国际贸易和航运外文翻译文献
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
译文：
海运提单风险研究
提单作为国际贸易和航运的文件，并从物物交换，以文件交易形式.因而在国际贸易过程中起着重要作用，然而许多问题源于在实践采用中提单时，包括交换保函和清洁提单、倒签和先付提单以及运送货物在原来的提单没有提到的情况下，在本文探讨到的问题和认识的风险，并确认哪些是有关各方应负担的风险。与此相对应，它提出了一些改善对策。随着科学技术的发展和频繁使用的信用证（L / C的）遍布世界的，系统的提单，而受到威胁的现象，如清洁已交换保函（L / G）时，倒签提单和先付提单，以及交付货物，原来没有的提单.尽管这些现象在海上货物运输中有详细而具体的介绍，但如果未能认识到这些现象，有关各方可能会负担那些不必要的损失。
一、产生清洁提单和保函交换的原因
在国际货物买卖中，根据诚实信用原则，如果承运人送达的货物有缺陷，承运人应在提单上标明，以保证和保护收货人的合法权益，着就是程序要求的关于在制单时应注明的信息。
至于付款方法，许多海上贸易是通过信用证解决的，它主要是基于独立的交易买卖或其他交易合同形式。因此，信用证仅仅是一种商业文件，银行仅基于单据审查报告确定，而不论文件表面上看其来是否构成完整的单据，但如果有任何差异，银行将拒绝付款。如果承运人发现细节的描述，标记，包数或件数，重量或数量的货物，与实际收到的货物不相符，它会记下。这样的话，提单将不再是清洁提单，根据UCP600规定，在收到不清洁的提单时银行有权拒绝交付，因为她不符合清洁提单和信用证的要求。为了获得清洁提单承运人向托运人保证，对承运人造成的损失进行赔偿。显然，放弃保函是一种典型的欺诈行为。然而，保函在某种程度上可以促进有缺陷的货物的转让。于是，用提单交换保函在全球范围内得到了普遍使用。事实上，这种做法在某种程度上具有促进经济和航运发展的积极作用。
二、保函有效性的法律基础
使用保函交换清洁提单者一做法在国际货物买卖中已得到广泛的使用，当交付的货物出现缺陷是，它可以缓解承运人与托运人之间的矛盾。例如，在美国和法国他们就拒绝承认保函的有效性，然而，在汉堡规则国际公约中，对保函在一些地区的法律效力作了系统的规定，所以承运人有权要求赔偿向托运人签发后，向受第三方造成的损失，但如果保函导致的第三方欺诈，包括收货人，这样保函就可以避免承运人和托运人之间不一致，而导致的索赔。
（1）包含交换清洁提单的具体对策
我们可以看到，交换保函既具有其积极的一面又有其不利的一面，在某种程度上，保函又是货物能够顺利流动的基础，如果没有保函国际间的货物贸易将无法顺利进行。就承运人而言，他们在接受保函的时候需要非常的小心，他们要非常细致的检查货物，当发现货物有问题时应当立即提出赔偿的要求。对发货人而言，在准备装船期间他应该仔细检查货物是否符合销售合同条款的具体的规定。
（2）收货人采取的对策
最高法院在正式的书面回答关于保函问题的有效性时做出了如下规定：“在海上运输货物，收货人不是必须要按照承运人提出的用保函交换清洁提单。无论保函作何规定，这都不会影响收货人要求承运人赔偿损失。”规定表明，保函对收货人的约束力是有限的，着可能增加对承运人提出赔偿要求的可能性。然而，规定收货人可以要求赔偿并不意味着它就一定能成功获得补偿，因此，如果收货人不熟悉托运人并没有业务关系前，收货人应当积极调查信用资质和托运人与承运人通过这样的机构为中国国际银行海事局。当事情出错，收货人应在诈骗方收到货物之前提起诉讼。
（3）倒签提单与先付提单的相同与区别
不论是倒签提单还是先付提单他们都记录欺诈装运日期。如果货物是装上船舶的，则具体日期记录在货物装运日之前。具体而言，具有下述相似点：
①两种提单都是采用信用证付款形式。
②两种提单都涉及有关承运人和托运人阴谋欺诈的行为，尤其是在CIF术语下当托运人负责租船或订舱时。
③由于这两种选择模糊了收货人事实上装运延迟的问题，当收货人了解了真相之后它可以选择接收货物的条件，或拒绝接受货物或要求赔偿根据条件损坏的货物。
④如果开证行在确定倒签提单和先付提单后，它有权拒绝有关提单的谈判。根据UCP 600，银行不承担责任或责任的形式，充分性，准确性，真实性，伪造或法律效力的文件，这是对银行的责任免除。然而，如果文档审查银行是假的，银行仍有权拒绝接受提单。
（4）倒签提单和先付提单的风险及原因
大部分倒签提单是由承运人在托运人的要求下制定的。倒签提单的目的是托运人保证出货日期与销售合同和信用证的要求相一致，因而他能履行交付义务和外汇结算的成功和顺利。联合联合国国际货物销售合同公约货物与合同法考虑交付义务的一个重要的。如果托运人不能交货或不能按时交货，视为违反合同的根本和收货人可以取消合同。即使货物已到港目的地，收货人拒绝提货，如果他能证明托运人没有完成的时间内装船发货。此外，在信用证付款下，根据UCP600的规定，交单到期日，必须与信用证相符合，如果不符，银行有权拒绝接受提单并且拒绝根据信用证条款付款，而且提供信贷的银行将改为信贷业务。因此，托运人将面临的风险没有收到货款。因此，托运人有权要求当实际装运日期晚于规定的日期时采取倒签提单形式。
（5）针对两种提单提出的建议
为了减少由于倒签提单和先付提单带来的不必要的损失，在采取对策应考虑两点：建立完善的制度与实践。
有人建议，银行可以提供延伸服务。这是，银行与指定的机构，负责检查是否装运条件符合双方的文件和信用证.然而，银行也不能保证没有任何欺诈行为，也不能保证是否销售合同是成功的。
根据规定的，银行不承担责任或责任的形式，充分性，准确性，真实性.所以为避免倒签提单和先付提单的风险，必须要求托运人委托真正的检验机构签发有效证件，可以证明的准确性和真实性的装运日期，而非提单和保险政策。否则，托运人不能结汇。
三、对承运人的要求
随着时代的发展，航运业中运输时间减少，特别是在短途运输。然而，提单的操作程序仍然是传统方式的操作，这是严重滞后。因此，我们经常见到在货物到达目的港口之后而提单却还么送到。因而，大多数的运输企业意思到他们需要遵守交付正本提单的义务，否则他们将对由此造成的风险或货物的损坏进行补偿。所以货物的正本提单可以避免额外的费用支出。然而，如果收货人如果未能在规定你给的时间内向海关部门申报，它将承担其他费用如滞期费，集装箱滞留费和附加费，报关进口货物。其次，如果货物是紧急或易腐等，收货人将试图说服承运人交付货物的提单副本和保函。此外，在现代物流的发展下，执法部门或其代理或经销商希望缩短了从生产到营销着眼于节约成本和提高效率。所以收货人要求货物只是时间和不会留下太多额外的时间在卸货港。
（1）提单的延迟
信用证是一种在国际贸易货物转售中普遍的付款方式的，货物可能被转售很多次而提单却没有得到电子银行很好的检查，着导致了提到到达时间的迟延。此外，在信用证下，银行有义务审查报告的准确性，准确性的判断仅仅基于提单，而不考虑其他单独的文件。在他们看来，遵守贸易术语规定和信用证条款和其他是一致的。银行在检查文件的时候需要特别的小心，如果银行认为提单和提货单存在一些严重的差异，它将拒绝全部文件和要求托运人改造一新的全套单据，根据规定，在信用证期满前提交正确单据。以上这些都是造成提单延迟的原因。
（2）没有正本提单情况下运输货物的风险
