关于美国枪支管理政策的调查报告
数字媒体技术 02141401 罗钧 2014210886
关于美国枪支管理政策的调查报告 数字媒体技术 2014210886 罗钧 1
关于美国枪支管理政策的调查报告
数字媒体技术 02141401 罗钧 2014210886 背景
枪支暴力是美国社会重大的公
共议题之一，特别是在城市地区，
并且与青年活动和帮派暴力息息相
关。自1865年林肯总统，以及后来
的加菲尔德总统、麦金莱总统和肯
尼迪总统被暗杀以来，枪支暴力对
美国人来说已相当常见。而枪支暴
力引发的重大事件，如参议员罗伯
特·肯尼迪、民权领袖马丁·路
德·金的暗杀，以及科伦拜中学大
屠杀、华盛顿特区狙击手攻击事
件。
在美国发生的枪击案件中，很
大比例都是非致命性的。美国疾病
控制与预防中心估计，美国在2000
年总共发生了52447起蓄意、23237起意外非致命枪伤。美国大多数因枪
伤致死的人都是自杀，2004
年共有16907起自杀是使用枪支的。美国联邦、州和地方各级的法律政策试图通过各种方法解决枪支暴力，包括限制
关于美国枪支管理政策的调查报告 数字媒体技术 2014210886 罗钧
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由青年和其他“高风险”的人购买枪
支、为购买枪支设置等待时间、设立
枪支“回购”计划、针对性执法和制
定警务策略、对违反枪支法者从重量
刑、为家长和子女开设教育课程，以
及在社区推广。研究显示这些政策结
果好坏参半。一些政策如枪支“回
购”方案成效不大，而像波士顿“停
火行动”已有效地减低青少年暴力。
枪支管理政策在美国受到美国宪法第
二修正案的强烈影响，该法案禁止侵犯“人民持有和携带武器的权利”。
拥枪权倡导者一般鼓励大众捍卫宪法第二修正案所保障的权利。
定义问题
每当恶性枪击事件发生后，美国上下都会震惊，也会引发一轮是否应该禁枪的讨论，但往往是一番口水之后不了了之，而对枪击案件的反思更多是停留在嫌犯的作案动机等其他因素上。私人枪支管制一直是美国社会的敏感话题，但围绕根本上的公民能否持有枪支，政府是否有权禁枪等问题，其实本质争议不大。
政策制定过程
枪支管制最初并没有成为一个十分具有争议的问题。从19世纪末开始，美国国内有一些管理枪支的法律规定出台，不过，绝大多数都是各州和地方上的法律。这其中，最为有名的是纽约州在1911年出台的《苏利文
法》。但是，由于各州的法律差异很大，所以往往出现许多漏洞。比如纽约州是全美枪支管制最为严格的一个州，但与其邻近的各州则相对宽松；首都华盛顿地区对于携带枪支有比较严格的规定，但在邻近的弗吉尼亚州则宽松很多。这种差异造成了枪支管理上的困难，并带来一些不良后果。因此，联邦政府出台相应的政策就成为必然。
关于美国枪支管理政策的调查报告数字媒体技术 2014210886 罗钧
在联邦一级上，关于枪支管制的立法则比较迟缓。1919年，国会通过《战争税收法》，规定对枪支征收10％的联邦税收。这是美国国会最早在有关枪支问题上采取的行动。不过，这只是一项增加税收的手段，并不是枪支管理的措施。1927年，鉴于当时犯罪率上升、民众对于罪犯使用手枪的担心，国会通过一项法案，禁止通过邮寄方式来出售手枪给私人。事实上，这项法案的实施更多地带有象征意义。法案没有禁止通过私人快递公司递送手枪，况且个人可以自由地跨州购买枪支，因而出现明显的漏洞。
30年代初，由于大萧条的到来，失业人数剧增，社会动荡不安，犯罪率大幅上升。1929年，在芝加哥发生了犯罪团伙之间的街头枪战；1933年在迈阿密又发生了试图刺杀罗斯福总统的事件。面对这样的形势，在罗斯福政府的推动下，国会最终通过了《1934年全国枪支法》。该项法案禁止传输和拥有机关枪和锯短长度的霰弹猎枪，对于制造和销售这类枪支征收税收，要求拥有这类枪支的人进行登记。不过，司法部关于实施手枪登记的提议并没有获得支持。时隔四年，美国国会又通过了《1938年联邦火器法》，授予财政部给枪支经销商、制造商和进口商颁发执照的权力，禁止销售武器给已经确认有重罪的犯人和逃犯，规定运输被盗枪支为非法。
政策执行
美国的政策目标是保卫合法用户拥有大部分类型枪支的权利，同时限制高风险族群取得枪支。
下面从枪支销售使用等环节来分析。
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关于美国枪支管理政策的调查报告 数字媒体技术 2014210886 罗钧
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取得枪支
低于21岁以下的人士，长枪则年龄不得低于18岁。对销售枪支给外国人也有种种限制。
就枪支取得种类而言，在美国参与犯罪的十大类枪支显示出罪犯偏好使用手枪更甚于长枪的明确趋势。根据烟酒、武器和爆炸品管理局于1993年前的报告，使用于犯罪的枪支前十名包括史密斯威森.38与.357左轮；雷文武器的.25口径手枪、戴维斯P-380 .38口径手枪、鲁格 .22口径手枪、洛辛L-380 .38口径手枪、以及史密斯-威森半自动手枪；莫斯伯格和雷明顿12口径散弹枪；和Tec DC-9半自动冲锋枪。一项于1985年前对1800位在押重罪受刑人的研究显示，罪犯偏好使用左轮手枪和其他非半自动枪支更甚于那些纯半自动枪支。[在匹兹堡，罪犯们改变其口味从他种类型枪支到使用手枪是在1990
年代早期，刚好适逢可卡因的降临，以及青少年暴力帮派的兴起。1998年至2000年间在加利福尼亚州销售枪支的
关于美国枪支管理政策的调查报告数字媒体技术 2014210886 罗钧
背景调查，结果一开始就被拒绝者占1%。最常被拒绝的枪支类型就包括短统中口径半自动手枪。
枪支市场管理
针对枪支市场供应方的政策是根据有限片面的研究，尽管这是现行研究中的一个活跃的领域。造成这结果的其中一项重要的因素是，在美国只有60-70%的枪支销售交易是透过联邦政府授权枪支经销商，剩下的则在所谓的“次级市场”达成。大多数青少年与重刑犯皆于“次级市场”达成交易，在这里二手枪支被转移给无牌照的个人。从“次级市场”取得枪支一般较不方便，而且这种管道有一定风险如该二手枪支可能先前牵涉到某宗凶杀案。在枪支展览会上销售枪支让无照的个人得以合法的购枪以作为私人收藏品，这让某些人认为这是现行法律里的一个漏洞。时至1998年，在美国24州州法允许无照的私人卖家在枪支展览会或其他私人地点出售其私人拥有的枪支。透过一客一月一支手枪的手段，以对市场进行监管从而大手笔限制手枪交易数量的法案，显示其透过对“次级市场”的断货来迫使非法枪支交易减少成效卓著。对枪支及弹药的购买科以重税是另一种政府用来影响主流枪支交易市场的利器。
