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An Architecture for Integrated Modeling and Simulation for Emergency Response

An Architecture for Integrated Modeling and Simulation for Emergency Response
An Architecture for Integrated Modeling and Simulation for Emergency Response

An Architecture for Integrated Modeling and Simulation for

Emergency Response

Sanjay Jain

Center for High Performance Manufacturing

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Falls Church, VA 22043-2311, U.S.A.

Charles R. McLean

Manufacturing Systems Integration Division

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8260, U.S.A.

Abstract

A number of modeling and simulation applications exist for studying individual aspects of emergency response scenarios. The value of these applications can be significantly increased if they can be used in an integrated manner to study all aspects of a scenario. This paper presents an architecture for integration and distributed execution of such applications for analyzing an emergency response scenario. The proposed architecture is designed for integrating geographically dispersed modeling and simulation applications and repositories of data. It is designed to accommodate advanced visualization and human interaction together with data access and management capabilities. Keywords: Modeling, Simulation, Architecture, Emergency Response, Integration.

1. Introduction

There is a growing need for preparedness for emergency response both for man-made and natural disaster events. The man-made disaster risk has increased due to a rise in possibility of terrorist attacks against the United States. Effective emergency response presents a number of challenges to the responsible agencies.

Modeling, simulation1 and visualization techniques can help address many of the challenges brought forth by the need for emergency response preparedness. A recent survey [1] indicates that a number of modeling and simulation applications for analyzing various disaster events exist. These need to be brought together for studying the impact of disaster events as a whole. Not only do we need to understand how will a radioactive plume released by terrorists disperse, we also need to plan what traffic routes will people use to evacuate the affected areas, what demands will be placed on the hospital resources in the area, etc. The individual simulation models such as those for studying the radiological release need to be integrated with those analyzing the traffic movement through the highways and arteries of the affected area, and with those analyzing the resource constraints of hospital systems among others.

The integration of simulation models developed independently presents a daunting challenge in itself. Interoperability standards need to be defined that will allow the conforming models and data sources to be integrated. A framework and an architecture for integration needs to be agreed upon by the modeling and simulation community involved in developing applications in the area of emergency response. Infrastructure for development and deployment of the integrated solutions needs to be established.

This paper proposes an architecture for modeling and simulation for emergency response. Relevant reported frameworks and architectures for modeling and simulation are reviewed. The proposed overall approach for integrated modeling and simulation tools for emergency response is described. The proposed architecture itself is presented and its major components discussed. The paper concludes with discussion of further research for achieving the vision of the integrated emergency response framework.

1 Modeling and simulation in this paper refer to the use of computer-based models and simulations. It is recognized that physical simulation such as mock exercises play an important role in emergency preparedness, but such activities are not the focus of the discussion in this paper.

2. Related Research

A number of simulation tools have to be integrated to address multiple aspects of a single disaster event as described in section 1. The need for such integration in the emergency response context has been recognized as evident by the urban security project at Los Alamos National Laboratory that integrates plume simulation and traffic simulation to compute exposures to the cars traveling through the plume [2]. The Simulation Object Framework for Infrastructure Analysis (SOFIA) project is developing a high-quality, flexible, and extensible actor-based software framework for the modeling, simulation, and analysis of interdependent infrastructures [3].

A number of research efforts have been targeted at integration of simulation models outside the context of emergency response. In particular, Department of Defense (DoD) has spent a large effort in developing war gaming capabilities that integrate a number of simulation models and humans-in-the-loop. The DoD-sponsored research in this area started in the late 1980s with the development of SIMNET for real-time battlefield simulations of tanks in a virtual training environment. Most recently one thread of the work is evolving into the Standard Simulation Architecture, designed as a combination of the High Level Architecture (HLA) and the Synchronous Parallel Environment for Emulation and Discrete-Event Simulation (SPEEDES) developed in mid to late 1990s [4]. Another group of researchers is proposing bringing HLA together with the Model Driven Architecture (MDA), a concept developed by the Object Management Group (OMG). The model driven architecture uses a language, vendor and platform-independent metamodel as the core representation, with facilities defined to translate the representation for implementation. The combination of HLA and MDA offers benefits to both the developments and is recommended [5]. Any proposed architecture based on HLA should weigh the alternate approaches and their support in the industry and accordingly plan the implementation. Overall, the focus of the DoD developments has been on war gaming involving a number of human decision-makers and actors. The associated research should prove to be very useful for integrated simulations for emergency response, particularly for training applications.

The integration of simulation models requires that the data is translated from one model to another model in the right context. Typically, human analysts have to spend some time ensuring that the translation of data is consistent based on the semantic understanding. Translation using syntactic grammar can be more efficient but not always possible. An agent based architecture has been developed that uses object-oriented modeling techniques to encapsulate and organize the syntactic information while the semantic information of the objects is examined for data integration purposes [6]. The proposed architecture can provide value for interoperability of emergency response simulations. The Dynamic Information Architecture System (DIAS) has been developed at Argonne National Laboratory as an object oriented simulation system that provides an integrating framework for new and legacy applications and can adapt to different contexts [7]. The system has been used both for U.S. Department of Defense applications and civilian applications. It is frame-based and uses the concept of entity objects as analogs to the real world entities being studied. It uses an extensive library of entity objects that can be used in modeling environmental, transportation, and command and control applications. The requirements for building the library of objects may require a large effort for implementation of the system in an emergency response context.

HLA has been used for integrating distributed simulation models in the manufacturing domain. A neutral reference architecture was developed for integrating distributed manufacturing simulation systems with each other, with other manufacturing software applications, and with manufacturing data repositories [8]. The need for standardization of interfaces was highlighted. Experience from this past research will be used in the development proposed here.

This brief review of related research indicates the feasibility of developing an architecture for modeling and simulation of emergency response and at the same time indicates a need for standardization of interfaces and semantic and syntactic representations.

3. Proposed Overall Solution

The types of simulations envisioned for emergency response will be multi-facetted, real-time, and synchronized, i.e., no single simulation model or software system will be capable of representing all aspects of the emergency response problem. Furthermore, these simulations will need to be rapidly configured to respond to changing threats. The key technical elements of the proposed solution to be developed successively are:

? Emergency Response Framework – A framework is needed to bring together the individual efforts in the emergency response domain. The framework will allow mapping of individual efforts in a common structure and identify the gaps that need to be addressed. It will also identify the need for integration among different tools and will serve as a basis for defining the interoperability standards for the purpose. Jain and McLean [9] describe such a framework.