尽管在运输货物中没有正本提单的而这时必要的，它任然是违反货物运输原则的。首先，它损害提单持有人的合法权利。其次，托运人可能不会收到付款的货物和承运人可能面对船舶扣押的风险。一方当事人对策可能只是对自身效益本身有利，并不能保证别人的权益作为一个整体。因此，有必要做一些立法方法，这可能创造一个三赢的局面。建立统一的信用证标准和提单条例，作者相信提单法案是保证货物正常运输的基本工具，在没有正本提单、倒签提单或先付提单下保证能够顺利的实现保函和清洁提单的交换。然而，在我们国家却没有相关方面的法律，这一法律真空对与一个海运打过而言和WTO的成员之一是不相符的，为此我们需要加强这方面的立法工作。自从提单开始作为海上货物运输的关键性文件开始，到目前为止还没有一份其他类型的文件能够完全替代它。我们国家需要继续以提单法例作为我国海运准则。有关没有正本提单的运输在制定提单条例时需要特别指出。
四、电子提单的风险
电子提单不但可以避免的倒签提单和先付提单的风险，而且还可以避免没有正本提单下货物运输的风险。
保函交换清洁提单是在现代系统下制单和商业效率下的一个折中措施，倒签提单和先付提单需遵守合同或信用证的装运日期，在电子提单下，各交易方在系统内通过标准格式交换信息。由于没有书面文件，当托运人交付货物的装运港，当承运人接收货物存储在电子数据交换系统，收货人可以检查装运日期的计算机网络避免倒签提单和先付提单的延迟。电子提单是基于电子数据交换系统，也就是说，交易数据的相互交换是通过电信网络实现的。那就是说，货主的效率取决于电子数据交换系统。
五、电子提单的发展背景
由于传统的提单存在有不可避免的缺陷，人们正寻求采取一系列新文件例如交通海运单和电子提单替代传统的海运提单，但仍存在以下问题：首先，托运人失去控制货物装船后承担的风险，没有收到货款；其次，可谈判海运单不符合实际货物重新出售的情况。随着科技的发展，人们开始探讨电子提单。一个典型案例是洛杉矶的电子商务示范法。
电子提单面临的两个主要问题是：规则采取的是基于目标功能对等的原则，通过传统提单分析如何实现这些目标和功能的电子技术。其目的是模拟传统提单以达到到最大程度的在电子技术和程序法下转移货物所有权。根据规则，承运人是一个关键的电子提
单是承运人签发人，使非官方注册的电子提单转移到官方控制的秘密注册系统上操作的电子提单。规则第四条规定，信息收到的信息具有相同的效力和效果，如果他们被包含在一个纸质提单中。规则第七条规定，在纸质提单中控制权的转让和转让应具有相同的效果作为转让等权利。规则第十一条规定承运人和托运人和随后的所有各方利用这些程序同意，任何国家或地方的法律，习俗或习惯要求运输合同，须以书面证明并签署了满意的传达和电子数据保留在计算机上的存储数据得到证实。在同意通过这些规则，当事人应当采取同意不提高防御本合同中为写明的。因此，电子数据与书面提单具有相同的效力。
原文：
Study on The risk of bill of lading
Bill of loading is a document for international trade and shipping and plays all important role in the process of international trade from barter to documentary transaction．However, many problems arises from the practice of using B／L，including exchanging L／G clean B／L. antidated and advanced B／L as well as delivery of goods without presentation of the original B／L In light of the situation mentioned above，this dissertation probes into the problems and recognizes the risks which relevant parties shall burden. Correspondingly , it proposes several countermeasure for improvement.
With the development of science and technology and the frequent use of Letter of Credit(L／C)all over world，the system of B／L is threatened by the phenomena such as exchanging Letter of Guarantee(L／G)for clean B/L，antidated B/L and advanced B／L as well as delivery of goods without presentation of the original B／L．Although these phenomena are quotidian in the carriage of goods by sea ,the relevant parties who fail to recognize these phenomena shall burden unnecessary loss．
1.Causes for Exchanging L／G for Clean B／L
In the international sale of goods，If the shipper delivers the flawed goods，the carrier should make a note in B／L、with a view to securing and protecting the legitimate rights and interests of the consignee or the holder of B／L，according to the principle of honesty and credibility．The above is about the system of making a note in B/L．
As to the payment method．most payments are settled by L／C.L／C by itself is a separate transaction from the sale Or other contracts on which it may be based．Consequently, L／C is only documents business．Banks only examine a presentation to determine，on the basis of the documents alone，whether or not the documents appear On their face to constitute a complying presentation。If there is any discrepancy，banks will refuse negotiation．If the carrier finds particulars concerning the description，mark，number of packages or pieces，weight or quantity of the goods which do not accurately represent the goods actually received，it will make a note in B／L．In that case，B／L is unclean．According to UCP600。the unclean B/L can't be negotiated in banks because it is not complying with the clean and