在全新或二手枪支的主流市场，联邦政府授权经销商主要受美国烟酒枪支爆炸物管理局所监管。枪支制造商对其新火器皆须刻上序列码。序列码让ATF得以追溯作案枪支到其最后一手联邦武器执照登记在案的所有权转移交易，尽管这并无法查到涉及私人的首次枪支交易。一份由ATF在1999年公布的报告发现，在1996及1997年间，联邦授权的经销商共占所有枪支销售数量的0.4%，其中一半是使用在犯罪用途上。这有时是透过“代购”进行。限制了一个月内可购买的枪支数量州法，如在弗吉尼亚州与加利福尼亚州州法，可能助长了这类的“代购”行为。据估计，每年约有500000把枪遭窃，这使得枪支落入法律上禁止的用户手中。ATF下负责扩大由执法部门收回枪支追查的青少年犯罪枪支封锁倡议实体（Youth Crime Gun Interdiction Initiative，简称YCGII）发现在1998年，所有收回的作案枪支中只有18%回到原本枪主手中。在刑事调查途中由警察收回的枪支往往已经被合法零售商店卖给了合法买主，然后经过仅仅几个月到几年时间内就被转移到犯罪用途上，这使得这些枪支相对于一般流通的枪支更为执法部门所常见。
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关于美国枪支管理政策的调查报告数字媒体技术 2014210886 罗钧
枪支“购回”计划
枪支“购回”计划是一种旨在透过将枪支自街头“清除”，来影响火器市场的策略。枪支“购回”计划已证明无效，且美国国家科学院引述在这计划背后的理论有着“严重缺陷”。自首缴回的枪支往往是那些最不可能参与犯罪的枪，如那些老旧、没有转售价值的故障枪支、前膛装填或者其他还在用黑火药的枪支、带有过时、不再制造或贩售弹匣的古董摆饰枪、或者某些个人继承下来、但没有什么持有价值的枪支。其他枪支“购回”计划的限制涉及一个事实，即是取得原有枪支的替代品—往往是更好的枪—比把枪送回“购回”计划报销相对容易。此外，用于犯罪的手枪数量（每年约7500只）比起全美约7000万只手枪是非常小的数量（即0.011 ％）。
流放专案
1990年代期间由弗吉尼亚州里士满率先执行的流放专案，是一件涉及联邦、州和地方官员针对枪
支暴力协同合作的战果。该策略引进将违反枪支起诉案交由联邦法院审理，而联邦法院审判方针较州法更为严厉。流放专案也通过媒体宣传，借由严打非法枪支流露出的信息来扩大教育效果。流放专案经评估证明是有效的，不过研究人员还指出，里士满可能在评估期间横竖搭上了美国全国整体凶杀案下滑的列车。
政策评估
研究和统计表明，枪支会对犯罪现场本已紧张的局势扇风点火，并造成更暴力或者致命的后果。公共政策的态度一般
集中在执法部门和监管机构干预的解决方法。这包括购枪时的干预，以作为防止青少年与那些有案底的人购枪的政策。如限制或监管谁有权携带暗藏的武器的公共政策，可让枪支被携带至犯罪现场更为艰难。而许多政策亦可透过对那些在案子里用枪的人士从重量刑，或者要求枪支必须具备一定安全功能来从用枪层面对枪支加以限制。
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关于美国枪支管理政策的调查报告数字媒体技术 2014210886 罗钧
支持枪支管制的人士常常引用涉及枪支的凶杀案，比起其他案子相对较多，作为支持更严格枪支管制法的原因。枪支法在美国是一项重大辩论的议题，由于枪支也广泛使用于种种娱乐，以及人身保护。拥枪权鼓吹者援引枪支可用来自我保护并制止暴力犯罪做为更多的枪支可以减少犯罪的原因。拥枪权鼓吹者亦表示，罪犯是最不可能遵守枪支法的一群人，故限制守法人士取得枪支将使其更易遭武装罪犯的宰割。
结论
禁售攻击性枪支的法律于2004年失效，控枪法律也多属拼凑，而且不明确，各州法律也不相同。康涅狄格州控制枪械法律的严格程度虽在美国名列第五，却未能防止桑迪胡克小学惨案的发生。
控制枪械在政治上十分困难，因为拥有四百三十万会员的全国来福枪协会以美国宪法第二条修正案明文保障公民携带枪械的权利为由，百般阻挠控枪立法；NRA是国内最强大的游说团，对国会有极大的影响力。
虽然主张控枪的人数众多，但是缺乏强而有力的组织，布雷迪防止枪械暴力运动力量薄弱，无法跟NRA抗衡。詹姆斯．布雷迪是列根总统的新闻秘书，1981年一名枪手暗杀里根，布雷迪不幸头部中枪，从此半身瘫痪；从那时起，他终身为控枪奋斗，可惜成效不卓。
意见与建议
美国人崇尚爱默生提倡的大丈夫气概，而男子汉大丈夫气概则常跟暴力联在一起。影星尊荣和奇连伊士活以他们醋钵大的拳头和百发百中的双枪，塑造的是典型的美国虎胆英雄；西部片使詹姆斯匪帮等牛仔牛女成为百世流芳的不朽英豪。
随机性暴力的另一个原因是精神病，相当多的独行杀手就是精神有问题。枪击案频发的重要原因是枪械泛滥。
美国的枪支管制早已不是一个简单的社会问题，其背后隐藏着利益集团及政治党派之争等多种因素。而最主要的障碍，是长枪协会长期在国会
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关于美国枪支管理政策的调查报告数字媒体技术 2014210886 罗钧
展开庞大的游说攻势，致使不少法律制定者为了各自的政治地位和经济利益，维护私人拥枪的合法性。不过，在要求强化枪支管理的呼声日趋高涨的情况下，以长枪协会开始面临越来越大的压力。
控制枪支，应该从引导大众出发，避免枪支制造商为了自身利益而引导舆论向符合自身利益发展的情况。
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It is illegle to have huns 1，美国是世界上私人拥有枪支最多的国家，枪支泛滥造成了严重的社会问题。但是在美国，对于枪支问题的辩论，主要集中于如何管理，而不是禁止。在美国大约有4成左右的民众支持枪械管制，但是绝大多数反对禁枪。2004年特里竞选总统时播放的竞选广告是“抗枪打猎”，但特里其实是20年如一日投票支持管制的，但他从不说禁枪。 The United States is the largest privately owned firearms in the world, the proliferation of firearms, causing serious social problems. But in the United States, the debate on firearms issues, mainly concentrated on how to manage, rather than prohibited. In the United States, about 4 percent public 2，根据《中华人民共和国枪支管理法》枪支的所有权归属于个人，在我国是不允许的。According to"the people's Republic of China on guns",gun ownership for personal,in our country is not allowed. 3, 一个真正民主、自由的国家，即便人人持枪，也不用担心会被颠覆，而一个专制、腐朽 的政权，即使公民买一把菜刀都需要实名制！如果中国允许公民持枪的话，那些官员们肯定 会惶惶不安，人人自危了！ A truly democratic,free country,even if everyone gun,also need not worry will be subverted,and an autocratic,corrupt regime,even if citizens to buy a kitchen knife needs to the real name system!If Chinese allows citizens toweapons,the officers will be on tenterhooks,everyone! So how could they serve the people? 4, 允许持有枪支不全是为了保护自己的财产，我觉得根本的原因是赋予了人民时刻都能推 翻政府的权力。 Allowing the possession of firearms is not all in order to protect their ownproperty,I think the reason is endowed with the people all the time to overthrow the government. 5, 枪支合法，那么火箭筒、坦克能不能合法呢？ If guns have ownership,and the bazooka,tank can legally?
“三农”问题的剖析与政策及其几点建议 徐文 摘要：所谓“三农”问题，是指农业、农村、农民这三个问题。近几年来，随着农业、农村形势持续好转，为实现国民经济又好又快发展、保持社会和谐稳定，奠定了坚实的基础，提供了重要的支撑，做出了很大的贡献。2009年，在应对国际金融危机冲击、保持经济平稳较快发展中，党中央、国务院总揽全局、审时度势，果断出台一揽子计划，及时采取加强“三农”的重大举措。 关键词：农村；农业；农民；“三农”问题；政策；建议 Abstract: The so-called "three rural" issue refers to agriculture, rural areas and farmers on these issues. In recent years, with agriculture, rural areas continued to improve the situation, to achieve sound and rapid economic development, maintain social harmony and stability, laying a solid foundation, providing important support, made a great contribution. In 2009, in response to the international financial crisis and maintain steady and rapid economic development, the State Council, the overall situation into consideration, decisively put the package in a timely manner to strengthen the "three rural" a major step. Keywords: Country ;Agriculture; Farmer; “T hree rural issue”; Policy ;Suggestion 一、浅析“三农”问题 （一）农业问题 主要突出表现在农业产业化方面的问题。自从我国实行改革开放政策以来，中国农业取得了巨大成就，但是，其脆弱地位并没有根本改变，增长曲线始终处于波动之中。现在是市场经济时代，而市场经济是以市场为导向、根据市场配置资源的经济形态，农业的产—购—销一体化的体制不顺畅是现代农业不能快速发展的一个重要原因。当某些政策倾向和外部环境对农民的利益造成损害时，农民就会采用减少投入、甚至撂荒的方式表示不满，由此导致减产。常常听到农民兄弟抱怨种了东西卖不出去或卖得过于低廉，根子在没有遵循市场规律。产供销形成一条龙是当前农业在市场经济中大有作为的一着好棋，党和政府在创设“产―供―销”链条的活动中起着关键作用。 农业产业化的另一个问题是中国农业目前基本上属于自给自足的小农经济，没有形成规模经济。加入世贸组织后，如何应对国外的集约型农业的挑战？这将是中国作为一个农业大国面临的严峻问题。从现在看来，目前中国应在解放剩余劳动力的同时，通过加快农业机械化提高农业劳动生产率，抛弃小农经济的自给自足，迎接入世挑战。 （二）农村问题 关于农村问题所涉及得面实在是太宽了，包括农业和农民问题也都属于该范畴，因此它所存在的问题也是诸多。为了解决这些问题，站在国家发展战略的高度，缩小城乡差距，促进新农村建设的全面发展，从04年至08年的五个中央一号文件中提出了解决的方针及措施。从环境保护层面上，明确了加强水利、林业、草木建设，促进生态修复，改善城乡人居环境；从基础政权层面上，明确了发展基层民主，深化改革乡镇机构改革，完善政务、村务的公开，实现基层群众自治；从收入分配层面上，明确了深化收入分配制度改革，增加农民收入；从社会保障层面上，明确了完善农村医疗保险和生活保障制度；等等还有许多问题及其对策。 （三）农民问题 关于农民的问题也比较多，最突出的也就是农民的文化素质问题和农民增收问题以及新生代农民工进城务工所带来的一些问题。 农民的文化素质通常是指其所具备的文化知识水平，反映农民接受文化知识教育的程度和掌握文化知识量的多少、质的高低。一个国家或地区的农民文化素质状况，一般是用全体
美国文学期末考试复习必备（精） 1. What’s Puritanism? A religious and political movement which appeals to the right of the individual to political & religious independence. It includes three parts: a code of values, a point of view & a philosophy of life 2. What are the basic Puritan beliefs? 