Chapter 7 Pragmatic equivalence
We need to get away form the linguistic organization and look at reality, precisely because that reality is encoded in situations and texts for the translator and not in languages.
The text cannot be considered as a static specimen of language, but essentially as the verbalized expression of an author's intention as understood by the translator as reader, who when recreates this whole for another readership in another culture.
In this chapter we conclude our discussion of language and translation with a brief look at how a given text comes to make sense to a given readership. Here, we will be concerned with the way utterances are used in communicative situations and the way we interpret them in context, known as pragmatics.
Pragmatics is the study of meaning, not as generated by the linguistic system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a communicative situation.
Coherence and implicature explore the question of making sense and in highlighting areas of difficulty in cross-cultural communication.
7.1. Coherence
7.1.1. Coherence VS cohesion
Like cohesion, coherence is a network of relations which organize and create a text:.
cohesion is the network of surface relations which links words and expressions to other words and expressions in a text, and coherence is the network of conceptual relations which underlie the surface text.
In the case of cohesion, stretches of language are connected to each other. In the case of coherence, they are connected by virtue of conceptual or meaning depdendencies as perceived by language users.
Hoey sums up the differences between them as follows:
We will assume that cohesion is a property of the text and that coherence is a facet of the reader's evaluation of a text. In other words,cohesion is objective,capable in principle of automatic recognition, while coherence is subjective and judgements concerning it may vary from reader to reader.
We could say that cohesion is the surface expression of coherence relations, that it is a device for making conceptual relations explicit.
Generally speaking, the mere presence of cohesive markers cannot create a coherent text; cohesive markers have to reflect conceptual relations which make sense.
What actually gives texture to a stretch of language is not the presence of cohesive markers but our ability to recognize underlying semantic relations which establishing continuity of sense.
The main value of cohesive markers seems to be that they can be used to facilitate and possibly control the interpretation of underlying semantic relations.
7.1.2. Is coherence a feature of text or situation?
No text is inherently coherent or incoherent. In the end, it all depends on the receiver, and on his ability on interpret the indications present in the discourse so that, finally ,he manages to understand it in a way which seems coherent to him.
The ability to make sense of a stretch of language depends on the hearer's of reader's expectations and experience of the world.
The coherence of a text is a result of the interaction between knowledge presented in the text and the reader's own knowledge and experience of the world.
Even a simple cohesive relation of co-reference cannot be recognized, and therefore cannot be said to contribute to the coherence of a text.
Blum-Kulka's definition of coherence as a covert potential meaning relationship among parts of a text, made overt by the reader or listener through processes of interpretation implies that she sees meaning , or coherence as a property of a ext, even though it is only accessible through processes of interpretation.
Sinclair(personal communication) similarly states that processes such as the recall of past experience and knowledge of the world...are not part of the meaning of a text, but part of the human apparatus for working out the meaning of a text, which again suggests that meaning exists in texts but can only be accessed through various processes of interpretation on the part of the reader.
Firth asserts that meaning is a property of the mutually relevant people, things, events in the situation.
Kirsten Malmkjaer(personal communication) does not accept the view that meaning is in text and suggests instead that meaning arise in situation involving language.
A reader's cultural and intellectual background determine how much sense she or he gets out of a text.
Regardless of whether meaning is a property of text or situation, coherence is not a feature of text as such but of the judgement made by a reader on a text.
A translator has to take account of the range of knowledge available to his or her target readers and of the expectations they are likely to have about.
We can only make sense of new information in terms of our own knowledge, beliefs, and previous experience of both linguistic and non-linguistic events.
7.2. Coherence and processes of interpretation: implicature
The difference between supplemental interpretations and explanatory interpretations is that the former never lead to the explication of a thematic continuity, whereas the latter justify this continuity.
One of the most important notions which have emerged in text studies in recent years is that of implicature, which refers to what the speaker means or implies rather than what she or he literally says.
Grice suggests that a speaker can signal an implied meaning conventionally and non-conventionally. To signal an implied meaning conventionally, a speaker uses the textual resources which are conventionally understood to signal certain relationships between propositions. Grammatical structure is another.
Grice suggests that discourse has certain important features：for instance, it is connected; it has a purpose; and it is a co-operative effort. These features give rise to a general principle of communication, the Co-operative Principle(CP).
Implied meaning which is not signalled conventionally derives from the Co-operative Principle and a number of maxims associated with it: quantity, quality, relevance and manner.
Grice's maxims provide a point of orientation for participants even when they are flouted, so that flouting them is recognized as a way os exploiting the convention in order to convey an
intended meaning.
Apart from observing the maxims, a language user can deliberately flout a maxim and in doing so produce what Grice called a conversational implicature.
例证：do you know what time it is?
分析：it may means"I don's know the time""I wish to know the time. Levinson calls this type of meaning a standard implicature. It could convey a meaning such as "you are very late", this is what Grice would call a conversational implicature.
Conversational implicature can be conveyed by flouting any or several of the maxims.
7.3. Coherence, implicature, and translation strategies
7.3.1. The conventional meanings of words and structures and the identity of references
7.3.1.1. The conventional meanings of words and structures
As well as the conventional meaning of words, each language also employs conventionalized expressions and patterns of conveying implicatures. In other words, in every language there will be conventional associations between certain linguistic patterns and certain inferable meanings.
Typographic features also play a role in conveying certain implicatures.
7.3.1.2. The identity of any references that may be involved
The English translator attempts to bridge the gap between the textual world and the world of the target reader by explaining the unfamiliar in terms of the familiar.
Identifying reference is not just a question of identifying roughly who or what the referent is but, crucially, of knowing enough about the referent to interpret the particular associations it is meant to trigger in our minds in a given context.
