法官助理制度中的相关问题研究(一) 法官助理是法官职业化建设的重要组成部分，在新型审判组织模式中具有承上启下关键作用。最高人民法院在第一个《人民法院五年改革纲要》中就设立法官助理制度提出了初步构想，02年11月最高人民法院制定下发的《关于加强法官队伍职业化建设的若干意见》中对法官助理制度予以了肯定，随后在全国范围内选择了几个具有地域代表性的中级和基层人民法院进行了法官助理制度的改革试点。江苏省高级人民法院于去年7月在全省范围内选择了三家法院作为法官助理制度的改革试点，其中一家就是镇江市京口区人民法院。笔者拟从该院的具体实践出发，以理性的视角，对法官助理制度中的相关问题作一些探讨和研究。尽管有“窥一斑以见全豹”之嫌，但“解剖麻雀”也是一种研究方法，期这种“以点带面”的研究和思考能对全省乃至全国的法官助理制度的改革实践提供一些可资借鉴的东西。 一、法官助理的工作性质 这是研究法官助理制度必须首先要搞明白的一个问题，即在新的审判组织模式中，法官助理到底扮演一个什么样的角色。只有搞清楚这个问题，我们才能够对法官助理制度作更深层次的探讨和研究。 （一）国外法官助理的工作性质 法官助理制度，以美国最具典型性和代表性。美国法律规定，法官按照法院的级别不同可以有1－4名法官助理，并配有秘书、和书记员，其中法官助理与法官业务联系最为紧密，被称为“不穿法袍的法官”。 在法国，虽然没有法官助理这一职位，但法院却有着数量可观的司法助理人员，其分工更细，包括书记官、送达执行官、司法鉴定人、秘书、社会工作者、顾问律师等等。 在德国，承担法官助理职责的是各级法院的司法公务员，其基本职能也是“不享有审判权的法官助手，在法官的指导下，协助法官完成判决以外的法律性任务”。 各国法官助理基于国情和文化差异，虽然承担的工作内容不尽相同，称呼不一，但就其基本性质来说都是法官的助手，承担判决以外的法律性事务。 （二）国内关于法官助理性质的几种观点。 由于我国引入法官助理制度的时间不长，司法实践也处于尝试摸索阶段，对法官助理的定性还没有统一的衡量标准，导致改革中各地法院在实践中对法官助理究竟是一个什么定位，认识上有诸多分歧。从目前的情况来看，大体上主要存在以下两种观点：一种是法官助理有权论，一种是法官助理无权论。有权论中，又细分为有完整的审判权和无审判权但有调解权两种观点。推行有权论的法院，在实践中直接将助理审判员更名为法官助理，或将竞选职业法官落选的审判员调整到法官助理岗位，法官助理享有一定的裁判权或调解权，法官助理在调解书上署名。关于无权论，也有两种不同的认知，一为法官助理既无审判权也无调解权，一为法官助理可以主持调解，但不能以自己的名义制作调解书，也即无署名权。 （三）京口法院关于法官助理的定位。 法官职业化的核心是法官的精英化，法官的精英化确立了法官在新的审判组织中的中心地位，在这一组织模式下，法官助理只能是法官的助手，在法官的指挥下开展工作。在关于法官助理有权还是无权的争论中，京口法院的改革者们在确认“法官+法官助理+书记员”这一审判组织模式中法官助理没有审判权，只是法官法律事务的助手的前提下，根据法官助理的来源身份不同，区别确定法官助理的调解权和署名权。该院规定法官助理不行使审判权，但具有主持庭前调解的职责，调解书必须得到主审法官的确认，由法官签发。也就是说，法官助理的调解权来源于法官的委托，这在事实上形成了法官助理对法官的一种依附。对于能否以自己的名义制作调解书，也即调解书的署名权问题，该院针对下列两种情况分别作出不同的授权：一是对于原是助理审判员身份担任法官助理的，可以在调解书上署名；二是对于具有公务员身份的书记员或事业编制人员担任法官助理的，只能以法官的名义制作调解书，调解书上的
A look at the history of the United States indicates that this country has often been called "a melting pot", where various immigrant and ethnic groups have learned to work together to build a unique nation. Even those "original" Americans, the Indians, probably walked a land bridge from Asia to North America some thousands of years ago. So, who are the real Americans? The answer is that any and all of them are! And you, no matter where you come from, could also become an American should you want to.. Then you would become another addition to America's wonderfully rich "nation of immigrants". 纵观美国历史，就可见这个国家经常被称为"一个熔炉"，在此，各种移民和种族团体学会了共同建设一个独特的民族。甚至那些"本土的"美国人--印第安人，也可能是几千年以前，从亚洲走过大陆桥来到北美洲的。所以，谁是真正的美国人？答案是他们中的任何一个人都是！无论你来自何处，如果你想成为美国人，就会成为美国人；你就会变成这个极其富有的"移民之国"的一个新份子。 The United States is currently shifting from being a nation of immigrants of mainly European descent to one of immigrants from other parts of the world, such as Asia and Latin America. The number of recent immigrants has skyrocketed. They desire to escape economic hardship and political oppression in their native countries as well as the desire to seek a better education and a more prosperous life in America, "the land of opportunity". Although there are frequent conflicts between the cultures they have brought with them from the "old country" and those found in America, most immigrants learn to adjust to and love their adopted land. 美国现在正由主要是欧洲血统移民的国家变为世界上其他各洲，如亚洲、拉丁美洲移民的国家。最近移民的数字急剧增长。他们希望摆脱在本国的经济困难、政治压迫，并在美国这片"充满机遇的土地上"寻找更好的教育和更富裕的生活。尽管他们从"故国"带来的文化与美国文化之间往往会产生冲突,但是多数移民还是学会了适应并热爱他们所归化的土地。 Americans have also learned much from the customs and ideas of the immigrants and are often influenced by them in subtle and interesting ways. Immigrants bring their native cultural, political, and social patterns and attitudes, varied academic and religious backgrounds, as well as their ethnic arts, sports, holidays, festivals, and foods. They have greatly enriched American life. 美国人从移民的风俗和观念中也学到了很多东西，并且在极其细微和有趣的方面受到了它们的影响。移民们带来了他们本族的文化、政治以及社会模式和态度，不同的学术和宗教背景，以及他们种族的艺术、体育、节日和饮食。这些极大地丰富了美国人的生活。 For immigrants from all parts of the would, the United States has been a "melting pot" in which the foreigners have sometimes remained culturally and linguistically what they were in their native lands even as they move toward becoming citizens of the United States, a country whose people share a common cultural outlook and set of values. The melting pot does not melt away all recollections of another way of life in another place----nor should it. On the contrary, immigrants should maintain the languages, skills, religions, customs and arts of their own heritage, even while they are working towards entering the mainstream of American culture.