shipped B／L stipulated in L／C．In order to obtain the clean B／L．the shipper surrenders L ／G to the carrier indicating that the shipper undertakes to indemnify the carrier against loss resulting from the clean B／L issued by the carrier who didn’t transfer the notation from male’s receipt to B/L．Apparently, surrendering L/G is a certain kind of fraud．However．L/G can facilitate the transfer of the flawed goods from the shipper to the carrier．So exchanging L ／G for clean B／L is used universally．As a matter of fact, this practice has positive effect in promoting economy and shipping to Some degree．
2.The Legal Basis for L／G Validity
Exchanging L／G for clean B／L has been an accustomed practice in the international sale of goods and the shipping industry，which can abate the contradiction between the carrier and the shipper when disputes over the flawed goods arise．For instance，America and France deny L／G Validity，However, international convention，Hamburg Rules first formulates the legal status and Validity of L／G in some areas. So the carrier has a fight to claim compensation from the shipper, who issued UQ after indemnified against the third party the loss resulting from L／G But if L／G resulting in defrauding a third party ,including a consignee，such L／G is void even between the carrier and the shipper, and the carrier has no fight to claim compensation from the shipper even if it has indemnified the consignee．
(1)Countermeasures of Exchanging L／G for Clean B／L
We can see that delivery L／G has both positive and negative effects．To some extent，issuance of L／G is inevitable for smooth delivery of goods．As to the carrier, it should be careful at the acceptance of L/G to the consignee .it should be active to examine the goods and claims compensation immediately when the problem arises. As to the shipper, it should prepare the goods for loading on time and stipulate to accept some notation in sale contract．
(2)Countermeasures Adopted by the Consignee
In an official and written reply to the problem about L／G Validity, Supreme People’s Court stipulated as follow：“In the carriage of goods by sea，the consignee is not bound by L ／G which the shipper issued in exchange for the clean B／L．No matter how L／G is stipulated ,it call’t affect the consignee to claim for compensation against the carrier or the shipper．”the stipulation expresses that the consignee is not bound by L／G and it can increase the possibility of receiving the compensation from the carrier. However, the stipulation that the consignee can claim for compensation doesn’t mean that it call
successfully receive the compensation Therefore，if the consignee is not familiar with the shipper and there is no business relationship before ,the consignee shall investigate positively the credit and qualification of the shipper and the carrier through such organization as Bank of China of International Maritime Bureau．When things go wrong, the consignee should bring an action on time before the defrauder receives payment for goods
(3) Similarities and Differences of Antidated B／L and Advanced B／L