It is the ability to interpret the significance of a given reference and the way it links with other features of the context and co-text that contributes to the continuity of sense or coherence of a text and enables us to draw any intended implicatures.
The ability to identify a referent may also be influenced by one's perspective.
7.3.2. The Co-operative Principle and its maxims
Grice suggests that the CP and its maxims are not arbitrary but are a feature of any rational behaviour, be it linguistic or non-linguistic.
CP and its maxims are universal, on the assumption that linguistic behaviour is just one type of rational behaviour and that all human beings are rational.
A certain type of implicature, say quality implicature, is never used by the speakers of a particular language, or that the contexts in which a type of implicature will be used will differ from one language community to the next.
Even within the same cultural and linguistic community, there are sometimes special contexts in which one or more of the maxims do not apply.
The four maxims do not represent an exhaustive list and suggested that other maxims such as "be polite" may be added. It would suggest that the maxim of quality and manner are easily overrien by considerations of politeness in some cultures.
Hatim and Mason's comment on quantity that what is required for any given communicative purpose within a TL cultural environment is...a matter for the translator's judgement.
An important factor which seems to override Grice's maxims and support the possibility that they are both language- and culture-specific relates to norms of discourse organization and rhetorical functions in different languages.
Weakness of definition aside, it is interesting that Grice's maxims seem to reflect directly notions which are known to be valued in the English-speaking world, for instance sincerity, brevity, and relevance. These do not necessarily have the same value in other cultures, nor should they be expected to represent any ideal basis for communication.
A more plausible suggestion would be that all discourse, in any language, is essentially co-operative and that the phenomenon of implicature(rather than the specific maxims suggested by Grice) is universal. In other words, the interpretation of a maxim or the maxims themselves may differ from one linguistic community to anther, but the process of conveying intended meaning by means of exploiting whatever maxims are in operation in that community will be the same.
7.3.3. The context, linguistic or otherwise, of the utterance
The context in which an utterance occurs determines the range of implicatures that may sensibly be derived from it.
Sperber and Wilson suggest that the context does much more than filter out inappropriate interpretations; it provides premises without which the implicature cannot be inferred at all.
The inability to relate a piece of information to his or her own context can lead the reader to draw the wrong inferences from a text.
When a person describe something, recounts an event, or lists a number of items, she or he will normally follow a preferred sequence rather than a random one.
Levinson relates the question of normal ordering of events in the real world to the sub-maxim of manner, “be orderly”. He suggests that it is because we expect participants in a discourse to respect the maxim"Be orderly" that we expect them to recount events in the order in which they happened.
T emporal order may be a widespread or universal ordering strategy, but there are other types of preferences for ordering strategies which tend to be language- and culture-specific.
The "sense of apropriateness" could provide the context for interpreting the additional maxim 'Be polite' posited earlier.
7.3.4.. Other items of background knowledge
There is a great deal of overlap between identifying reference and accessing relevant background information.
The study of implicature may provide a practical solution to the well known problem of deciding what parts of the original shared context should be built into the text of the translation and what should be provided separately, for example in footnotes. Information essential to the success of conversational implicatures should be included in the text if the translation is to be coherent and sensible. It is unrealistic and working against the pragmatic nature of language to put such information into footnotes.
As well as expanding a text to provide the necessary background information, a translator may decide to delete information that the target readership can be assumed to be familiar with .
In any act of communication, a text does not necessarily have to conform to the expectations of its readership. Readers' versions of reality, their expectations, and their preferences can be challenged without affecting the coherence of a text, provided the challenge is motivated and the reader is prepared for it.
7.3.5. The availability of all relevant items falling under the previous headings
In order to convey an intended meaning, the speaker or writer must be able to assume that the hearer or reader has access to all the necessary background information, features of the context...
The less the writer assumes that the reader has access to the more she or he will provide in the way of explanation and detail.
In translation, anything that is likely to violate the target reader's expectations must be carefully examined and, if necessary, adjusted in order to avoid conveying the wrong implicatures or even failing to make sense altogether.
Unless motivated, a deviant configuration at any linguistic level may block a participant's access to the conventional meaning of the words and structures used and can directly affect the coherence of a text.
Any disturbance to the normal organizational patterns of language must therefore be motivated, otherwise the reader will not be able to make sense of it.
Most professional translators appreciate the need to fulfil a reader's expectations about the organization of the target language in order to maintain the coherence of a text and avoid giving rise to unwanted implicatures.
Reader's expectation do not necessarily have to be fulfilled.
We are normally prepared to accept a great deal of unusual and even bizarre linguistic behaviour provided it can be justified, for instance on the basis of poetic creativity or humour.
The suggestion that deviations form normal patterning have to be motivated implies that they have to occur in a context that is interpretable by the hearer or reader.
Blackmore suggests that a speaker or writer who wants his or her utterance to be interpreted in a certain way must expect it to be interpreted in a context that yields that interpretation.
in order to maintain coherence translators often have to minimize discrepancies between the model of the world presented in the source text and that with which the target reader is likely to be familiar. The extent of intervention varies considerably and depends in the final analysis on 2 main factor:
①The first is the translator 's ability to access the knowledge and expectations of the target reader--the more the target reader is assumed to know, the less likely that the translator will be inclined to intervene with lengthy explanations likewise, the more harmony is assumed to exist between the model of the world presented in the source text and the target culture's version os the world, the more inclined the translator will be to remain invisible, i.e.refrain from direct intervention.
②The second factor is the translator's own view of his or her role and of the whole question of where his or her loyalties ought to lie--whether they ought to lie with the source text or with the target reader.