1. Transcendentalism The origin of it is a philosophical and literary movement centered in Concord and Boston, which marks the summit of American Transcendentalism. 19th-century movement of writers and philosophers in New England who were loosely bound together by adherence to an idealistic system of thought based on a belief in the essential unity of all creation, the innate goodness of man, and the supremacy of insight over logic and experience for the revelation of the deepest truths. The major features of American Transcendentalism are:It emphasis on spirit, or the Oversoul, as the most important thing in the universe. It stressed the importance of the individual. To them the individual was the most important element of society. It offered a fresh perception of nature as symbolic of the Spirit or God. 2.Romanticism The Romanticism period stretches from the end of the 18th century through the outbreak of the Civil War. It is a term associate with imagination boundlessness, and in critical usage is contrasted with classicism which is commonly associated with reason and restriction. The features of Romanticism are: American Romanticism was in a way derivative: American romantic writing was some of them modeled on English and European works. American romanticism was in essence the expression of "a real new experience "and contained"an alien quality".Representatives:William Cullen Bryant; Henry Longfellow and James Cooper, Washington Irving. 3.Realism: In American literature, the Civil War brought the Romantic Period to an end. The Age of Realism came into existence. It came as a reaction against the lie of romanticism and sentimentalism. Realism turned from an emphasis on the strange toward a faithful rendering of the ordinary, a slice of life as it is really lived. It expresses the concern for commonplace and the low, and it offers an objective rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.The representatives are Howells, James, and Mark Twain. 4. Naturalism American naturalism was a new and harsher realism, it had come from Europe. Naturalism was an outgrowth of realism that responded to theories in science, psychology, human behavior and social thought current in the late nineteenth century. The background of naturalism are: In the last decade of the nineteenth century, with the development of industry and modern science, intelligent minds began to see that man was no longer a free ethical being in a cold, indifferent and essentially Godless universe. In this chance world he was both helpless and hopeless.Major Features of it are:Humans are controlled by laws of heredity and environment.The universe is cold, godless, indifferent and hostile to human desires.Representatives of it such as Stephen Crane, Frank Norris and Theodore Dreiser. 5.New Criticism The New Criticism as a school of poetry and criticism established itself in the 1940s as an academic orthodoxy in the United States. The school has its beginning in the 1920s. It focus on the analysis of the text rather paying attention to external elements such as its social background, its author's intention and political attitude, and its impact on society. Then it explores the artistic structure of the work rather than its author's frame of mind or its reader's responses. It also see a literary work as an organic entity, the unity of content and form, and places emphasis on the close reading of the text. These New Critics included T.S. Eliot,I.A.Richards,John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate and some other critics. The New Criticism has tended to divorce criticism from social and moral concerns, which was to become one salient feature of the movement. 6.Imagism: Between 1912 and 1922 there came a great poetry boom in which about 1000 poets published over 1000 volumes of poetry. Indeed ,to express the modern spirit, the sense of fragmentization and dislocation, was in large measure the aim of quite a few modern literary movements, of which Imagism was one.The first Imagist theorist, the English writer T.E.Hulme. Hulme suggests that modern art deals with expression and communication of momentary phases in the poet's mind. The most effective means to express these momentary impressions is through the use of dominant image.It is a literary movement launched American poets early in the 20th century that advocated the use of free verse, common speech patterns, and clear concrete images as a reaction to Victorian sentimentalism. The representatives are Ezra pound, William Carlos Williams and some other poets.