1). Total Depravity 2). Unconditional Election 3). Limited Atonement 4). Irresistible Grace 5). Perseverance of the "saints" 3. What are American Puritan values? Sobriety thrift, Self-reliance Diligence, Struggle, simple tastes 4. What are the features of American literature in the Colonial Period? A. Humble origins: diaries, journals, histories, letters. Its various forms, occupy a major position in the literature of the early colonial period. B. in content: serving either god or colonial expansion or both C. in form: imitating English literary traditions. D. in style: tight and logic structure, precise and compact expression, avoidance of rhetorical decoration, adoption of homely imagery and simplicity of diction. E. Symbolism formed in this period ------To the pious Puritan, the physical, phenomenal world was nothing but a symbol of God. F. Simple, fresh and direct style
公共政策概论调查报告 经济学之所以有别于其他社会科学而成为一门学科，关键所在不是它的研究对象，而是它的分析方法。 一、公共选择理论与主流经济学分析框架 公共选择理论是介于经济学与政治学之间的新的交叉学科。它以新古典经济学的基本假设、原理和方法作为分析工具，来研究政治市场上的主体行为和政治市场的运行。美国马里兰大学教授丹斯·缪勒给公共选择理论下的定义常常被西方学者引用：“公共选择理论被定义为非市场决策的经济研究，或者可以简单地定义为把经济应用于政治科学。公共选择的方法仍然是经济学的方法。” 二、公共选择理论方法论形成的理论基础 公共选择理论是以公共财政理论为理论之源的，因为财政理论是关于政府税收和政府支出的理论，涉及到公共产品的供给与消费。政府税收和政府支出是政府或集体的活动，在政府的收支过程中，消费者面对的是国家或政府，而不像在经济市场上，他面对的是企业。这些特点把财政学与经济学中的其他分支区别开来。经济学理论大都集中研究非政府的决策人（如消费者、生产者）的活动，财政学则把公共经济引入解释私人经济活动的分析体系。为此必须研究税收和
支出选择的政治决策机制，而政治决策则是公共选择理论研究的主题。 三、对方法论个体主义的评价 主流经济学的所谓制度心理个体主义，是包括以下几个命题的分析方法：一是只有个体才能有目标和利益，因此，任何制度分析除了个体之外不可能找到其他科学的解释基础；二是社会整体是个体行动的结果，所以社会整体必须归结到个体行为上才能形成一致性的理论；三是个体行为的动力是由个体主观效用最大化构成的，个体行为的性质是由认知结构决定的，因此，对制度等整体范畴的认识必须从个体心理出发。公共选择理论方法论上的个人主义，体现在它们对社会秩序和个人行为的看法以及对政府和政治的见解上。在公共选择理论家看来，个人只是社会秩序的基本组成单位，而政府只是个人相互作用的制度复合体，个人通过制度复合体做出集体决策，来实现他们相互期望的集体目标，同时也通过制度复合体开展与私人活动相对立的集体活动。公共选择理论把个人作为分析的基本单位，把社会存在看作是个人之间的相互作用，认为应当根据个人来解释社会和政治，而不是根据社会来解释个人。布坎南曾经把他的公共选择理论看作是“政治过程的个人主义理论”。但是公共选择理论对政治程序的解释，只是一种逻辑推理，与主流经济学一样，在分析框架方面面临着难以克服的缺陷。
名词解释： Imagism: It’s a poetic movement of England and the U.S. flourished from 1909 to 1917.The movement insists on the creation of images in poetry by “the direct treatment of the thing” and the economy of wording. The leaders of this movement were Ezra Pound and Amy Lowell. Beat generation: The term was coined by Jack Kerouac in 1948 to refer to a group of disillusioned writers following World War Two. Later, this literary and cultural movement continued into the 1960s. The Beat Generation must not be confused with the Lost Generation of writers. Spokesmen and representatives of the Beat Generation were Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg and others. They revolted against an America that was materialistic, belligerent and frustrating. Social, intellectual and sexual freedom was advocated. Traditional culture and normal social behavior were attacked and violated. Many of them were drug addicts wearing long hair and dirty clothes. They were fond of slangs and jazz. Masterpieces created by writers of this g roup include Kerouac’s On the Road and Ginsberg’s Howl and Other Poems, which were regarded as pocket Bibles of that generation. Other prominent Beats include William S. Burroughs, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Gregory Corso, Michael McClure, and Neal Cassady. The Beat Generation, had greatly influenced the countercultural movements of the 1960s and the adolescents and adults in other countries. In England, the “angry young men” made an echo and imitated the American “beatnik.” 