The main difficulties seem to be concerned with the ability to assess the target reader's range of knowledge and assumptions about various aspects of the world, and to strike a reasonable balance between, on the one hand, fulfilling their expectations and, on the other hand, maintaining their interest in the communication by offering them new or alternative insights.
Brown and Y ule suggest that the principle of analogy and local basis of the assumption of coherence in our experience of life in general, hence in our experience of discourse as well.
In attempting to fill gaps in their reader's knowledge and fulfil their expectations of what is normal or acceptable, translator should be careful not to 'overdo' things by explaining too much and leaving the reader with nothing to do.
一天突破英文中定语从句的翻译（一） 4 英文中的介词可以翻成中文里的方位副词的动词 There is a book on the desk. 桌上有本书。 The teacher came into the classroom with a book and a dog.老师带着一本书和一只狗…… 6 一般8个单词以下定语从句前置，多于8个单词后置。定语从句翻译后置方法中，需要译出关系词。 63 非限制性定语从句需要后置译法，且翻译关系词。 7 循环套用1： 中心词+定语1+定语1的定语2+定语2的定语3+…… 翻译方法看长度： 定语1+2=3 前两者放在一起翻译 定语1=2+3 后两者放在一起翻译 14 循环套用2： 中心词+定语1+定语1的定语2 翻译时：2+1+含有中心词的句子 注： 10 which有时指前面整个句子； 14 有时定语从句远离先行词； where“在那里” 11 prior to（主张多用）=before 11 “其”是中文专门用来表示第三人称的词。 13 定语从句一般不可放在句首 13 被动语态：用“为”代替“被” 英汉差异： 13 英文中多用代词；中文多用名词，不怕重复 15 英文多用长句，不注重标定符号的使用；中文多用断句且多用标点 23 英文多用名词；中文多用动词（动词的过渡） 英译汉： 9 适时断句，避免长句 12 重要的句子在后面翻译，不重要的先翻译 15 适时增加表示逻辑关系的词，使句子更具逻辑性 第二天突破英文中定语从句的翻译（二） 18 并列套用：多个并列定语修饰一个中心词 后置译法，关系词只需译一次 18 本位词&外位词
本位词：这，这样，这些 外位词：被本位词所替代的部分 一般用定语从句的which/of来翻译本位词 ...women in novels were stereotype of lacking any features... 小说中的妇女都是这样一种模式，她们缺少…… This assumption rests on the fallacy of the ... 假设是基于这样一种谬论：…… 19 There are not a few of people. 有不少人。 There are very few people who would not like to do it. 没有多少人愿意做这件事情。 20 abnormally 不正常地；病态地；特别，尤其 21 短句翻译：剥洋葱 先次后主，有逗号 21 中文：事实+评论 英文：评论+事实 22 It is often said that...人们常说 it is believed that...人们相信 It is guessed that...人们猜测 It is thought that...人们认为 It is supposed that...人们推测 It is reported that...据报道 插入语 23 表示观点时，提到句首翻译 27 不表示观点时，保留在原来位置，用破折号连接 23 谓语动词的过渡 英译汉 keep one informed current events keep是过渡词，本身动词性很弱，它的存在是为了informed的存在，因此翻译时直接忽略keep翻译inform 汉译英 中文“副词+动词”——英文“副词变动词，动词变名词” 28 West Bejing人为划分的行政区域，西北京 Western Beijing自然地理意义上的范围，北京的西部 the West of Beijing不在北京范围内，北京的西边 29 一般英文的人名和地名都要求固定中文译法 White 怀特 Watt 瓦特 Walt 沃尔特
English—Chinese Translation and Extensive Knowledge 第一讲（四课时）翻译的历史起源以及各大著名理论和概论 2012/09/18 第一节：翻译起源以及翻译大家（一） 1.1翻译事业在我国有着悠久的历史。 最早的佛经翻译是西汉哀帝元寿元年（公元前2年）贵霜帝国大月氏王遣使者伊存来中国口授佛经，博士弟子秦景宪协助使伊存得以记录的《浮图经》。 中国历史上出现过三次翻译高潮：东汉至唐宋的佛经翻译、明末清初的科技翻译和鸦片战争至“五四”的西学翻译。佛经翻译是中国翻译事业的起点。中国的翻译活动可以追溯到春秋战国时代。中国真正称得上语际翻译的活动应该说是始于西汉的哀帝时期的佛经翻译。这一时期的佛经翻译活动还只是民间私人事业到了符秦时代，佛经翻译活动就组织有序了。当时主要的组织者是释道安。因此他主张严格的词对词、句对句（word for word, line for line）的直译。道安在此期间请来了著名的翻译家天竺（即印度）人鸠摩罗什。他翻译了三百多卷佛经文献，如《金刚经》、《法华经》、《十二门论》、《中观论》、《维摩经》等。其译文神情并茂、妙趣盎然，堪称当时的上乘之译作，至今仍被视为我国文学翻译的奠基石。 Representative：唐玄奘（西元600-664年）主要生活在初唐时期，一生共翻译了佛教大小乘经论75部1335卷，共计一千多万；玄奘的译著从数量和品质上都达到了中国佛经翻译史上的高峰；堪称：翻译家中的第一人；其成就主要在于是“新译”的创始人。他提出的著名的“五不翻”原则及“既须求真，又须喻俗”的标准，对我国翻译事业有很大影响。 ↓↓ （所谓“求真”就是指翻译必须忠实于原文内容并保持原文风貌；所谓“须喻俗”，就是指译文语言必须通顺易懂并符合其语言规范。玄奘将“须求真”和“须喻俗”有机地结合，使两者相辅相成，） （所谓“不翻”，不是不翻译，而是指“音译”。玄奘列举了5种应该音译的情况，即“五不翻”。其“五不翻”具体为：（1）秘密之，故不翻。佛经中有许多咒语，有其秘密的意思和作用，应该音译，如“陀罗尼”。（2）含多义，故不翻。即一词多义的梵文，在汉语中找不到合适的词汇来表达，因此保留原文，只作音译。如“薄伽梵”，在梵文里便有六层意思。（3）此方所无，故不翻。“此方”即“中国”，指在中国文化中没有的事物应该音译。如“阎浮”树，由于产于印度等地，而我国没有这种树，故保留原意。（4）顺于古例，故不翻。指有些约定俗成的词语应该遵循习惯采取音译。例如“阿耨多罗三藐三菩提”，本来意“指无上正等正觉”，但由于自东汉以来，历代译经家用“音译”翻译，因此保留前人翻译模式，不再翻译成“无上正等正觉”。（5）为生善，故不翻。指具有特殊意义或功能的词语也应当音译。如“般若”虽可意译为智慧,但却是佛教文化中蕴含着特殊意义的一种智慧,一旦把意思直接译出来,则会韵味尽失。“五不翻”原则对我国翻译事业影响极其巨大，直到现在，仍然具有深远的影响。） 1.2文学翻译阶段及其代表人物 文学翻译阶段大致在19世纪60年代到20世纪80年代