? Architecture for distributed simulation – Standards are needed to provide an infrastructure to enable the interconnection of different types of simulation systems into distributed environments. This architecture needs to provide mechanisms to coordinate the initiation, execution, and shutdown of distributed simulations, enable data transfers from dispersed data sources, and provide time synchronization. A basic scheme for such an architecture is described in the next section.

? Simulation transactions –These transactions are needed to transfer information and simulated objects among distributed simulations while they are executing. Standard formats for transaction data would allow independently developed simulations to be integrated more quickly and effectively. NIST is currently using the Extensible Markup Language (XML) as an integration mechanism on several projects and it is believed that this could be used to integrate emergency response data.

? Simulation templates and model formats – Simulation model libraries can significantly reduce simulation development costs for users. Neutral model formats will enable the development of simulation reference model libraries, generic templates, and application-specific models, independent of the user’s simulation environment.

Neutral data formats will be defined for library models and templates to enable sharing among different vendor systems. XML will be considered as a possible encoding system for storing these models.

? Reference data sets – Test data sets will be needed to allow developers to test their software and perform integration tests. Standard formats for reference data and sharable reference libraries for these types of data would help to accelerate the modeling process and lead to the development of more realistic models. The test data sets should include information to help in model validation, which is difficult to achieve otherwise. For this role, the test data sets will have to be based on real occurrences or developed carefully with expert input. The implementation of an integrated framework and interoperability standards for modeling and simulation for emergency response will significantly improve the emergency preparedness of the nation. Independently developed tools can then be quickly integrated together for end-to-end modeling capability for an emergency scenario. The integrated capability can then be used for applications ranging from planning and training to actual response, should the imagined scenario occur in real life.

4. Proposed Architecture

The intent of the architecture is to provide a common backplane that allows plug and play with tools from various sources for modeling, simulation, visualization, data access and management for emergency response. The architecture for the emergency response simulation is shown in figure 1. It is divided into the following component elements:

? Simulators

? Scenario Emulator

? Data access and management

? Human interface modules

? Tools for identification, detection and learning

Each of the major components of the architecture is briefly described below.

4.1. Simulators

A number of simulator modules will be integrated to allow analysis of a disaster event and its aftermath. A number of types of simulators are envisaged at this time as discussed below. It is expected that this list will grow in the future. Hence, the architecture presented in the figure uses generic blocks to represent simulators that will be brought together.

? Disaster Event Simulator – This module simulates the disaster event itself. It models the original occurrence of the event that triggers the disaster and its primary impact. For modeling of a conventional bomb explosion in a commercial building, this module will model the occurrence of the explosion and determine the forces generated and fires started due to the explosion. Depending on the tool, it may continue modeling the spread of fire in the building in this module or that may be simulated using the impact simulators discussed next.

Figure 1. Schematic of architecture for integrated modeling and simulation of emergency response.

? Impact Simulators – These modules simulate the secondary impact of the disaster event. For the building explosion example, these modules may include those for modeling the impact on the building structure due to explosion and fire, for modeling impact on the utility infrastructure in and around the building, for modeling casualties among occupants of the building, for modeling behavior of occupants in the building, and for modeling traffic jams around the building. Typically, these will be multiple simulators modeling complementary aspects of the scenario. The impact simulators will include the influence of environmental factors for modeling the impact. For example, prevalent wind speeds will impact the spread of fire in the building and potential spread of fire to other buildings.

? Response Agent Simulators – These modules simulate the actions of the response agents such as police, fire, utility crews, city, state and federal government agencies, etc. as called for by the scenario. In the building explosion scenario, these modules may include those for modeling the response by the police, by fire crews, by emergency medical personnel, by utility crews, by the city office and for modeling the treatment of injured at the hospital.

? Information Flow Simulator – This module simulates the flow of information on the disaster event. It will model the occurrence of 911 calls, relay of the event information by media, information read by sensors, information forwarded by agencies such as building security, police and other civil defense agencies. For the building explosion scenario, the simulator will model the placing and receipt of 911 calls, the communication to police, fire and emergency medical personnel, the flow of information in administrative agencies until they trigger actions by response agents.

4.2. Emergency Response Scenario Emulator

This module brings the results of all the different simulators together by emulating the status of all the objects in the scenario. The emulator also serves as the communication medium between the simulators and as the input for visualization systems. For an event involving a building explosion, one of the impact simulators will model the panic evacuation of occupants of the building and that will be emulated in the emulator. This information will be used by the traffic simulator to model a traffic jam and the scenario will be updated in the emulator. The traffic jam information will be used by the response agent simulators for planning the arrival routes of emergency response crews and for using some of the police crews for crowd control. The integrated scenario information will be used for the animated display of the scenario using the visualization systems.

4.3. Data Access and Management

? Databases and Libraries – A number of databases and libraries will be used to drive the integrated emergency response simulation. These will include terrain and city street maps, land and building use databases, commuting pattern databases, utility network databases, weather forecasts, etc. The libraries will include disaster event scenarios and the related files required by the multiple simulators described above.

? Real time Systems Data – The real time systems data may be generated by a number of automated sensors and from the inputs by various first responders at the scene. Such data will be imported for updating the simulators using the XML data processor described below. The real time data can be used for training exercises and response to actual events.

? Data Files - These interface files provide a mechanism for providing data that is not suited for XML format, for example, GIS data and other graphics data.

? XML Scenario Data Files - These interface files are key to understanding the entire concept of the integrated emergency response simulator. The files provide a mechanism for configuring the individual simulator modules and sharing data between them. XML is used to encode the data in the file. These files contain not only executable or computable data to be processed by the simulation, but also descriptive text that is intended only for human interpretation. They also contain a network of cross-reference links between the various types of data required for interaction between various simulation modules. They support references to other external computer files and/or paper documents that provide more appropriate mechanisms or standards for encoding or representing data, e.g., response agent’s behavior. Subsets of individual data types, i.e., substructures, may be created, stored, and/or exchanged using the files.