二、1. Ralph Waldo Emerson: Nature: it is generally regarded as the Bible of New England Transcendentalism. The American Scholar:it has been regarded as “America’s Declaration of Intellectual Independence”. 2. Henry David Thoreau: Walden 3. Nathaniel Hawthorne: The Scarlet Letter: 主题：Hawthorne focuses his attention on the moral, emotional, and psychological effects or consequences of the sin on the people in general and those main characters in particular, so as to show us the tension between society and individuals. To Hawthorne, everybody is potentially a sinner, and great moral courage is therefore indispensable for the improvement of human nature. 4. Herman Melville: Moby Dick A. 作品分析： （1）Moby Dick represents the sum total of Melville’s bleak view of the world in which he lived. It is at once godless and purposeless. The loss of faith and the sense of futility and meaningless which characterize modern life of the West were expresse d in Melville’s work so well that the twentieth century has found it both fascinating and great. (2) One of the major themes of this novel is alienation, which exists in the life of Melville on different levels, between man and man, man and society, and man and nature. Melville also criticizes New England Transcendentalism of its emphasis on individualism and Oversoul. Another theme of this novel is “rejection and quest.” (3) The novel is highly symbolic. The voyage itself is a metaphor for “search and discovery, the search for the ultimate truth of experience.” Moby Dick is the most conspicuous symbol in the book and it is capable of many interpretations. It is a symbol of evil to some, one of goodness to others, and both to still others. Its whiteness is a paradoxical color, signifying as it does death and corruption as well as purity, innocence, and youth. It represents the final mystery of the universe which man will do well to desist from pursuing. (4) Melville manages to achieve the effect of ambiguity through employing the technique of multiple views of his narratives. He tends to write periodic sentences. His rich rhythmical prose and his poetic power have been profusely commented upon and praised. B. what does the white whale in Moby Dick symbolize? Why do you think so? For Captain Ahab, the white whale represents evil. After the loss of his leg in his encounter with the white whale, Ahab begins to hate Moby Dick and tries his best to kill the whale. It seems that he embodies all of the evil he once consigned to the white whale. For other members on the whaling ship, the white whale symbolizes the unknown, mysterious natural force of the universe. For the readers, the white whale is capable of many interpretations, for it is “paradoxically benign an d malevolent, nourishing and destructive,” “massive, brutal, monolithic, but at the same time protean, erotically beautiful, infinitely