英语知识 （3）类比 类比是比较中国与英语国家类似的历史人物，事件，故事等，并用后者取代前者，以帮助外国游客有更好地了解中华文化的特定内容。 例3 人们把四川境内的贡嘎山和四姑娘山分别称为蜀山之王和蜀山之后。许多人来到四姑娘山一睹芳容后, 惊叹不已: 太美了, 太美了! 简直像仙境一样! Chinese people named Mount Gongga as the “king of Sichuan Mountains”while Siguniang Mountain as the “queen of Sichuan Mountains”. After enjoying the beauty of Siguniang (four girls) Mountain, plenty of foreign friends marveled at its beauty: “It is Alps of Orient! (杨天庆，2002：691) 在本译文中，译者把“四姑娘山”类比为西方人比较熟悉的阿尔卑斯山的。译文使读者感受到四姑娘山的美丽，将吸引他们亲自参观此景点。 （4）删减 删减是指省略原文中不必要的或多余的或不重要的信息。 例4在中国最早的典籍中，即有关于这条河的记载。尚书禹贡“漆沮即从，沣水攸同，诗经人雅：“沣水东注，维禹之绩”，说明沣水在缘故就是一条著名的河流。 Records about this river can be found ever in the earliest Chinese classics, which prove that the Feng River has ever been well-known since ancient times. (司显柱，曾剑平，2006：358）删减了对于外国人甚至中国人来说都是不易理解的古诗，仅仅简要介绍一下，更易于外国读者理解和接受。 （5）改译
考研翻译重点词汇 Abstract n.摘要，概要，抽象 adj.抽象的，深奥的，理论的 Accelerate vt.&vi.（使）加快，（使）增速， n.接受速成教育的学生 Account (1)看法,认识 (2)解释,说明 Account for 占…(多大)比重; 解释, 说明 Achievement n.成就；成绩；功绩，达到；完成 Acquire vt.得到，养成，vt 获得；招致，学得（知识等），求得，养成（习惯等），捕获， Action n.作用，动[操]作，行动，机械装置[作用]，（小说等中的）情节 Activity n.活动，活动的事物，活动性，机能，功能 Actually adv.现实的，实际的；目前的；明确的，有效的 Additional adj.增加的，额外的，另外的 Advance vt.&vi.（使）前进，（使）发展；促进， vt.提出 Advantage n.利益，便利，有利方面，有利条件；优点；优势， （网球等）打成平手（deuce ）而延长比赛后一方先得的一分（攻方所得称 advantage in ，守方所得则称 advantage out ） Agree vi.一致；相合同意，赞成约定，允诺，答应，相宜，调和，符合，和睦相处 Almost adv.几乎，差不多，差一点；将近 Amount n.量，数量，数额，总额，总数 vi.合计，共计 An immense amount of … 大量 An amount of … 一些 A certain amount of … 某些 Analogous 与…类似, 与…相似 And 而, 然而 Apply … to … ≈ lie with 存在于,发生于 Approach vt.&vi.接近，走近，靠近； vt.接洽，交涉；着手处理； n.靠近，接近，临近 Appropriate adj.适当的，恰当的； vt.挪用；占用；盗用 Argue vt.&vi.争吵，辩论； vt.坚决主张，提出理由证明，说服，劝说 Arise vi.&link v.呈现；出现；发生； vi.起身，起来，起立 As 译为 (1) 像, 如 ; (2) 作为 As … as (比较的两者要一致) = not so … as 译成:“… 和 … 一样 ” As is mentioned above 如上所述, (如上所示,如图所示---作文可以写) Aspect n.方面，方位，朝向 Assert vt.声称，断言，维护，坚持 Assume vt.假设，认定, 臆断，猜想，假装，担，担任，就职 Attempt n.尝试，企图vt.尝试，企图 Augment vt.增加，提高，扩大； n.增加，提高，扩大 Availability n.可用性，有效性，实用性 Base n.基础，底座，基地，根据地 vt.把…建立在，以…为基础 Behavioral adj.动作的，行为方面的 Big bang 大爆炸理论 Branch n.树枝，枝条，支，分科，分系； vi.出枝，树叉 Breakthrough : 突破 Break prison (监狱)越狱 Break out v. 爆发 Out break: n. 爆发
《十二天突破英汉翻译-笔译篇》笔记 一、定语从句 1、sth. important （adj 修饰不定代词） 后置 a cat alive （asleep, awake, alike） a child adopted（V 过分，可以后置） 2、英文中介词可以译为方位副词和动词。 3、中文：先出主语＋废话（定、状、补、插）+ 最重要成分 英文：先出主语＋最重要成分＋废话（定、状、补、插） 主语＋废话＋主句 4、否定转移：但凡是because 或by 或表原因的词引导的是（从）句子，它一定不转移；是短语 时一定转移。 5、译法：前置、后置、句首译法。 的关系词 6、一个人或者一群人后接动词+宾从；则此动词常译为认为。 （suggest, assume） 7、英汉互译过程中，为了让句子更加通顺，在不影响句意的情况下可适当增加虚词（如果、而、那么），实词的增减 必须要有明确的句意。 8、循环套用：中心词+定1 ＋定2 ＋定3 ＋…＋定n-1 ＋定n [多个定从套用一定后置] 定 1 ＋定2 ≈定3 则将前两者放一起译←三个一样长 定 1 ≈定2 ＋定3 则将后两者放一起译 9、非限一定后置且译出关系词。（难在一定要判断关系词） 10、long before 在很久之前before long 不久后 11、inferior to 比…低级superior to 比…高级 junior to 比…年轻senior to 比…年长 prior to 在…之前 subject to doing 屈服于object to doing 反对 12、非谓语动词位于名词后相当于定从，需按定从处理。 13、abnormally＝extremely 极其的，相当的 14、若句子译成中文不通顺则重新断句。 15、并列套用：中心词+定1 ＋定2 ＋定3 ＋…and＋定n 后置，且关系词只需译一次 16、中文先事实后评论，英文先评论后事实。（差异一） 17、It is often said that…人们常说……It is believed that…人们认为…… It is guessed that…人们猜测……It is thought that…人们认为…… It is supposed that…人们推测…… It is reported that…据报道……According to static, 据统计……