? XML Data Processor– This module is a library of routines that handle the import and export of data in the prescribed XML format of the neutral scenario data files. The primary function of the module is to read the neutral scenario data file in XML and translate the data into and out of the internal object structure of the respective simulator modules. It is also responsible for creating XML output files.

? Internal Object Data Model – This data model is used to maintain the status of all the objects in the scenario.

This model supports the scenario emulator and the communication amongst various simulator modules.

4.4. Human Interface Modules

? Simulation Supervisor – This module is responsible for synchronization of all the simulator modules. It configures the emergency response scenario through synchronized initialization of all the simulator modules from data contained within the Neutral Scenario Data Files and coordinating the execution of the various modules during a simulation run; and outputs simulation reports.

? User Interface System– This module provides capabilities for creating and modifying scenario data files, managing the display screens for configuring the system and observing simulation runs, debugging, and displaying results. It also is responsible for the generation of custom reports of simulation results. Many of the capabilities may be duplicated by the allowed interactions through the visualization systems discussed below.

For example, a user can use the textual interface to send an additional medical unit to an identified area, or use the visual interface to point and drag a unit to the area on the graphical display. Such an action will then update appropriate multiple simulations including the response agent simulators and information flow simulators.

? Visualization Systems– This module provides the graphic representation of the scenario and the events. This may range from a single monitor viewed by naked eyes to advanced computer aided visualization environments (CAVEs) viewed using data helmets and interaction devices such as data gloves. The module reads the information from the scenario emulators and displays them using the configured hardware. The visualization systems should allow the capability of integrating layers of data and simulation outputs generated by different systems. The layers may be overlaid on geographic representations with user controllable degrees of transparency to aid in the understanding and analysis of the data and simulation results.

? Human-in-the-loop Interface System– This module provides capabilities for human interaction with the simulation and will be primarily used for training applications. The interfaces may range from simple computer terminals allowing keyboard input to represent decisions by emergency response management officials to virtual reality interfaces used by individual emergency response workers to model individual actions.

4.5. Tools for identification, detection and learning

The emergency response simulator will allow access by various kinds of tools. It can serve as a test bed for identification and detection procedures through representations of real and dummy pre-disaster event histories. It

can also be used for training learning systems particularly when integrated with human-in-the-loop simulations.

The proposed architecture above uses a number of components and a number of interfaces. Standards are needed for

the architecture, data structures and interfaces, and formats for text and graphics files. A few standards have been developed to address some of the basic issues. The distributed simulation community led by Defense Modeling and Simulation Office (DMSO) has standardized the high level architecture (HLA). Some standards have also been established for virtual reality modeling that may be relevant for advanced visualization of simulation results. Standards relevant to this area have been identified [1].

5. Conclusion

This paper presented an architecture that provides for integration of modeling and simulation tools to allow a systems approach to study and analysis of emergency response. The architecture is intended to provide a generic platform that allows plugging in legacy and new applications on a common backplane provided by a distributed simulation architecture. The adequacy and validity of the architecture may be tested using a prototype. It is recognized that the area of modeling and simulation of emergency response is attracting a lot of attention and the expected rapid development may lead to enhancements in the architecture in the near future. It is also recognized

that prior to implementation of such an architecture, the modeling and simulation community will have to come together to establish standards for terminology and representation to allow development of XML interfaces and processors. Efforts are being planned at NIST for such purposes.

Acknowledgements

Work described in this paper was sponsored by the NIST Systems Integration for Manufacturing Applications (SIMA) Program.

References

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第二章-半导体中的杂质和缺陷能级Word版

第二章 半导体中杂质和缺陷能级 引言 1.实际半导体和理想半导体的区别 理想半导体 实际半导体 原子不是静止在具有严格周期性的晶格的格点上,而在其平衡位置附近振动 原子静止在具有严格周期性的晶格的格点上 半导体不是纯净的,含有若干杂质 半导体是纯净的,不含杂质 晶格结构不是完整的,含若干缺陷 晶格结构是完整的,不含缺陷 2.杂质的种类 根据杂质能级在禁带中的位置将杂质分为两种 浅能级杂质:能级接近导电底Ec 或价带顶Ev ; 深能级杂质:能级远离导带底Ec 或价带顶Ev ; 3.缺陷的种类 点缺陷,如空位、间隙原子; 线缺陷,如位错; 面缺陷,如层错、多晶体中的晶粒间界等 §2.1硅、锗晶体中的杂质能级 一、杂质与杂质能级 杂质:半导体中存在的与本体元素不同的其它元素。杂质出现在半导体中时,产生的附加势场使严格的周期性势场遭到破坏。单位体积中的杂质原子数称为杂质浓度。 杂质能级:杂质在禁带中引入的能级。 二、替位式杂质、间隙式杂质 杂质原子进入半导体后,有两种方式存在: 1.间隙式杂质:杂质原子位于晶格原子间的间隙位置,形成该种杂质时,要求其杂质原子比晶格原子小; 2.替位式杂质:杂质原子取代晶格原子而位于晶格点处,形成该种杂质时,要求其原子的大小与被取代的晶格原子的大小比较接近,而且二者的价电子壳层结构也比较接近。 三、施主杂质、施主能级(举例Si 中掺P) 如图所示,一个磷原子占据了硅原子的位置。磷原子有5个价电 子,其中4个价电子与周围的4个硅原子形成共价键,还剩余一个价 电子。同时,磷原子所在处也多余一个正电荷+q ,称这个正电荷为正 电中心磷离子(P +)。所以磷原子替代硅原子后,其效果是形成一个正 电中心P +和一个多余的价电子。这个多余的价电子就束缚在正电中心 P +的周围。但是,这种束缚作用比共价键的束缚作用弱得多,只要有很少 间隙式杂质 替位式杂质 硅中的施主杂质