variable.” C. Major themes: obsession, religion, and idealism versus pragmatism, revenge, racism, sanity, hierarchical relationships, and politics. D. the Pequod is the microcosm of human society and the voyage becomes a search for truth. Moby Dick is a mystery, an ultimate mystery of the universe, and the voyage of the mind will forever remain a search, not a discovery, of the truth. The whole story turns out to be a symbolic voyage of the mind quest of the truth and knowledge of the universe, a spiritual exploration into man’s deep reality and psychology. 5. Walt Whitman: Leaves of Grass.It has been praised as “Democ ratic Bible”, and as American Epic. 主题：(1)he shows concern for the whole hard-working people and the burgeoning life of cities. (2) realization of the individual value. (3) pursuit of love and happiness. (4) Before and during the Civil War, Whitman expressed much mourning for the sufferings of the young lives in the battlefield and showed a determination to carry on the fighting dauntlessly until the final victory. 写作风格：(1) Whitman wrote “free verse”, that is, poetry without a fixed beat or regular rhyme scheme. (2) There is a strong sense of the poems being rhythmical. Parallelism and phonetic recurrence at the beginning of the lines contribute to the musicality of his poems. (3) Most of the pictures he painted with words are honest, undistorted images of different aspects of America of the day. (4) Whitman’s language is relatively simple and even rather crude. Another characteristic in Whitman’s language is his strong tendency to use oral English. Whitman’s vocabulary is amazing. He would use powerful, colorful, as well as rarely-used words. Leaves of Grass的分析： (1). Grass, the most common thing with the greatest vitality, is an image of the poet himself, a symbol of the then rising American nation and an embodiment of his ideals about democracy and freedom. (2). In this giant work, openness, freedom, and above all, individualism are all that concerned him. (3). In this book he also praises nature, democracy, labor and creation, and sings of man’s dignity and equality, and of th e brightest future of mankind. Most of the poems in Leaves of Grass sing of the “en-masse” and self as well. 6. Emily Dickinson: 诗歌的主要内容：love, nature, death and immortality. 7. Edgar Allen Poe: 短篇小说家和诗人。 Poe is the father of psychoanalytic criticism and the father of detective story. 主题：death of one’s beloved lover of great intelligence and beauty. He also writes about horror (Gothic) stories, murder, and insanity. 8. Henry James: The turn of the screw The founder of psychological realism. He was the first American writer to conceive his artistic work in international themes. 