Communicative and semantic translation (I) 1. A translation must give the words of the original. 2. A translation must give the idea of the original. 3. A translation should read like an original work. 4. A translation should read like a translation. 5. A translation should reflect the style of the original. 6. A translation should possess the style of the translation. 7. A translation should read as a contemporary of the original. 8. A translation should read as a contemporary of the translation. 9. A translation may add to or omit from the original. 10. A translation may never add to or omit from the original. 11. A translation of verse should be in prose. 12. A translation of verse should be in verse. (The Art of Translation, T H. Savory, Cape, 1968, p 54.) In the pre-linguistic period of writing on translation, which may be said to date from Cicero through St. Jerome, Luther, Dryden, Tytler, Herder, Goethe, Schleiermacher, Buber, Ortegay Gosset, not to say Savory, opinion swung between literal and free, faithful and beautiful, exact and natural translation, depending on whether the bias was to be in favor of the author or the reader, the source or the target language of the text. Up to the nineteenth century, literal translation represented a philological academic exercise from which the cultural reformers were trying to rescue literature. In the nineteenth century, a more scientific approach was brought to bear on translation, suggesting that certain types of texts must be accurately translated, whilst others should and could not be translated at all! Since the rise of modern linguistics (philology was becoming linguistics here in the late fifties), and anticipated by Tytler in 1790, Larbaud, Belloc, Knox and Rieu, the general emphasis, supported by communication-theorists as well as by non-literary translators, has been placed on the reader -- on informing the reader effectively and appropriately, notably in Nida, Firth, Koller and the Leipzig School. In contrast, the brilliant essays of Benjamin, Valery and Nabokov (anticipated by Croce and Ortegay Gasset) advocating literal translation have appeared as isolated, paradoxical phenomena, relevant only to translating works of high literary culture. Koller (1972) has stated that the equivalent-effect principle of translation is tending to rule out all others, particularly the predominance of any formal elements such as word or structure. The apparent triumph of the 'consumer' is, I think, illusory. The conflict of loyalties. the gap between emphasis on source and target language will always remain as the