台达伺服调试经验故障排除

Q1:伺服电机与普通电机有何区别? A1:伺服电机与普通电机最大的区别在于电机转子和反馈装置。伺服电机转子表面贴有强力磁钢片,因此可以通过定子线圈产生的磁场精确控制转子的位置,并且加减速特性远高于普通电机。反馈装置可以精确反馈电机转子位置到伺服驱动器,伺服电机常用的反馈装置有光学编码器、旋转变压器等。 Q2:伺服驱动器输入电源是否可接单相220V ? A2:台达伺服1.5KW(含)以下可接单相/三相220V电源,2.0KW(含)以上只能接三相220V电源。三相电源整流出来的直流波形质量更好,质量不好的直流电源会消耗母线上电容的能量,电机急加减速时电容会对母线充放电来保持母线电压稳定,因此三相电源输入比单相电源输入伺服的特性会好一些,三相电源输入提供的电流也更大。 Q3:伺服驱动器输出到电机的UVW三相是否可以互换? A3:不可以,伺服驱动器到电机UVW的接法是唯一的。普通异步电机输入电源UVW两相互换时电机会反转,事实上伺服电机UVW任意两相互换电机也会反转,但是伺服电机是有反馈装置的,这样就出现正反馈会导致电机飞车。伺服驱动器会检测并防止飞车,因此在UVW

接错线后我们看到的现象是电机以很快的速度转过一个角度然后报警过负载ALE06。 Q4:伺服电机为何要Servo on之后才可以动作? A4:伺服驱动器并不是在通电后就会输出电流到电机,因此电机是处于放松的状态(手可以转动电机轴)。伺服驱动器接收到Servo on信号后会输出电流到电机,让电机处于一种电气保持的状态,此时才可以接收指令去动作,没有收到指令时是不会动作的即使有外力介入(手转不动电机轴),这样伺服电机才能实现精确定位。

ASD伺服常见问题处理方式

ASD伺服常见问题处理方式 1,伺服驱动器输出到电机的UVW三相是否可以互换? 不可以,伺服驱动器到电机UVW的接法是唯一的。普通异步电机输入电源UVW两相互换时电机会反转,事实上伺服电机UVW任意两相互换电机也会反转,但是伺服电机是有反馈装置的,这样就出现正反馈会导致电机飞车。伺服驱动器会检测并防止飞车,因此在UVW接错线后我们看到的现象是电机以很快的速度转过一个角度然后报警过负载ALE06。 2,伺服电机为何要Servo on之后才可以动作? 伺服驱动器并不是在通电后就会输出电流到电机,因此电机是处于放松的状态(手可以转动电机轴)。伺服驱动器接收到Servo on信号后会输出电流到电机,让电机处于一种电气保持的状态,此时才可以接收指令去动作,没有收到指令时是不会动作的即使有外力介入(手转不动电机轴),这样伺服电机才能实现精确定位。 3,伺服驱动器报警ALE01如何处理? 检查UVW线是否有短路。如果把UVW线与驱动器断开再通电仍然出现ALE01则是驱动器硬件故障。 4,ALE02过电压/ALE03低电压报警发生时如何处理? 首先使用万用表测量输入电压是否在允许范围内;再次是通过驱动器或伺服软件示波器监视“主回路电压”,这是直流母线电压,电压伏数应该是输入交流电压的1.414倍,正常来讲应该不会有太大的偏差。如果偏差很大需返厂重新校准。ALE02/ALE03报警是以“主回路电压”来判断的。 5,在高速运行时机台在中途有很明显的一钝,观察发现是中途有ALE03报警产生,但是一闪就消失了,如何解决这个问题? 在高速运行时会消耗很大能量,母线电压会下降,如果输入电压偏低此时就会出现ALE03报警。报警发生时伺服马上停止,母线电压恢复正常,报警自动消失,伺服会继续运行,因此看起来就是明显的一钝。这种情况多发生在使用单相电源供电时,建议主回路使用三相电源供电。参数P2-65 bit12置ON可使ALE03报警发生时,母线电压恢复后报警不会自动消失。 6,伺服驱动器报警ALE04如何处理? AB系列伺服驱动器配ECMA马达时功率不匹配上电会报警ALE04,除这种情况外刚一上电就报警ALE04就是电机编码器故障。如果在使用过程中出现ALE04报警是因为编码器信号被干扰,请查看编码器线是否是屏蔽双绞、驱动器与电机间地线是否连接,或者在编码器线上套磁环。通过ALE04.EXE软件可以监测每次Z脉冲位置AB脉冲计数是否变化,有变化则会报

实验一 半导体材料的缺陷显示及观察

实验一半导体材料的缺陷显示及观察 实验目的 1.掌握半导体的缺陷显示技术、金相观察技术; 2.了解缺陷显示原理,位错的各晶面上的腐蚀图象的几何特性; 3.了解层错和位错的测试方法。 一、实验原理 半导体晶体在其生长过程或器件制作过程中都会产生许多晶体结构缺陷,缺陷的存在直接影响着晶体的物理性质及电学性能,晶体缺陷的研究在半导体技术上有着重要的意义。 半导体晶体的缺陷可以分为宏观缺陷和微观缺陷,微观缺陷又分点缺陷、线缺陷和面缺陷。位错是半导体中的主要缺陷,属于线缺陷;层错是面缺陷。 在晶体中,由于部分原子滑移的结果造成晶格排列的“错乱”,因而产生位错。所谓“位错线”,就是晶体中的滑移区与未滑移区的交界线,但并不是几何学上定义的线,而近乎是有一定宽度的“管道”。位错线只能终止在晶体表面或晶粒间界上,不能终止在晶粒内部。位错的存在意味着晶体的晶格受到破坏,晶体中原子的排列在位错处已失去原有的周期性,其平均能量比其它区域的原子能量大,原子不再是稳定的,所以在位错线附近不仅是高应力区,同时也是杂质的富集区。因而,位错区就较晶格完整区对化学腐蚀剂的作用灵敏些,也就是说位错区的腐蚀速度大于非位错区的腐蚀速度,这样我们就可以通过腐蚀坑的图象来显示位错。 位错的显示一般都是利用校验过的化学显示腐蚀剂来完成。腐蚀剂按其用途来分,可分为化学抛光剂与缺陷显示剂,缺陷显示剂就其腐蚀出图样的特点又可分为择优的和非择优的。 位错腐蚀坑的形状与腐蚀表面的晶向有关,与腐蚀剂的成分,腐蚀条件有关,与样品的性质也有关,影响腐蚀的因素相当繁杂,需要实践和熟悉的过程,以硅为例,表1列出硅中位错在各种界面上的腐蚀图象。 二、位错蚀坑的形状 当腐蚀条件为铬酸腐蚀剂时,<100>晶面上呈正方形蚀坑,<110>晶面上呈菱形或矩形蚀坑,<111>晶面上呈正三角形蚀坑。(见图1)。