Antidated B／L means that a shipped B／L，whose issue date is prior to the actual shipment date．While Advanced B／L means that a shipped B／L issued when the carrier has not begun loading or completed shipment .Both antidated B／L and advanced B／L fraudulently record the shipment date．The shipment date recorded in B／L is prior to the actual shipment date if the goods indeed are loaded onto ship in the end．To be specific，similarities are as follows：
①Both kinds of B／L always occur under payment of L／C．
2. Both kinds of B／L involve the conspired fraud between the shipper and the carrier, especially when the shipper is liable for chartering ship or booking space under CIF and CFR trade terms.
②Because both kinds of B／L obscure the consignee from the fact of delay in shipment ,when the consignee learn the truth ,it can choose to receive the goods with condition，or to refuse to receive the goods or to claim compensation according to the condition of damage to goods．
③If the issuing bank identifies antidated B／L and advanced B／L．it has the right to refuse negotiation．According to UCP600，a bank assumes no liability or responsibility for the form，sufficiency ,accuracy, genuineness，falsification or legal effect of any document ,which is about bank’S exoneration from liability．However, if the document examined by the bank is false，the bank still has the right to refuse to receive B／L.
(4)Causes and Risks of Antidated B／L and Advanced B／L
Most antidated B／L are issued by the carder at the request of the shipper．The aim of antidated B／L is that the shipper makes sure that the shipment date is consistent with requirement of the sale contract and L／C，so it Can fulfill the obligation of delivery and settle foreign exchange successfully and smoothly．United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods and Contract Law consider the obligation of delivery as an
important one .If the shipper can’t deliver the goods or can’t deliver the goods on time，it is deemed breaches contract fundamentally and the consignee can cancel the contract。Even if the goods have already arrived at the port of destination, the consignee Call refuse to take delivery of goods if it can prove that the shipper didn’t finish shipment within the time of shipment．Moreover, under payment of L／C，according to UCP600，the expiry date for presentation must be consistent with stipulation in L／C when the shipper negotiates B／L .If not，the bank will refuse to receive such B／L．the payment of L／C will be void．and the credit of bank will be changed into the credit of business．Consequently ,the shipper will confront the risk of not receiving the payment for goods．Therefore，the shipper requires．the carrier to issue an antidated B／L when the actual shipment date is later than the stipulated time of shipment．
(5)Countermeasures of Antidated B／L and Advanced B／L
In order to decrease unnecessary loss of the relevant parties resulting from antidated B／L and advanced B／L，the countermeasures should be considered in two ways：in system establishment and in practice．
Someone suggests that the bank Can offer a extended service．That is，the bank contacts with the designated organizations and is liable for checking whether the shipment condition is consistent with both document and L／C．However，banks neither guarantee that there isn’t any fraud，nor guarantee whether the sale contract is successful.