专八翻译笔记 武汉新东方刘畅? Be strong and of good courage; do not be afraid, nor be dismayed, for the Lord your God is with you wherever you go. – Joshua 1:9 第一章综述 一、何谓翻译？ ? T —— tell ? R —— reader ? A —— authentic ? N —— native ? S —— smooth ? L —— language ? A —— and ? T —— touch upon ? E —— essence ? 英语的翻译“translation”是由trans-和-late构成。翻译是指两种语言的信息转换，即甲方说的意思换成乙方的语言表达。Steiner说：“翻译就是理解。”理解的对象就是原文的意义，理解原文的意义是达到翻译标准“忠实、通顺”的前一项（忠实）的前提，“通顺”只是表达阶段的事。不论是什么翻译，意义为先，形式为次。因此，可以说，理解为先，表达为次。 ? 二、大纲要求 ? 1、教学大纲 ? 能运用翻译的理论和技巧，将英美报刊上的文章以及文学原著译成汉语，或将我国报刊、杂志上的文章和一般文学作品译成英语，速度为每小时250~300个英文单词。英文要求忠实原意，语言流畅。能担任一般外事活动的口译。 ? 2、考试大纲 ? 汉译英项目要求应试者运用汉译英的理论和技巧，翻译我国报刊杂志上的论述文和国情介绍，以及一般文学作品的节录。速度为每小时250~300汉字。译文必须忠实原意，语言通顺。 ? 英译汉项目要求应试者运用英译汉的理论和技巧，翻译英美报刊杂志上有关政治、经济、历史、文化等方面的论述文以及文学原著的节录。速度为每小时约250~300词。译文要求忠实原意，语言流畅。 ? 三、试题特点 – 1、文体： ? 汉译英：记叙、介绍、散文、论说 ? 英译汉：散文、论说、评论、演讲 – 2、语域： ? 人文历史，无科技翻译 – 3、内容：无专门学术领域知识 ? 注意： ? 1、各年的翻译选段都是较正式的语体，未见不正式的讽刺性杂文，也未见不正式的小说对话。即使涉及文学，也是作家的作品或思想介绍。 ? 2、为了帮助考生更好地理解待翻译的篇段，一般都提供较多的上下文。但考生务必只翻译划线部分。
第一天突破英文中定语从句的翻译（一） 在中国古代汉语中的后置定语：中国疆域之辽阔，人口之众多，资源之丰富。 China has a vast territory,a large population and plentiful resources. 英文中一个词修饰另一个词的时候存在前置和后置两种情况（属于以a-开头的形容词做定语的时候都要后置） 所有的词组和句子在修饰一个单词的时候都是后置，而没有前置，这样也引起了英文中后置的定语从句 4英文中的介词可以翻成中文里的方位副词的动词 There is a book on the desk. 桌上有本书。 The teacher came into the classroom with a book and a dog.老师带着一本书和一只狗…… 5中文：先出主语+废话（包括定语，状语，补语和插入语等）+最重要成分 英文：先出主语+最重要成分+废话（包括定语，状语，补语和插入语等） 6 英译汉的三部曲：断句（读起来不通顺重新断句），翻译和重读 定语从句的翻译方法： 前置译法：一般8个单词（包括8个单词）以下定语从句前置，但是如果放在中心词的前面难以，那么句子会更加冗长，放在后面也未尝不可 后置译法：多于8个单词后置。定语从句翻译后置方法中，需要译出关系词，在翻译的过程中就是要将它们翻译为具体的名词，而不是置之不理。非限制性定语从句需要后置译法，且翻译关系词 句首译法 7循环套用1： 中心词+定语1+定语1的定语2+定语2的定语3+…… 翻译方法看长度，如果三个定语一样长，根据经验判断把前两个放在一起翻译： 定语1+2=3 前两者放在一起翻译 定语1=2+3 后两者放在一起翻 14循环套用2： 中心词+定语1+定语1的定语2 翻译时：2+1+含有中心词的句子 8一般来说，一个人或是一群人的后面出现了一个动词，动词后面有宾语从句，即使不认识这个单词，我们都会把这个词翻译成“认为” 9some翻译为“某些”，而不是“一些”，因为科学家在表达某种观点时都不存在不确定性 28some kind of 某些 10 which有时指前面整个句子； 14 有时定语从句远离先行词； Where“在那里” 11 prior to（主张多用）=before 新中国建立以前：prior to the foundation of the People’s Republic of China “其”是中文专门用来表示第三人称的词。 13 定语从句一般不可放在句首 被动语态：“为”这个字代替了“被”，因为“被”本身在现代汉语中用的比较少 英汉差异： 13 英文中多用代词；中文多用名词，不怕重复 15 英文多用长句，不注重标定符号的使用；中文多用短句且多用逗号隔开 23 英文多用名词；中文多用动词（动词的过渡） 英译汉： 9 适时断句，避免长句 12 重要的句子在后面翻译，不重要的先翻译 15 适时增加表示逻辑关系的词，使句子更具逻辑性
英语和汉语的差异 Synthetic vs．Analytic 综合与分析 English is a synthetic language marked with inflections(曲折变化形式)，while Chinese is an analytic language without any inflection，which is usually implied in the context or explicitly shown in such words as“着、了、过”etc． Thus encouraged, they made a still bolder plan for the next year． 由于受到这样的鼓励，他们为第二年制订了一个更大胆的计划。 Compact vs．Diffusive 紧凑与松散 English sentences are compact tightly combined with connectives or prepositions，while Chinese is diffused，that is，loose in structure． Now the integrated circuit has reduced by many times the size of the computer of which it forms a part，thus creating a new generation of portable minicomputer．现在集成电路成了计算机的组成部分，使计算机的体积大大缩小，从而产生了新一代的便携式微型计算机。 A notion has taken hold in the US to the effect that the only people who should be encouraged to bring children into the world are those who can afford them．在美国有一个根深蒂固的观点，说是只有对那些抚养得起子女的人，才应鼓励其生育。 Hypotactic vs．Paratactic 形合与意合 In English．clauses or phrases are coordinated with or subordinated to one another syntactically while in Chinese theY are placed one after another without coordinating connectives．The many colors of a rainbow range from red on the outside to violet on the inside．彩虹有多种颜色，外圈红，内圈紫。 He had a disconcerting habit of expressing contradictory ideas in rapid succession．