二晶体结构缺陷

1、说明下列符号的含义: V Na,V Na’,V Cl?,.(V Na’V Cl?),CaK?,CaCa,Cai?? 2、写出下列缺陷反应式: (1)NaCl溶入CaCl2中形成空位型固溶体; (2)CaCl2溶人NaC1中形成空位型固溶体; (3)NaCl形成肖脱基缺陷; (4)AgI形成弗仑克尔缺陷(Ag+进入间隙)。 3、MgO的密度是3.58克/厘米3,其晶格参数是0.42nm,计算单位晶胞MgO的肖脱基缺陷数。 4、(a)MgO晶体中,肖脱基缺陷的生成能为6eV,计算在25℃和1600℃时热缺陷的浓度。 (b)如果MgO晶体中,含有百万分之一摩尔的A12O3杂质,则在1600℃时,MgO晶体中是热缺陷占优势还是杂质缺陷占优势,说明原因。 5、MgO晶体的肖特基缺陷生成能为84kJ/mol,计算该晶体在1000K和1500K的缺陷浓度。 6、非化学计量化合物FexO中,Fe3+/Fe2+=0.1,求Fe x O中的空位浓度及x值。 7、非化学计量缺陷的浓度与周围气氛的性质、压力大小相关,如果增大周围氧气的分压,非化学计量化合物Fe1-X O及Zn1+X O的密度将发生怎么样的变化?增大还是减小?为什么? 8、对于刃位错和螺位错,区别其位错线方向、柏氏矢量和位错运动方向的特点。 9、图2.1是晶体二维图形,内含有一个正刃位错和一个负刃位错。 (a)围绕两个位错柏格斯回路,最后得柏格斯矢量若干? (b)围绕每个位错分别作柏氏回路,其结果又怎样? 10、有两个相同符号的刃位错,在同一滑移面上相遇,它们将是排斥还是吸引? 11、晶界对位错的运动将发生怎么样的影响?能预计吗? 12、晶界有小角度晶界与大角度晶界之分,大角度晶界能用位错的阵列来描述吗? 13、试述影响置换型固溶体的固溶度的条件。

实验一 半导体材料的缺陷显示及观察资料讲解

实验一半导体材料的缺陷显示及观察

实验一半导体材料的缺陷显示及观察 实验目的 1.掌握半导体的缺陷显示技术、金相观察技术; 2.了解缺陷显示原理,位错的各晶面上的腐蚀图象的几何特性; 3.了解层错和位错的测试方法。 一、实验原理 半导体晶体在其生长过程或器件制作过程中都会产生许多晶体结构缺陷,缺陷的存在直接影响着晶体的物理性质及电学性能,晶体缺陷的研究在半导体技术上有着重要的意义。 半导体晶体的缺陷可以分为宏观缺陷和微观缺陷,微观缺陷又分点缺陷、线缺陷和面缺陷。位错是半导体中的主要缺陷,属于线缺陷;层错是面缺陷。 在晶体中,由于部分原子滑移的结果造成晶格排列的“错乱”,因而产生位错。所谓“位错线”,就是晶体中的滑移区与未滑移区的交界线,但并不是几何学上定义的线,而近乎是有一定宽度的“管道”。位错线只能终止在晶体表面或晶粒间界上,不能终止在晶粒内部。位错的存在意味着晶体的晶格受到破坏,晶体中原子的排列在位错处已失去原有的周期性,其平均能量比其它区域的原子能量大,原子不再是稳定的,所以在位错线附近不仅是高应力区,同时也是杂质的富集区。因而,位错区就较晶格完整区对化学腐蚀剂的作用灵敏些,也就是说位错区的腐蚀速度大于非位错区的腐蚀速度,这样我们就可以通过腐蚀坑的图象来显示位错。 位错的显示一般都是利用校验过的化学显示腐蚀剂来完成。腐蚀剂按其用途来分,可分为化学抛光剂与缺陷显示剂,缺陷显示剂就其腐蚀出图样的特点又可分为择优的和非择优的。 位错腐蚀坑的形状与腐蚀表面的晶向有关,与腐蚀剂的成分,腐蚀条件有关,与样品的性质也有关,影响腐蚀的因素相当繁杂,需要实践和熟悉的过程,以硅为例,表1列出硅中位错在各种界面上的腐蚀图象。 二、位错蚀坑的形状 仅供学习与交流,如有侵权请联系网站删除谢谢2

台达伺服调试

何謂伺服的低頻擺振?當發生低頻擺振時如何處理? 若系統剛性不足,在定位命令結束後,即使馬達本身已經接近靜止,機械傳動端仍會出現持續擺動。低頻抑振功能可以用來減緩機械傳動端擺動的現象。低頻抑振的範圍為 1.0 ~ 100.0Hz。本功能提供手動設定與自動設定,但目前只有ASDA-A2系列機種支援此功能。 低頻抑振方式分為自動及手動方式: (1) 自動設定 若使用者難以直接知道頻率的發生點,可以開啟自動低頻抑振功能。此功能會自動尋找低頻擺動的頻率。若P1-29設定為1時,系統會先自動關閉低頻抑振濾波功能,並開始自動尋找低頻的擺動頻率。當自動偵測到的頻率維持固定後,P1-29會自動設回0,並會將第一擺動頻率設定在P1-25且P1-26設為1。第二擺動頻率設定在P1-27且將P1-28設為1。當P1-29自動設回零後,低頻擺動依然存在,請檢查低頻抑振P1-26或P1-28是否已被自動開啟。若P1-26與P1-28皆為零,代表沒有偵測到任何頻率,此時請減少低頻擺動檢測準位P1-30,並設定P1-29 = 1,重新尋找低頻的擺動頻率。 (2) 手動設定 低頻抑振有兩組低頻抑振濾波器,第一組為參數P1-25 ~ P1-26,第二組為參數P1-27 ~ P1-28。可以利用這兩組濾波器來減緩兩個不同頻率的低頻擺動。參數P1-25與P1-27用來設定低頻擺動所發生的頻率,低頻抑振功能唯有在低頻抑振頻率參數設定與真實的擺動頻率接近時,才會抑制低頻的機械傳動端的擺動。參數P1-26與P1-28用來設定經濾波處理後的響應,當P1-26與P1-28設定越大響應越好,但設太大容易使得馬達行走不順。參數P1-26與P1-28出廠值預設值為零,代表兩組濾波器的功能皆被關閉。 伺服煞車電阻使用時機為何? 當伺服驅動器搭配馬達運轉時,若驅動器面板出現ALE05(回生能量異常)時,代表馬達回生產生的能量超過驅動器內建回生電阻所能消耗的能量,此時必須安裝回生電阻,提高驅動器回生能量消耗速度。 ASDA-A2系列內建回生電阻規格:

台达伺服器报警与处理

台达伺服器异警处理 RLE01:过电流:主回路电流值超越电机瞬间最大电流值1.5倍时动作 1.驱动器输出短路:检查电机与驱动器接线状态或导线本体是否短路,排除短路状态,并防止金属导体外露 2. 电机接线异常:检查电机连接至驱动器的接线顺序,根据说明书的配线顺序重新配线 3. IGBT 异常:散热片温度异常,送回经销商或原厂检修 4. 控制参数设定异常:设定值是否远大于出厂预设值,回复至原出厂预设值,再逐量修正 5. 控制命令设定异常:检查控制输入命令是否变动过于剧烈,修正输入命令变动率或开启滤波功能 RLE02:过电压:主回路电压值高于规格值时动作 1.主回路输入电压高于额定容许电压值:用电压计测定主回路输入电压是否在额定容许电压值以内(参照11-1),使用正确电压源或串接稳压器 2. 电源输入错误(非正确电源系统):用电压计测定电源系统是否与规格定义相符,使用正确电压源或串接变压器 3. 驱动器硬件故障:当电压计测定主回路输入电压在额定容许电压值以内仍然发生此错误,送回经销商或原厂检修 RLE03:低电压:主回路电压值低于规格电压时动作 1.主回路输入电压低于额定容许电压值:检查主回路输入电压接线是否正常,重新确认电压接线 2. 主回路无输入电压源:用电压计测定是否主回路电压正常,重新确认电源开关 3. 电源输入错误(非正确电源系统):用电压计测定电源系统是否与规格定义相符,使用正确电压源或串接变压器 RLE04:RLE04:Z 脉冲所对应磁场角度异常 1.编码器损坏:编码器异常,更换电机 2. 编码器松脱:检视编码器接头,重新安装 RLE05:回生错误:回生控制作动异常时动作 1.回生电阻未接或过小:确认回生电阻的连接状况,重新连接回生电阻或计算回生电阻值 2. .回生用切换晶体管失效:检查回生用切换晶体管是否短路,送回经销商或原厂检修 3. 参数设定错误:确认回生电阻参数(P1-52)设定值与回生电阻容量参数(P1-53)设定,重新正确设定 RLE06:过负载:电机及驱动器过负载时动作 1.超过驱动器额定负载连续使用:可由驱动器状态显示P0-02设定为11后,监视平均转矩[%]是否持续一直超过100%以上,提高电机容量或降低负载 2. 控制系统参数设定不当:机械系统是否摆振、加减速设定常数过快,调整控制回路增益值、加减速设定时间减慢 3. 电机、编码器接线错误:检查U、V、W 及编码器接线是否准确 4. 电机的编码器不良:送回经销商或原厂检修 RLE07:过速度:电机控制速度超过正常速度过大时动作 1.速度输入命令变动过剧:用信号检测计检测输入的模拟电压信号是否异常,调整输入变信号动率或开启滤波功能 2. 过速度判定参数设定不当:检查过速度设定参数P2-34(过速度警告条件)是否太小,检查过速度设定参数P2-34(过速度警告条件)是否太小 RLE08:异常脉冲控制命令:脉冲命令的输入频率超过硬件界面容许值时动作 1.脉冲命令频率高于额定输入频率:用脉冲频率检测计检测输入频率是否超过额定输入频率,正确设定输入脉冲频率 RLE09:位置控制误差过大:位置控制误差量大于设定容许值时动作 1.最大位置误差参数设定过小:确认最大位置误差参数P2-35(位置控制误差过大警告条件)设定值,加大P2-35 (位置控制误差过大警告条件)设定值 2. 增益值设定过小:确认设定值是否适当,正确调整增益值 3. 扭矩限制过低:确认扭矩限制值,正确调整扭矩限制值 4. 外部负载过大:检查外部负载,减低外部负载或重新评估电机容量。更换摇床电机。 RLE10:芯片执行超时:芯片异常时动作 1.芯片动作异常:电源复位检测,复位仍异常时,送回经销商或原厂检修 RLE11:编码器异常:编码器产生脉冲信号异常时动作

台达伺服电机驱动器的常见问题

三相機種的變頻器是否可以接單相入力電源? 台達變頻器為單相及三相機種,其最大的差異在於電容的配置。單相機種會配置比較大的電容,因此若三相機種只接單相入力,可能導致輸出電流不足,且會發生欠相的異常。為確保系統正常運行,請搭配使用正確的電源系統。 變頻器使用 在硬體上需加裝PG卡,在PG卡上的開關設置編碼器為Open-Collector或是 Line-Driver型式,並設置正確的電壓大小。在參數上,設定編碼器每轉的脈波數及輸入脈波型式。以台達VFD-VE系列變頻器為例,選用EMV-PG01X的PG卡,且編碼器一圈有1024個脈波,為Open-Collector 12V型,此時,PG卡需設置(如下圖) 在參數設定方面,需設定參數10-00每轉脈波數為1024。另外,在設定10-01之前,需先確定該編碼器的脈波型式為AB相、脈波加方向或單一脈波,再加以設定。 之後只要將參數00-04設為7,就可以在使用者顯示的內容看到馬達實際由編碼器回授的轉速。 無感測向量控制 a.優異開迴路速度控制,不必滑差補償 b.在低度時有高轉矩,不必提供過多之轉矩增強 c.更低損耗,更高效率 d.更高動力響應- 尤其是階梯式負載 e.大馬達有穩定之運轉 f.在電流限制,改善滑差控制有較好之表現 在台達交流馬達驅動器的輸入