·· ２０１７年第１期哈金在《移民作家》一书中将移民定义为：所有主动或被动从一个国家迁徙到另一个国家的人，包括流亡者、移民及难民。①按照哈金的定义，本文所探讨的华裔美国移民作家主要包括两类人：一是指那些成长背景在美国，对中国无实际感受和记忆，用英文写作的第二代移民作家，即赵健秀在《大哎咿！美国 华裔和日裔作家文选》 中所定义的华裔美国作家；第二类是指一代移民作家，他们母语为中文，在中国文化中长大，而后主动或被动移民美国，既包括移民美国而后用英文创作的林语堂、张爱玲、哈金等，也包 括用中文创作的海外华文作家，如白先勇、 严歌苓等。本文所探讨的移民作家包括第一类二代移民作家以及第二类一代移民作家中用英文创作的群体。在这些用英文写作的华裔美国移民作家的作品中有一 个共同的母题，即对家园的回望，与中国文化的联系。 中国文化就像汤亭亭《孙行者》中惠特曼·阿森的祖先从中国带去的那只巨大箱子，可以容纳孙悟空七十二变的所有道具。华裔移民作家将这一箱子在另一 文化的舞台上打开并悉数展示。 而他们展现中国文化的重要途径之一便是翻译。然而，这些华裔移民作家英文作品中的翻译现象却并未获得足够的关注。笔者以“华裔移民作家”为主题在中国知网CNKI 中 进行搜索， 2003年至2015年共搜到74篇文章，但几乎没有学者从翻译的角度进行探讨。一移民作家英文著作中的翻译元素 在《当今世界的翻译研究：今天与明天》（Translation Studies in the World:Today and Tomorrow ）一文 中，根茨勒对翻译研究的未来进行了展望。根茨勒指出， “非翻译”中隐藏的翻译现象亦应纳入翻译研究者的视野。②根茨勒以美国第一、二代移民的英语写作为例，他指出在这些移民作家的作品中蕴藏着翻译 元素，如主人公与父母或祖父母的对话。这些对话虽然是用英文表达的，但实际上可以明显看出是在表 华裔美国移民作家的中国文化元素翻译策略 夏婉璐 内容提要：就华裔移民作家创作文本的研究而言，文学与文化的视角仍是绝对的主流， 鲜有学者从翻译的角度进行研究。文章以不同文化身分的华裔美国移民作家的英文作品为研究对象，挖掘这些作品中被忽视的翻译元素，对这些作品中的翻译成分进行界定及理论论证，并探讨不同的文化身分对选择不同的中国文化元素翻译策略的影响。 关键词：华裔美国移民作家文化身分翻译 ①Jin Ha,The Writer as Migrant .Chicago and London:The University of Chicago Press,2008,p.ix. ②Edwin Gentzler,“Translation Studies in the World:Today and Tomorrow,”载杨自俭编《英汉语比较与翻译6》，上海：上海外语教育出版社，2006年，第33页。 ＳｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｆＥｔｈｎｉｃＬｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅ２０１７年第１期第３５卷Ｎｏ．１,２０１７ Ｖｏｌ．３５ 170
I. Explain the following literary terms(名词解释). 1. Romanticism The most profound and comprehensive idea of romanticism is the vision of a greater personal freedom for the individual. Appeals to imagination; Stress on emotion rather than reason; optimism, gen iality. Subjectivity: in form and meaning. 2 American transcendentalism American transcendentalism was an important movement in philosophy and literature that flourished during the early to middle years of the nineteenth century (about 1836-1860). For the transcendentalists, the soul of each individual is identical with the soul of the world and contains what the world contains. 3 Realism: ―nothing more and nothing less than the truthful treatment of material.‖ the Civil war a. verisimilitude of details derived from observation b. representative in plot, setting and character c. an objective rather than an idealized view of human experience or（American Realism: In American literature, the Civil War brought the Romantic Period to an end. The Age of Realism came into existence. It came as a reaction against the lie of romanticism and sentimentalism. Realism turned from an emphasis on the strange toward a faithful rendering of the ordinary, a slice of life as it is really lived. It expresses the concern for commonplace and the low, and it offers an objective rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.） 4. Modernism like modernism in general is a trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve, and reshape their environment, with the aid of scientific knowledge, technology and practical experimentation, and is thus in its essence both progressive and optimistic. The general term covers many political, cultural and artistic movements rooted in the changes in Western society at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century. American modernism is an artistic and cultural movement in the United States starting at the turn of the 20th century with its core period between World War I and World War II and continuing into the 21st century. 