他有一种令人难堪的习惯：一会儿一个看法，自相矛盾，变化无常。 Complex vs. Simplex 繁复与简单 English sentences are long and complex，while Chinese sentences are short and simple．For example： Many man-made substances are replacing certain natural materials because either the quality of the natural product cannot meet our ever-increasing requirement，or，more often，because the physical properties of the synthetic substance．which is the common name for man．made materials，have been chosen．and even emphasized，so that it would be Of the greatest use in the fields in which it is to be applied．人造材料通称为合成材料。许多人造材料正在代替某些天然材料，这或者是由于天然物产的数量不能满足日益增长的需要，或者是由于人们选择了合成材料的一些物理性质并加以突出而造成的。因此，合成材料在其应用领域将具有极大的用途。 Impersonal vs．Personal 物称与人称 There are more impersonal structures in English than in Chinese，as shown in the following examples： ·What has happened to you? 你出了什么事儿啦? ·An idea suddenly struck me．我突然想到一个主意。 ·A strange peace canle over her when she was alone 她独处时感到一种特别的安宁。 ·Not a sound reached our ears．我们没有听到任何声音。 ·A great elation overcame them．他们欣喜若狂。 ·The truth finally dawned on her．她最终明白了真相。 Passive vs．Active 被动与主动
《十二天突破英汉翻译》学习笔记 （1）定语从句结构调整问题 武峰老师在这一章对定语从句讲得较细，感觉主要是两大个难点：一是 which 和 that 的指代对象判断，二是如何捋顺中文表达。 第二个难点集中在定语从句译成汉语后的位置，放前面还是后面。武老师“不主改变句子结构，不然容易引起句子的歧义”，不过，武老师也主“八个单词以下的定语从句前置，多于八个单词的句子则是后置”。例如： Behaviorists suggest that the child who is raised in an enviornment where there are many stimuli which develop his or her capacity for apropriate response will experience greater intellectual development. 行为主义者认为，一个孩子如果生长在有很多刺激的环境里，而这些环境促进了其适当反应能力的发展，那么这个孩子就会有着更大的知识发展。 个人感觉，看分析虽然有帮助，不过最有效的办法还是多读类似的译例，看多了自然就明白该怎么处理更灵活。可以到英语文摘、英语世界等杂志里找类似的句子。 另外学英语或者学翻译也可以用一种专题式的方式，比如集中一个周，专门整理这样一个点。 （2） Suggest 和 Assume 等词引导观点时，一般译为“认为”即可。个人比较支持这种译法，如果不是特别追求100%信达，这样译至少不会太生硬。 （3）适当增加“而”、“所以”等词，让句子逻辑更明显。
第二章部分，序号接上篇： （4）谓语动词的过渡： 过渡前：I support you. 过渡后：I give you my support 个人理解：所谓过渡，即原来【一个动词】可以表达的意思，现在用【一个动词再加一个名词】。可以理解为把动词换成短语，换成长一点儿、雅一点儿的表达。 （5）It 结构翻译 It is often saidthat人们常说 It is reportedthat 据报道 It is supposedthat 人们推测 （6）方位与地名 West Africa 西非，这种表示人为划分的行政区域。 Western Beijing，自然地理意义上的围，翻译为“的西部” The west ofBeijing：的西边，不在围之。 （7）插入语处理方式：破折号 Although Gutmanadmits that forced separation by sale was frequent, he shows that the slave’spreference, revealed most clearly on
Chapter 2纽马克的翻译理论 Chapter 2纽马克的翻译理论一、纽马克翻译理论的类型 纽马克把翻译分为四类 1、交际翻译 翻译交际中，目标文本所产生的效果应力求接近源文本; 2、语义翻译 语义翻译中目标文本应在目标语的语义和句法结构允许的情况下尽可能准确地再现原文的语境含义; 3、直译 在直译中原文本的基本意义被译过来目标文本虽合乎目标语的句法结构，但意思是孤立的，没有考虑源语用词的语境因素; 4、死译 在死译中，源文本所有词语的基本意思得到了翻译，但目标文本既不考虑源语用词的语境因素，句法也不合乎目标语要求就连词序也是按照源语文本排列的。 二、纽马克根据语言的三大功能 表达功能(expressive function) 传信功能(informative function) 召唤功能(vocative function) 分析了各种不同类型的作品。他认为各类作品的功能的侧重点不同, 应采取不同的翻译方法。有一些作品, 重点放在原文的语义内容上, 应采取“ 语义翻译”(semantic translation)的方法, 译文要尽可能接近 于原文的语言形式, 以保持其语义内容, 有一些作品, 重点放在读者 的理解和反应上, 应采取“交流翻译”的方法, 译文更倾向于译入语 的语言形式, 使读者更容易接受和理解。纽马克对“ 交流翻译”的 定义是:
“交流翻译试图用这样一种方式正 确地传达原作的文中意义, 使其内容与语言都可以很容易地为读者 所接受和理解。”(communicative translation attempts to render the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership) 这种翻译可以摆脱原文语言形式的束缚, 更好地发挥译文语言的优 势, 使译文流畅、自然、简洁、明了, 更容易为读者所接受和理解, 这样的译文必然会受到广大读者的欢迎, 用严复的话说, 就可以“ 言 之有文,行之弥远” , 合乎“ 雅”的要求了。 纽马克谈理论, 最重视与实践的结合。他说“ 任何理论如果不是产 生于翻译实践中的间题, 那就毫无意义, 毫无生命力。” 所以, 我们 有必要通过翻译实践中的实例来 证实这三家理论的一致性。试举例如下: eg.1 If she did, she need not coin her smiles so lavishly; flash her glances so unremittingly; manufacturing airs so elaborate graces so multitudinous. 译1,如果她真做了, 她就不需要这样浪费地铸造她的微笑, 这样不懈 地闪耀她的眼光, 制造这样精致的气派, 这样众多的文雅。 译2,如果她当真爱他的话, 她就用不着这样过分地装出笑容, 不断地送她的媚眼,费尽心计装腔作势, 摆出许多文雅的姿态。 译3,如果她当真爱他的话, 她就根本用不着这样满面堆笑, 滥送秋波, 煞费苦心地故作姿态, 装出许多斯文模样。 从以上例子, 我们可以看出