電源輸入側電抗器 用於變頻器/驅動器輸入端,電抗器保護著靈敏電子設備使其免受變頻器產生的電力雜訊干擾(如電壓凹陷、脈衝、失真、諧波等),而藉由電抗器吸收電源上的突波,更能使變頻器受到良好的保護。 變頻器/驅動器輸出側電抗器 在長距離電纜接線應用中,使用IGBT保護型電抗器於馬達與變頻器之間,來減緩dv/dt值及降低馬達端的反射電壓。使用負載電抗器於輸出端,可抑制負載迅速變化所產生的突波電流,即使是負載短路亦可提供保護。 何謂控速比 可控速範圍是以馬達的額定轉速為基準,在定轉矩操作區中為維持額定轉矩,其額定轉速與最低轉速的比值,例如一典型交流伺服馬達的可控速範圍為1000:1,亦即若馬達的額定轉速為2000 rpm/min,其最低轉速為2 rpm/min;而且在此控速範圍內,由無載至額定負載時,其轉速誤差百分比值均能滿足所設定的控速精度,如+-0.01%。轉速誤差百分比值是由下式計算:(如下圖) 什麼是變頻器的失速防止功能? 如果給定的加速時間過短,變頻器的輸出頻率變化遠遠超過轉速的變化,變頻器將因流過過電流而跳機,而自由運轉停止,這就是失速。為了防止失速使馬達繼續運轉,就要檢出電流的大小進行頻率控制。當加速電流過大時,適當放慢加速速率。減速時也是如此。兩者結合起來就是失速防止功能。 變頻器的哪些模式可以調整馬達轉速? 變頻器上的轉速控制主要有以下: 1. 直接從變頻器面版上的可變電阻調整 2. 外接類比電壓或電流信號來調整 3. 利用變頻器的多功能輸入端子可達成多段速控制 4. 台達變頻器支援Modbus通訊,可利用上位控制器以通訊的方式改變變頻器轉速。 請問 可以,只要韌體版本為4.08版,即可運轉到2000Hz。 請問 不可以,因為EF輸入端子是數位端子,只有開及關的狀態而已,所以不能作為PTC的輸入端。 請問

台达伺服定位控制案例

X1 Y0脉冲输出Y1正转/反转Y 脉冲清除 4DOP-A 人机 ASDA 伺服驱动器 【控制要求】 ● 由台达PLC 和台达伺服,台达人机组成一个简单的定位控制演示系统。通过PLC 发送脉冲控制伺服, 实现原点回归、相对定位和绝对定位功能的演示。 ● 下面是台达DOP-A 人机监控画面: 原点回归演示画面 相对定位演示画面

绝对定位演示画面【元件说明】

【PLC 与伺服驱动器硬件接线图】 台达伺服驱动器 码器 DO_COM SRDY ZSPD TPOS ALAM HOME

【ASD-A伺服驱动器参数必要设置】 当出现伺服因参数设置错乱而导致不能正常运行时,可先设置P2-08=10(回归出厂值),重新上电后再按照上表进行参数设置。 【控制程序】

M1002 MOV K200 D1343 Y7 Y10 Y11 M20 M21 M22 M23 M24 M1334 Y12 M1346 M11 X0 X1 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 M12 M13 设置加减速时间为 200ms Y6 M10 伺服启动伺服异常复位M0M1M2M3M4M1029 DZRN DDRVI DDRVI DDRVA DDRVA ZRST K10000 K100000K-100000K400000K-50000K5000 K20000 K20000 K200000 K200000 X2 Y0 Y0 Y0 Y0 Y0 Y1 Y1 Y1 Y1 M1M0M0M0M0M2M2M1M1M1M3M3M3M2M2M4 M4 M4 M4 M3 M0 M4 原点回归 正转圈 10跑到绝对坐标,处400000跑到绝对坐标,处 -50000定位完成后自动关闭定位指令执行伺服计数寄存器清零使能 反转圈10伺服电机正转禁止伺服电机反转禁止PLC 暂停输出脉冲伺服紧急停止伺服启动准备完毕伺服启动零速度检出伺服原点回归完成伺服定位完成伺服异常报警

台达A系列伺服电机调试步骤

台达A系列伺服电机调试 步骤 The Standardization Office was revised on the afternoon of December 13, 2020

第七轴通过伺服电机运行的调试步骤 一、概述 此文档将介绍如何通过西门子PLC来控制伺服电机的正转、反转、以某一速度进行绝对位置的定位以及电机运行错误后如何复位,伺服驱动器如何设置参数等一些最基本的伺服电机的运行操作步骤。 二、需准备的材料 1、西门子S7-1200系列PLC一台(我们准备的S7-1200 CPU1215C DC/DC/DC) 2、台达伺服电机ECMA-L110 20RS一台 3、台达伺服控制器ASD-A2-2023-M一台 4、威纶通触摸屏MT-8012IE一台 5、博途V15设计软件 6、威纶通设计软件 三、调试步骤及简单说明 调试之前首先将所有设备按照安装说明书上控制接线部分的介绍正确的接入电源,所有设备中需要特别注意的是伺服控制器的进线是三项220V 的电压。建议先让伺服电机在无负载的作用下正常运作,之后再将负载接上以免造成不必要的危险,伺服驱动器的控制用CN1信号端口来接线控制(CN1端口如何接线将提供接线图来接线)。

1、伺服驱动器的参数设置 1)、伺服驱动器面板介绍 2)、启动电源面板将显示以下几种报警画面,根据需要将参数调整到位。 画面一:将参数P2-15、P2-16、P2-17三个参数设定为0