According to stipulation of UCP600，a bank assumes no liability or responsibility for the form，sufficiency, accuracy ,genuineness．falsification or legal effect of any document，nor for the credit and qualification of the carrier：but a bank only is liable for examining a presentation to determine，on the basis of the documents alone，whether or not the documents appear on their face to constitute a complying presentation．So in order to avoid the antidated B／L and advaned B／L the consignee must require the shipper to bring the relevant documents issued by authentic inspection organization which Can prove the accuracy and authenticity of the shipment date ,other than B／L and insurance policy．Otherwise, the shipper Can’t settle foreign exchange．
3.The Carrier’s Requirement
With the development of the shipment industry, the time of transportation is decreasing, especially in short-distance transportation．However, the operation procedure of B／L is still
零售企业营销策略中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
译文： 零售企业的营销策略 Philip Kotlor 今天的零售商为了招徕和挽留顾客，急欲寻找新的营销策略。过去，他们挽留顾客的方法是销售特别的或独特的花色品种，提供比竞争对手更多更好的服务提供商店信用卡是顾客能赊购商品。可是，现在这一切都已变得面目全非了。现在，诸如卡尔文·克连，依佐和李维等全国性品牌，不仅在大多数百货公司及其专营店可以看到，并且也可以在大型综合商场和折扣商店可以买到。全国性品牌的生产商为全力扩大销售量，它们将贴有品牌的商品到处销售。结果是零售商店的面貌越来越相似。 在服务项目上的分工差异在逐渐缩小。许多百货公司削减了服务项目，而许多折扣商店却增加了服务项目。顾客变成了精明的采购员，对价格更加敏感。他们看不出有什么道理要为相同的品牌付出更多的钱，特别是当服务的差别不大或微不足道时。由于银行信用卡越来越被所有的商家接受，他们觉得不必从每个商店赊购商品。 百货商店面对着日益增加的价格的折扣店和专业商店的竞争，准备东山再起。历史上居于市中心的许多商店在郊区购物中心开设分店，那里有宽敞的停车场，购买者来自人口增长较快并且有较高收入的地区。其他一些则对其商店形式进行改变，有些则试用邮购盒电话订货的方法。超级市场面对的是超级商店的竞争，它们开始扩大店面，经营大量的品种繁多的商品和提高设备等级，超级市场还增加了它们的促销预算，大量转向私人品牌，从而增加盈利。 现在，我们讨论零售商在目标市场、产品品种和采办、服务以及商店气氛、定价、促销和销售地点等方面的营销策略。 一、目标市场 零售商最重要的决策时确定目标市场。当确定目标市场并且勾勒出轮廓时，零售商才能对产品分配、商店装饰、广告词和广告媒体、价格水平等作出一致的决定。如沃尔玛的目标市场相当明确：
外文翻译 原文 Firms in International Trade Material Source: https://www.doczj.com/doc/ff15564651.html, Author: Andrew B. Bernard For most of its lengthy history the field of international trade largely ignored the role of the firm in mediating the flow of goods and services. Traditional trade theory explained the flow of goods between countries in terms of comparative advantage, that is, variation in the opportunity costs of production across countries and industries. Even the research focusing on differentiated varieties and increasing returns to scale that followed Helpman and Krugman continued to retain the characterization of the representative firm.?However, the assumption of a representative firm, while greatly enhancing the tractability of general equilibrium analysis, is emphatically rejected in the data. My research over the past decade has been an attempt to explore international trade from below: to understand the decisions of heterogeneous firms in shaping international trade and their effects on productivity growth and welfare. Firm Heterogeneity and Trade My early work with J. Bradford Jensen was motivated by a simple question: what do we know about firms that trade? The answer at the time was "very little" and our initial efforts focused on locating firm-level data and describing the world of exporting firms. Our first study compared exporters and non-exporters for the entire U.S. manufacturing sector and established a set of facts about exporting plants and firms.?Two major results stand out. First, only a small fraction of firms are exporters at any given time. Even in sectors where the United States is thought to have comparative advantage, such as Instruments, a majority of firms produce only for the domestic market. Similarly, some firms are exporting even in net import sectors such as Textiles and Apparel. Second, exporters are substantially and significantly different than non-exporters, even in the same industry and region. Exporters are dramatically larger, more productive, pay higher wages, use more skilled workers, and are more technology- and capital-intensive than their non-exporting counterparts. In related