英汉翻译笔记整理 第一部分：数词的译法 一、数字增减的译法： 1.句式特征：by＋名词＋比较级＋than The wire is by three inches longer than that one.这根导线比那根长3英寸。2.句式特征：表示增减意义的动词＋to+n.译为：增加到。。。。或减少到。。。。Metal cutting machines have been decreased to 50.金属切割机已经减少到50台。 二、百分数增减的表示法与译法 1.句式特征：表示增减意义的动词＋％ The output value has increased 35%.产值增加了35％ 2.句式特征：表示增减意义的动词＋by＋％ Retail salses should rise by 8%商品零售额应增加3％ The prime cost decreased by 60%.主要成本减少60％ 3.句式特征：表示减少意义的动词＋to+%表示减少后剩余的数量 By using this new-process the loss of metal was reduced to 20%.采用这种新工艺，铁的损失量减少到20％ 4.句式特征：％＋比较级＋than表示净增减的数量 Retail sales are expected to be nine percent higher than last year.今年零售额与去年相比，有望增加9％。 5.句式特征：％＋比较级＋名词表示净减数 The new-type machine wasted 10 percent engergy supplied. 新型机械能耗量
211、985学长学姐组建为大家答疑解惑笔记备份：叶子南：高级英汉翻译理论与实践 比较遵照原文语言结构的译法就是直译，并不专指“逐字”的程度 在经济、科学、新闻、政论等语篇中，语言形式不是关键因素，在英汉翻译中发挥中文的优势是译者始终要努力的方向。 功能对等>形式对等 既然已传达信息为主，那么介绍原语文化不应以牺牲译入语为代价，否则靠近原语的译法会生成很多不符合译入语习惯的句子。 以读者为中心而非作者，在英译汉中尤为突出 翻译本身就是一件让人左右为难的事。 英汉语义对比：举例如democracy中西感觉是不一样的；It is not funny译成这不好笑，根本没有将说话人愤怒的情感表达出来。 汉语是人治的语言，印欧语系是法治的语言 句法对比： 一、英语重形合，汉语则重意合：鸡声茅店月，人迹板桥霜。何等简洁，不须加动词即可表情达意。汉语结构较为松散，重意念。 将一个重形合的语言转化成重意合的语言，最常犯的错误就是将形合的特点transfer到意合的语言中，现在很多译文充斥着洋腔洋调，却美其名曰“忠实原文”。 二、状语对比------------------------状语从句的译法，参考中国翻译和本书翻译技巧 定语对比--------------------------定语从句的译法，参考中国翻译和本书翻译技巧 被动句对比-----------------------译法参考中国翻译和本书翻译技巧 篇章结构的不同实际上是思维结构不同在语言上的反映。汉语中所谓的“布局谋篇”就是我们翻译当中牵涉到的语段篇章的安排问题。英汉翻译是否保留原句的布局特征，还是应该采用译入语的布局特征是一个值得注意的问题。 其实大多数情况下采用贪懒的办法也是译者不得已而为之，因为译者根本就没有真正看懂原文。第二个问题是译者的翻译思想有问题，认为这类贴近原文的译法才是忠实的译法。正确的翻译思想应该是译文必须像中文，不带翻译腔，因为原文有原文读者读时并没有翻译腔。 eg there are no limitations in self except those you believe in. 思果：人的一己没有种种局限，除非你画地为牢。对比：人的一己没有局限，除非那些你相信的局限。 各种比喻和形象语言的译法-------------------------------参考中国翻译 1、照译原文比喻 2、将原文比喻改成地道的译入语中的比喻（惯用） 3、照译原文中的比喻，但附加一个说明（这里是把附加说明加进译文）如The tongue is fire.口舌如火，火能伤人，口舌亦然。 4、舍弃比喻，改用普通语言来表达比喻的意思 文章承载的各层意义：指示意义；关联意义；结构意义（有结构引起的意义不同） 不学理论只论技巧则会后劲不足。 翻译技巧篇：（结合其他翻译技巧书细细体会）
第18章文学翻译 18.1 复习笔记 一、文学翻译的标准 对于文学翻译的要求是，“用另一种语言，把原作的艺术意境传达出来，使读者在读译文的时候能够像读原作时一样得到启发、感动和美的感受”。 钱钟书把文学翻译的最高标准概括为一个“化”字。 二、文学翻译的过程 借鉴茅盾的有关解释，把文学翻译过程分为三个阶段： (1) 理解阶段； (2) 印证阶段； (3) 表达阶段。 在表达阶段强调的内容是： (1) 必须使用文学语言； (2) 尽量保持原作风格； (3) 力求内容和形式的辩证统一。 三、文学翻译须使用文学语言 这里仅介绍英文小说翻译的几个侧面：
1. 文学语言具有准确、形象、生动、自然等特征，译者应根据原作的艺术意境和语言特色，在译文里寻找适当的语言形式，使之文情并茂。 Daffodils all along the hedgerow swung like yellow, ruffled birds on their perches. 清风徐徐，沿灌木篱笆旁的水仙花轻轻地摇摆着，颇似栖息的鸟儿掀动着金黄色羽毛。 2. 运用娴熟的汉语，再现人物语言的形象化和个性化，使译文产生“如闻其声，如见其人”的艺术效果。 “Say, some tenderness, that!” This is reference to a smile or a melting glance on the part of a female. “唷，瞧那样多温存!”这说的是一位女性的嫣然一笑，或者回眸传情。 3. 凭借自己的审美体验，深刻理解原作的艺术美，进而形神兼备地再现这种艺术美。 四、加强文学翻译的基本功训练 有兴趣于或有志于从事文学翻译的青年，可在课内外分门别类地选做一些练习，以集中提高某些方面的表述能力。 18.2 课后习题详解 将下列英文译成汉语： 1. One morning, in the fall of 1880, a middle-aged woman, accompanied by a young girl of inquiry as to whether there was anything a- bout the place that she could do. She was of a helpless, fleshy build, with a frank, open countenance and