5、American Puritanism: Puritanism is the practices and beliefs of the Puritans. The Puritans were originally members of a division of the Protestant Church. The first settlers who became the founding fathers of the American nation were quite a few of them. They were a group of serious, religious people, advocating highly religious and moral principles. As the word itself hints, Puritans wanted to purity their religious beliefs and practices. They accepted the doctrine of predestination, original sin and total depravity, and limited atonement through a special infusion of grace form God. As a culture heritage, Puritanism did have a profound influence on the early American mind. American Puritanism also had a enduring influence on American literature. 6、Transcendentalism: In New England, an intellectual movement known as transcendentalism developed as an American version of Romanticism. The movement began among an influential set of authors based in Concord, Massachusetts and was led by Ralph Waldo Emerson. Like Romanticism, transcendentalism rejected both 18th century rationalism and established religion, which for the transcendentalists meant the Puritan tradition in particular. The transcendentalists celebrated the power of the human imagination to commune with the universe and transcend the limitations of the material world. They found their chief source of inspiration in nature. Emerson’s essay Nature was the major document of the transcendental school and stated the ideas that were to remain central to it. 7、Free verse: free verse is the rhymed or unrhymed poetry composed without attention to conventio nal rules of meter. Free verse was first written and labeled by a group of French poets of the late 19th century. Their purpose was to deliver poetry from the restrictions of formal metrical patterns and to recreate the free rhythms of natural speech. Walt Whitman was the precursor who wrote lines of varying length and cadence, usually not rhymed. The emotional content or meaning of the work was expressed through its rhythm. Free verse has been characteristic of the work of many modern American poets, including Ezra Pound and Carl Sandburg. 8、Naturalism: A more deliberate kind of realism in novels, stories and plays, usually involving a view of human beings as passive victims of natural forces and social environment. Naturalism was a new and harsher realism. It
浅析法官助理制度问题 浅析法官助理制度试行中存在的问题 为建设一支高素质的德才兼备的职业法官队伍, 推动法官的职业化、精英化建设～不断适应依法治国、建设社会主义法治国家的需要～最高人民法院从2003年起在全国范围内逐步开展法官助理试点工作。经过近5、6年的探索实践～法官助理制度取得了较好的运行效果。 1、实行法官助理制度有利于提高审判效率。随着我国市场经济的有序发展～人民法院案件数量激增～最明显的是民事与刑事案件数量的增长。设立法官助理～可以帮助法官承担大量的审判辅助性工作～使其能够从这些事务性工作中脱身出来～专心致力于“审”与“判”。实行法官助理制度～是实现审、助、书不同角色科学定位的有效途径～审判流程将会更加科学、规范～可以有效地促进审判效率的提高。实行法官助理制度也有利于促进司法分工的科学化和审判资源的优化配置～使各类人员各尽其能～各安其位～各乐其业。同时～司法分工的科学化也有助于实现人民法院不同岗位人员的分类管理～构建符合审判规律的法院管理体制。 2、实行法官助理制度有利于法官静心深造、潜心研究。案件类型的变化对理论功底的要求与审判人员工作繁重而无暇研究的矛盾日益明显。在案件数量增长的同时～案件类型也向多元化、新颖化、专业化发展～法官判案思路正向深度与广度发展～对于审判人员法律的运用与把握提出了较高的要求～在繁重的工作压力下～审判人员往往利用业余时间加班结案～缺少足够的时间去钻研案件、著述深造。法官助 1 理可以使法官摆脱事务性工作束缚～有足够的时间去学习新条规～研究新案件。