9. Mark Twain:The adventures of Huckleberry Finn Hemingway described it as the book from which “all modern American literature comes”. The style of this book is quite simple. The book is written in the colloquial style. Though a local book, it touches upon the human situation in a general, indeed universal way: humanitarianism ultimately triumphs. It tells a story about the United States before the Civil War, around 1850, when the great Mississippi Valley was still being settled. Here lies an America, wit its great national faults, full of violence and even cruelty, yet still retaining the virtues of “some simplicity, some innocence, some peace.” 10. Stephen Crane, Frank Norris, Theodore Dreiser: 自然主义的代表人物。 11. F. Scott Fitzgerald:The Great Gatsby 迷惘一代的代表人物 12. Ernest Hemingway: A Farewell to Arms; For Whom the Bell Tolls; The Old Man and the Sea The title of For Whom the Bell Tolls comes from John Donne’s Meditation. 13. William Faulkner: stream of consciousness的写作手法 14. Ezra Pound: 意象派代表人物。 意象派基本主张： (1) Direct treatment of the “thing”, whether subjective or objective. (2) To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation (3) As regarding rhythm, to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in the sequence of a metronome. 15. Robert Frost: natural poet. 16. Eugene Glastone O’Neill: Desire Under the Elms Long Days Journey into Night: Mark Twain H. L. Mencken considered "the true father of our national literatu re” Adventures of Huckleberry Finn(1884) and Life on the Mississippi(1883) Twain shaped the world's view of American and made a more extensive combination of American folk humor and serious literature than previous writers had ever done. Mark Twain’s sty le 1) Twain is also known as a local colorist, who preferred to present social life through portraits of the local characters of his regions 2) Another fact that made Twain unique is his magic power with language, his use of vernacular. His words are colloquial, concrete and direct in effect, and his sentence structures are simple, even ungrammatical, which is typical of the spoken language 3) Mark Twain's humor is remarkable, too. Most of his works tend to be funny, containing some practical jokes, comic details, witty remarks. 4) Paid more attention to the "life" of the Americans, Concerned with the life of a small, well-defined region and the lower-class people 5) Nostalgic in a vanishing way of life and recorders of a present that faded before their eyes Adventures of Huckleberry Fin The character analysis and social meaning of Huck Finn Huck is a typical American boy with “a sound heart and a deformed conscience”. He appears to be vulgar in language and in manner, but he is honest and decent in es sence. His remarkable raft’s journey down on the Mississippi river can be regarded as his process of education and his way to grow up. Huck is the son of nature and a symbol for freedom and earthly pragmatism. Through the eye of Huck, the innocent and reluctant rebel, we see the pre-Civil War American society fully exposed. Twain contrasts the life on the river and the life on the banks, the innocence and the experience, the nature and the culture, the wilderness and the civilization. Ernest Hemingway A Nobel Prize winner for