市场营销策略 1 市场细分和目标市场策略 具有需求，具有购买能力并愿意花销的个体或组织构成了市场。然而，在大多数市场中，购买者的需求不一致。因此，对整个市场采用单一的营销计划可能不会成功。一个合理的营销计划应以区分市场中存在的差异为起点，这一过程被称为市场细分，它还包括将何种细分市场作为目标市场。 市场细分使公司能更加有效地利用其营销资源。而且，也使得小公司可以通过集中在一两个细分上场上有效地参与竞争。市场细分的明显缺点是，其导致了比单一产品、单一大市场策略更高的生产和营销成本。但是，如果市场细分得当的话，更加符合消费者的需求，实际上将生产更高的效率。 确定目标市场有三种可供选择的策略，它们是统一市场、单一细分市场和多重细分市场。统一市场策略即采取一种营销组合用到一个整体的、无差异的市场中去。采取单一细分市场策略，公司仍然仅有一种营销组合，但它只用在整个市场的一个细分市场中。多重细分市场策略需要选择两个或更多的细分市场，并且每个细分市场分别采用一种单独的营销组合。 2 产品定位 管理者将注意力集中于一种品牌，并以恰当的方式将其与类似的品牌相区分，但这并不意味着该品牌就一定能够最后赢利。因此，管理者需要进行定位，即塑造与竞争品牌和竞争对手的其他品牌相关的自我品牌形象。 市场营销人员可以从各种定位策略中加以选择。有时，他们决定对某一特定产品采用一种以上的策略。以下是几种主要的定位策略： 2.1与竞争者相关的定位 对一些产品来说，最佳的定位是直接针对竞争对手。该策略特别适用于已经具有固定的差别优势或试图强化这种优势的厂商。为排挤微处理器的竞争对手，Intel公司开展了一项活动使用户确信它的产品优于竞争对手的产品。公司甚至为电脑制造商出钱，让它们在自己的广告中带上“Intel Inside”标志。作为市场领导者，可口可乐公司推出新产品并实施其市场营销策略。同时，它密切注视百事可乐公司，以确保对主要竞争对手的任何一次巧妙、有效的营销举措采取相应的对策。 2.2 与产品类别和属性相关的定位 有时候，公司的定位策略有必要将自己的产品与其类别和属性相联系（或相区别）。一些公司尽力将其产品定位在期望的类别中，如“美国制造”。用一句某顾问的话来说，“当你说‘美国制造’的时候，有一种强烈的感情因素在吸引着你”。因此，一家名为Boston Preparatory的规模不大的运动服制造商正在运用这种定位策略，以期胜过那些并非所有产品都在美国制造的势力强大的竞争对手如Calvin Kiein和Tommy Hilfiger。 2.3 通过价格和质量定位 某些生产者和零售商因其高质量和高价格而闻名。在零售行业，Saks Fifth Avenue和Neiman Marcus公司正是定位于该价格—质量策略的。折扣店Target Kmart则是定位于该策略的反面。我们不是说折扣商店忽视质量，而是说它们更加强调低廉的价格。Penny's公司努力—并且大多获得了成功—通过升级高级服装线和强调设计者的名字将其商店定位于价格—质量策略上。 “品牌”一词是个综合性的概念，它包含其他更狭义的理解。品牌即一个名称和（或）标志，用以识别一个销售者或销售集团的产品，并将之与竞争产品相区别。 品牌名称由能够发音的单词、字母和(或)数字组成。品牌标志是品牌的一部分，它以符号、图案或醒目的颜色、字体的形式出现。品牌标志通过视觉识别，但当人们仅仅读出品牌名称的时候，品牌标志并不能够被表达出来。Crest、Coors、Gillette都是品牌名称。AT&T由醒目的线条构成的地球以及Ralph Lauren's Polo的马和骑手是品牌标志，而Green Giant（罐装冷冻菜蔬产品）和Arm&Hammer（面包苏打）既是品牌名称又是品牌标志。 商标是销售者已经采用并且受到法律保护的品牌。商标不仅包括品牌标志，如许多人所认为的那样，也包括品牌名称。1946年的The Lanham Art法案允许厂商向联邦政府注册商标，以保护它们免受其他厂商的使用或误
附录 F.1英文参考资料及中文翻译 F. 1 .1international trade documents role General international trade documents (international trade documents) is the international trade of use all the documents, documents and certificates collectively. Usually with international trade documents to deal with in and out of delivery of the goods El, transportation, insurance, inspection and quarantine, customs declaration, the settlement of exchange, etc. Special international trade documents usually refers to the settlement documents, especially the l/c under the way of settlement of documents. International trade documents and the use of import and export trade program closely related, the documents in the import and export enterprise work throughout the export, purchase, transportation, the whole process of the proceeds, the effort is big, timeliness strong, is broad, in addition to import and export enterprise internal between various departments the cooperation with the outside, still must and bank, customs, transportation department, insurance companies, the inspection and quarantine agencies and the relevant administrative authorities happen various contact, linked together, mutual influence, also are conditions. International trade documents for the performance of a contract is necessary means International trade is the transnational goods business, due to the particularity of the multinational business, which is the purchase and sale of the different departments are located in different countries, are remote, in most cases, the goods and payment can't perform simple direct exchange, but only as the medium of exchange with documents means. The international trade of the documents that sales of goods through the documents realization sale, the seller should not only will the actual delivery of goods export shipment, and should submit to the buyer include the title to the goods vouchers, complete documents to show real assignment. The seller/p means that the delivery of the goods, and the buyer payment is get to buy goods on behalf of property rights certificate, the deal is no longer with the goods as the core, but with documents as the core. Documents and payment of the convection principle has become the international trade of general principles of the commodity business. As international trade experts "; m Cardiff in the export trade in his book mentioned: "from a business perspective, can say CIF the purpose of the contract is not the buying and selling of goods itself, but the documents relating to the goods business." What say here "documents" is the international trade of documents. International trade documents many kinds, every kind of documents has its