3、实行法官助理制度～可以避免法官庭前预断、先入为主～有利于法官保持在审判活动中的中立性～从而有利于保障司法公正。一方面～负责案件审理和裁判的法官不与当事人直接接触,另一方面～与当事人接触的法官助理则不会参与案件的审理与裁判。这就能够在一定程度上割断法官与当事人及案件的联系～有助于维护司法的独立和公正。 4、实行法官助理制度～可以建立一支素质较高、实践经验比较丰富的法官助理队伍～可以为选任法官提供充足而坚实的人才储备～不断提高法官队伍素质。 但我们也要清楚的认识到～因为我国法官助理制度实行时间较短～相关的配套制度和职责分工还没有建立起来～因此在实行过程中并未完全实现其理论上的优越性～还存在一定的问题和不足～主要表现在以下几个方面: 1、法官助理的定位尚不明确～各地法院对法官助理制度也处于尝试摸索阶段～对法官助理的定位还没有统一的衡量标准～导致改革中各地法院在实践中对法官助理究竟是一个什么定位～认识上有诸多分歧。法官和法官助理之间～法官助理和书记员之间的职责划分不明确～很多法官助理仍然从事书记员的各种工作～法官助理及书记员的工作权限在实践中难以划分一定程度上影响了法官助理岗位职责意识的提高。 2 2、法官助理职责的划分欠缜密～职责过于繁杂。一些法院对法官助理职责规定为除参与庭审裁判案件及开庭记录装订卷宗外的几乎工作。这种划分的益处在于～将大量事务性的工作交由法官助理完成。法官可以从大量事务性的工作中解脱出来～从而将大部分精力用于案件的思考和法学理论的研究～使法官能够专司裁判。但这种规定也存在问题:这样的职责划分～片面的夸大了助理的职责。法官助理职责象一个大口袋～法官和书记员职责中装不下的都装到了法官助理职责中～法官助
Allegory is a narrative that serves as an extended metaphor. Allegories are written in the form of fables, parables, poems, stories, and almost any other style or genre. The main purpose of an allegory is to tell a story that has characters, a setting, as well as other types of symbols, that have both literal and figurative meanings. One well-known example of an allegory is Dante’s The Divine Comedy.In Inferno, Dante is on a pilgrimage to try to understand his own life, but his character also represents every man who is in search of his purpose in the world. Alliteration is a pattern of sound that includes the repetition of consonant sounds. The repetition can be located at the beginning of successive words or inside the words. Poets often use alliteration to audibly represent the action that is taking place. Aside is an actor’s speech, directed to the audience, that is not supposed to be heard by other actors on stage. An aside is usually used to let the audience know what a character is about to do or what he or she is thinking. Asides are important because they increase an audience's involvement in a play by giving them vital information pertaining what is happening, both inside of a character's mind and in the plot of the play. Gothic is a literary style popular during the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th. This style usually portrayed fantastic tales dealing with horror, despair, the grotesque and other “dark” subjects. Gothic literature was named for the apparent influence of the dark gothic architecture of the period on the genre. Also, many of these Gothic tales took places in such “gothic” surroundings. Other times, this story of darkness may occur in a more everyday setting, such as the quaint house where the man goes mad fro m the "beating" of his guilt in Edgar Allan Poe's “The Tell-Tale Heart.”In essence, these stories were romances, largely due to their love of the imaginary over the logical, and were told from many different points of view. CATHARSIS is an emotional discharge that brings about a moral or spiritual renewal or welcome relief from tension and anxiety. According to Aristotle, catharsis is the marking feature and ultimate end of any tragic artistic work. IMAGERY: A common term of variable meaning, imagery includes the "mental pictures" that readers experience with a passage of literature. It signifies all the sensory perceptions referred to in a poem, whether by literal description, allusion, simile, or metaphor. Surrealism is an artistic movement doing away with the restrictions of realism and verisimilitude that might be imposed on an artist. In this movement, the artist sought to do away with conscious control and instead respond to the irrational urges of the subconscious mind. From this results the hallucinatory, bizarre, often nightmarish quality of surrealistic paintings and writings. Sample surrealist writers include Frank O'Hara, John Ashberry, and Franz Kafka.