小学规范汉字书写的培训方案 ——《规范汉字书写指南》研修模式 汉字是人类智慧和文明的结晶，规范汉字书写对于个人而言是技能和修养的体现；对于一个民族来说，它还是文化传承的重要载体。在计算机日益普及的今天，随着信息技术的广泛应用和“无纸化办公”的普及，教师和学生的书写水平正在日益下降。“汉字健忘症”“电脑失写症”日趋蔓延。弘扬和传承经典的中华书法文化，教育学生周周正正写字，端端正正为人，既具有现实意义，又有深远的历史意义。为贯彻落实《中华人民共和国国家通用语言文字法》和《教育部关于在中小学加强写字教学的若干意见》精神，积极推动规范汉字书写教育工作，促进学校写字教学，提高师生规范汉字书写水平，养成良好的写字习惯，特制定本方案： 本书特点 热爱祖国文字，养成良好的写字习惯，需要从中小学生抓起。要提高学生的书写水平，首先要从写好规范字做起。专家认为，字要规范，主要是笔画本身的形态不能错，笔画的关系不能错。而如今，人们在汉字书写过程中，却经常出现书写错误现象，并且随着电脑、手机的普及应用，人们的写字能力出现弱化的趋势。因此，明确规范汉字书写的要求、培养良好的规范汉字书写习惯、提高规范汉字书写的技能和审美品位，已成为当务之急。《规范汉字书写指南》一书正是为了落实上述要求、满足广大师生的需求而编写的。具有以下特点： 1. 指导性强 本书厘清了书法与规范汉字书写、规范汉字与非规范汉字、印刷体与手写体、印刷宋体与楷体的关系，提出规范汉字书写既要依据印刷楷体字形，又要继承汉字书写传统的规范汉字书写原则。这使得教师和学生在平常教学当中能以此为标准和原则，规范书写。 2. 理论与实例结合 本书分析规范汉字字形规范的各个方面，包括笔画、笔画的组合关系，部
https://www.doczj.com/doc/dd7647504.html, 中文科技论文参考文献 一、中文科技论文期刊参考文献 [1].中文科技图书名称汉语拼音拼写情况调查与分析. 《科技与出版》.被北京大学《中文核心期刊要目总览》收录PKU.被南京大学《核心期刊目录》收录CSSCI.2013年4期.甘敏敏.干锦春. 二、中文科技论文参考文献学位论文类 [1].基于文献计量的中文科技图书影响力评价方法研究. 作者：杨洋.情报学中国科学技术信息研究所2012（学位年度） [2].中文科技文档中数学公式的抽取.被引次数：1 作者：桑伯男.计算数学大连理工大学2007（学位年度） [3].汉英机器翻译在中文科技文摘翻译中的应用.被引次数：1 作者：肖薇.英语语言文学合肥工业大学2007（学位年度） [4]中文科技语篇中的名词化现象. 作者：战春燕.英语语言文学北京师范大学2005（学位年度） [5].中文科技图书学术影响力评价指标体系实证研究. 作者：张玉.情报学中国科学技术信息研究所2014（学位年度） [6].傅兰雅的西书中译事业.被引次数：19 作者：王红霞.专门史复旦大学2006（学位年度） [7].中文科技文献自动摘要系统.被引次数：7 作者：李立燕.计算机应用技术电子科技大学2006（学位年度） [8].放疗在乳腺癌术后应用的系统评价.被引次数：2 作者：闫茂慧.内科学(肿瘤学)中南大学2012（学位年度） [9]汉语的语义分析与中文科技文摘编制自动化的研究. 作者：郭俊文.计算机科学理论上海交通大学1995（学位年度） [10]中文科技类轻印刷系统编辑/排版软件的研究与实现. 作者：孟令奎.计算机器件与设备华中理工大学华中科技大学1989（学位年度） 三、中文科技论文专著参考文献