literature His style, the particular type of hero in his novels, and his life attitudes have been widely recognized, not only in English-speaking countries but all over the world Hemingway shot himself with a hunting gun In Our Time (1925)is the first book to present a Hemingway hero--Nick Adams The Sun Also Rises(1926) is Hemingway's first true novel. A vivid portrait of "The Lost Generation," -- a group of young Americans who left their native land and fought in the war and later engaged themselves in writing in a new way about their own experiences. Hemingway's second big success is A Farewell to Arms, telling us a story about the tragic love affair of a wounded American soldier with a British nurse -- emphasizes his belief that man is trapped both physically and mentally, but goes to some lengths to refute the idea of nature, man is doomed to be entrapped For Whom the Bell Tolls clearly represents a new beginning in Hemingway's career as a writer, which concerns a volunteer American guerrilla Robert Jordan fighting in the Spanish Civil War, this work Caps his career and leads to his receipt of the Nobel Prize The Old Man and the Sea, Men Without Women(1927), Death in the Afternoon(1932), The Snows of Kilimanjaro, To Have and Have Not (1937) Hemingway develops the style of colloquialism initiated by Mark Twain Hemingway was highly praised by the Nobel Prize Committee for "his powerful style-forming mastery of the art" of creating modern fiction. Indian Camp The title indicates that the material is contemporary and to some extent, representative of the early twentieth-century experience A reference to the well-know phrase from the Book of Common Prayer:" Give us peace in our time, O Lord," the title is very ironic because there is no peace at all in the stories In a chronological order, introduces Nick Adams to readers from his childhood to adolescence and manhood Nick watches his father deliver an Indian woman of a baby by Caesarian section, with a Jack-knife and without anesthesia. This incident brings the boy into contact with something that is perplexing and unpleasant, and is actually Nick's initiation into the pain and violence of birth and death. Most of Hemingway's later works are merely variations of the Nick Adams stories in In Our Time The Hemingway code heroes and grace under pressure They have seen the cold world, and for one cause, they boldly and courageously face the reality. They have an indestructible spirit for his optimistic view of life. Whatever the result is, they are ready to live with grace under pressure. No matter how tragic the ending is, they will never be defeated. Finally, they will be prevailing because of their indestructible spirit and courage. The iceberg technique Hemingway believes that a good writer does not need to reveal every detail of a character or action. The one-eighth is presented will suggest all other meaningful dimensions of the story. Thus, Hemingway’s language is symbolic and suggestive.