画面二:将参数P2-10~P2-17参数中没有一个设定为21 画面三:将参数P2-10~P2-17参数中没有一个设定为23

3)、以上步骤调整好之后可以利用JOG寸动方式来试转电机和驱动器,操作 步骤如下图

半导体晶体缺陷

半导体晶体缺陷 创建时间:2008-08-02 半导体晶体缺陷(crystal defect of semiconductor) 半导体晶体中偏离完整结构的区域称为晶体缺陷。按其延展的尺度可分为点缺陷、线缺陷、面缺陷和体缺陷,这4类缺陷都属于结构缺陷。根据缺陷产生的原因可分为原生缺陷和二次缺陷。从化学的观点看,晶体中的杂质也是缺陷,杂质还可与上述结构缺陷相互作用形成复杂的缺陷。一般情况下,晶体缺陷是指结构缺陷。 点缺陷(零维缺陷)主要是空位、间隙原子、反位缺陷和点缺陷复合缺陷。 空位格点上的原子离开平衡位置,在晶格中形成的空格点称为空位。离位原子如转移到晶体表面,在晶格内部所形成的空位,称肖特基空位;原子转移到晶格的间隙位置所形成的空位称弗兰克尔空位。 间隙原子位于格点之间间隙位置的原子。当其为晶体基质原子时称为自间隙原子,化合物半导体MX晶体中的白间隙原子有Mi、Xi两种。 反位缺陷化合物半导体晶体MX中,X占M位,或M占X位所形成的缺陷,记作M X ,X M 。 点缺陷的复合各种点缺陷常可形成更复杂的缺陷,空位或间隙原子常可聚集成团,这些团又可崩塌成位错环等。例如硅单晶中有:双空位、F中心(空位-束缚电子复合体),E中心(空位-P原子对),SiO 2团(空位-氧复合体),雾缺陷(点缺陷-金属杂质复合体)。 硅单晶中主要点缺陷有空位、自间隙原子、间隙氧、替位碳、替位硼、替位铜,间隙铜等。 化合物如GaAs单晶中点缺陷有镓空位(v Ga )、砷空位(V As )、间隙镓(G ai ),间隙砷(A Si )、镓占砷位(As Ga )、 砷占镓位(Ga As )等,这些缺陷与缺陷、缺陷与杂质之间发生相互作用可形成各种复合体。 GaAs中的深能级。砷占镓位一镓空位复合体(As Ga v Ga )、镓占砷位一镓空位复合体(Ga As v Ga )在GaAs中形 成所谓A能级(0.40eV)和B能级(0.71eV)分别称作HB 2、HB 5 ,它们与EL 2 是三个GaAs中较重要的深能级, 这些深能级与某类缺陷或缺陷之间反应产物有关,EL 2是反位缺陷AsGa或其复合体As Ga v Ga V As 所形成,为非 掺杂半绝缘GaAs单晶和GaAs VPE材料中的一个主要深能级,能级位置是导带下0.82eV(也可能由一族深能级所构成),其浓度为1016cm-3数量级,与材料的化学配比和掺杂浓度有关。 线缺陷(一维缺陷)半导体晶体中的线缺陷主要是位错。晶体生长过程中由于热应力(或其他外力)作用,使晶体中某一部分(沿滑移面)发生滑移,已滑移区与未滑移区的分界线叫位错线,简称为位错。以位错线与其柏格斯矢量的相对取向来区分位错的类型,两者相互垂直叫刃型位错,两者平行的叫螺型位错,否则叫混合位错。混合位错中较常见的有60℃位错,30℃位错。 滑移了一个原子间距所形成的位错又叫全位错,否则叫不全位错。 由于形成直线位错所需能量较高,因此晶体中的位错大都是位错环;位错环又分棱柱位错环和切变位错环两种。

台达伺服常见故障分析与解决

1.增量型伺服初次上电报警解决步骤: 报警代码涉及参数设定值 AL013 P2-15 0 AL014 P2-16 0 AL015 P2-17 0 更改完参数,需重新上电。 2.绝对值伺服初次上电报警解决步骤: 除了以上问题,还有绝对值伺服本身的设定参数。 绝对值伺服上电会报AL060 绝对值伺服设定步骤: 2-08 先设 30 再设 28(断电上电) 2-69 1 2-08 271 2-71 1 0-49 1 看0-51 0-52 3.测试过程中,出现报警及解决方法: 报警代码涉及参数(故障原因)设定值(或修改方法) AL006 启动短时间报警电机堵转, U V W 接错 AL011 位置检出器异常查看编码器线,或排除干扰 AL018 若是伴随 AL011 出现按 AL011 处理 AL009 P2-35 上限值检查负载或者电子齿轮比设 定 AL018 确认以下条件是否产生:正确设定参数 P1-76 与 P1-76< 电机转速与P1-46 : 1 46 4 19.8 10 P1-76> 电机转速与 6 1 46 4 19.8 10 60 6 电机转速P AL024 AL026

编码器初始磁场错误电机 接地端是否正常接 (磁场位置 UVW 错误地 2. 编码 器讯 号线, 是否 有 与电 源 或大 电流 的线 路分 开, 避 免干 扰源 的产 生 3. 位置 检出 器的 线材 是 否使 用隔 离线1. 电机接地端是否正常 1. 请将 UVW 接头的接 接地地端(绿

2.编码器讯号线,是否有色 )与驱动器的散热部分 与电源 或大电流的线路分开,避免干 扰源的产生 3. 位置检出器的线材连接 2. 请检查编码器讯号线,是否有 与电源或大电流的线路 确实的 分隔开 3. 请使用含隔离网的线材 4.当运行过程中电机出现明显的抖动或震动: 需手动调增益看看效果 手动模式调增益: 当P2-32 设定为 0 时,速度回路的比例增益( P2-04), 积分增益( P2-06), 和前馈增益( P2-07), 可自由设定。 比例增益:增加增益会提高速度回路响应带宽 积分增益:增加增益会提高速度回路低频刚度,并降低稳态误差。 前馈增益:降低相位落后误差 另外在排除干扰的过程中需要注意: 信号线归结在一起,电源线归结在一起。两者之间至少保持 30 公分距离,以减少在运行过程中强电对弱电造成信号上的干扰!

台达A2系列伺服电机调试步骤(2019.7.12)

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画面二:将参数P2-10~P2-17参数中没有一个设定为21 画面三:将参数P2-10~P2-17参数中没有一个设定为23

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