市场营销价格策略外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
DESIGNING PRICING STRATEGIES All for-profit organizations and many nonprofit organizations set prices on their goods or services. Whether the price is called rent (for an apartment), tuition (for education), fare (for travel), or interest (for borrowed money), the concept is the same. Throughout most of history, prices were set by negotiation between buyers and sellers. Setting one price for all buyers arose with the development of large-scale retailing at the en d of the nineteenth century, when Woolworth’s and other stores followed a “strictly one-price policy” because they carried so many items and had so many employees. Now, 100 years later, technology is taking us back to an era of negotiated pricing. The Internet, corporate networks, and wireless setups are linking people, machines, and companies around the globe, connecting sellers and buyers as never before. Web sites like https://www.doczj.com/doc/ff15564651.html, and https://www.doczj.com/doc/ff15564651.html, allow buyers to compare products and prices quickly and easily. On-line auction sites like https://www.doczj.com/doc/ff15564651.html, and https://www.doczj.com/doc/ff15564651.html, make it easy for buyers and sellers to negotiate prices on thousands of items. At the same time, new tech- nologies are allowing sellers to collect detailed data about customers’ buying habits, preferences—even spending limits—so they can tailor their products and prices. 1 In the entire marketing mix, price is the one element that produces revenue; the others produce costs. Price is also one of the most ?exible elements: It can be changed quickly, unlike product features and channel commitments. Although price competi- tion is a major problem facing companies, many do not handle pricing well. The most common mistakes are these: Pricing is too cost-oriented; price is not revised often
正确地点和时间下新媒体伴随的社会营销Jay M. Bernhardt 佛罗里达大学健康教育与行为系，佛罗里达州Gainesville Darren Mays乔治敦大学医学中心肿瘤科，哥伦比亚特区华盛顿Amanda K. Hall佛罗里达大学健康教育与行为系，佛罗里达州Gainesville 摘要： 目的：本文的目的是寻求讨论新媒体革命以何种方式将“渠道”更贴近消费者从而提高社会营销。 研究思路：这篇论文描述当前有关的社交媒体和移动通信技术的新媒体发展趋势，并通过运用商业营销，社会变革和公众健康实例分析讨论其对社会营销产生的影响。 成果：快速增长的在线社交网络和世界大部分地区无处不在的手机为社会营销人员提供了巨大的潜力，以全新方式吸引消费者。这些新的通信平台的性质不同于传统媒体是可以使他们更有效地为市场营销服务，最明显的是更深层次消费者参与、多方位信息交流、和基于位置跟踪和消息传递的重要方式。 现实作用：本文所描述的趋势正在快速，从根本上改变商业营销人员、品牌经理和客户关系经理如何与当前的和潜在的消费者相处。社会营销活动应该从中学习，并利用这些新媒体更深入地联系大量的消费者，上述从业人员比以往任何时候都更接近“正确的地点和正确的时间”。 独创性/价值：本文探讨已经介绍了在爱尔兰都柏林的全球非营利和社会营销大会于2011年4月的一个话题。讨论应鼓励社会营销重新考虑“渠道”的作用，并探讨新媒体如何令地方更贴近消费者。 关键词：社会营销，新媒体，社交媒体，移动电话，4P理论，移动通信系统 市场营销组合（或4P理论）是旨在鼓励行为改变的社会营销计划规划和实施的中心结构(Grier and Bryant,2005)。尽管价格、产品和促销策略通常是社会营销活动的主要元素,达到期望的目标受众的地方卫生决策往往是一个挑战(GrierandKumanyika,2010)。地方经常困惑在营销组合那些寻求社会营销作为一个框架申请健康行为改变。常见的想法是,位置被定义为地理位置,然而,在社会营销不一定是一个人的业务所在处或其中一个产品的销售点,而是消费者的利益做出决定并采取行动(Storey et al., 2008)。 新的通信媒体能给社会营销个性化的机会,接触目标消费者在关键行为决策点。这些新媒体为社会营销人员提供多个移动渠道到达消费者在非常情况下做出决定,通过创建直接,双向沟通渠道。这些双向交流现在可以发生在实时决策是在何时何地。第一次社会营销人员可以利用这些新渠道接触数以千计甚至数以百万计的人们在相对较低的成本促进健康的生活方式和影响社会变革(Thackeray et al., 2008)。 传统上,社会营销努力促进健康行为改变很大程度上依赖于地方定义为物理位置来分发产品(KreuterandBernhardt,2009)。他们在公共厕所上放置安全套自动售货机推广安全性行为或将营养标志放置在杂货店以期说服客户选择更健康的食品(Storey et al., 2008)。这些例子需要大量投资时间和物质资源从而成功地到达消费者。此外,确定一个是否会购买和使用避孕套或者被营养信息标志广告影响的合适的目标客户是一个具有挑战性的判断过程。相比之下,新媒体可
外文翻译 原文 World Trade and International Trade Material Source:https://www.doczj.com/doc/ff15564651.html, Author: Ted Alax In today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity. As a result of this trade and activity, international finance and banking have evolved. For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala) that grow coffee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive. So instead of batter, which is trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United State receives money in payment for what it sells. It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United State. Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs. Raw materials are scattered around the world. Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them. Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.
Marketing Strategy Market Segmentation and Target Strategy A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets. Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency. The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails selecting two or more segments and developing a separate marketing mix to reach segment. Positioning the Product Management's ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from similar products goes a long way toward determining that product's revenues.Thus management needs to engage in positioning,which means developing the image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firm's other products. Marketing executives can choose from a variety of positioning strategies.Sometimes they decide to use more than one for a particular product.Here are several major positioning strategies:
Positioning in Practice Strategic Role of Marketing For large firms that have two or more strategic business units (SBUs), there are generally three levels of strategy: corporate-level strategy, strategic-business-unit-level (or business-level) strategy, and marketing strategy. A corporate strategy provides direction on the company's mission, the kinds of businesses it should be in, and its growth policies. A business-level strategy addresses the way a strategic business unit will compete within its industry. Finally, a marketing strategy provides a plan for pursuing the company's objectives within a specific market segment. Note that the higher level of strategy provides both the objectives and guidelines for the lower level of strategy. At corporate level, management must coordinate the activities of multiple strategic business units. Thus the decisions about the organization's scope and appropriate resource deployments/allocation across its various divisions or businesses are the primary focus of corporate strategy.Attempts to develop and maintain distinctive competencies tend to focus on generating superior financial, capital, and human resources; designing effective organizational structures and processes; and seeking synergy among the firm's various businesses. At business-level strategy, managers focus on how the SBU will compete within its industry. A major issue addressed in business strategy is how to achieve and sustain a competitive advantage. Synergy for the unit is sought across product-markets and across functional department within the unit. The primary purpose of a marketing strategy is to effectively allocate and coordinate marketing resources and activities to accomplish the firm's objectives within a specific product-market. The decisions about the scope of a marketing strategy involve specifying the target market segment(s) to pursue and the breadth of the product line to offered. At this level of strategy, firms seek competitive advantage and synergy through a well-integrated program of marketing mix elements tailored to the needs and wants of customers in the target segment(s). Strategic Role of Positioning Based on the above discussion, it is clear that marketing strategy consists of two parts: target market strategy and marketing mix strategy. Target market strategy consists of three processes: market segmentation, targeting (or target market selection), and positioning. Marketing mix strategy refers to the process of creating a unique
市场营销策略外文文献及翻译 Marketing Strategy Market Segmentation and Target Strategy A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets. Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency. The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails