一、不定代词
1. Another two/three...+复数名词=two/three more+复数名词，意为“再两/三……”。如：I want to stay for another four (=four more) days.我想再待4天。
2. Other 可作形容词或代词，作形容词时，意为“别的，其他”，作代词时泛指其他（人或物）。Any other 通常接单数名词，表示“其他任何……”。“other +复数名词”相当于others,多用于与前面提到的some并举。如:Tome runs faster than any other student (=any of th e other students) in his class.汤姆比他班上的任何人都跑得快。
Some students are playing games,others(=other students )are boating.一些学生在玩游戏，另一些在划船。
3.the others 是the other 的复数形式，特指某一范围内的“其他的（人或物）”，the others=the other+复数名词。如：Two boys will go to the zoo,and the others(= the other student) will stay at home .两个男孩将去动物园，其余的留在家里。
二、冠词
1.冠词的习惯用法
（1）在世上独有的事物、方位、前文提到的事物、说话语境中明确的事物、最高级以及序数词修饰的事物、山、河、湖、海、楼、塔、沙漠以及各含有普通名词构成的专有名词等等，一般都要用定冠词。
The sun is bigger than the moon. 太阳比月亮大。
I love the mountains,but hate the sea. 我喜欢山，却讨厌海。
（2）以下场合一般不用定冠词：专有名词、物质名词、抽象名词；节假日、星期、月份、季节、疾病名称前；头衔前；球类运动前；泛指的三餐前；by 引导的交通工具前；某些独立结构的名词前；“普通名词+as ”引导的让步状语从句的普通名词前。如：
Unity is strength.团结就是力量。
Thanksgiving Day falls on the 4th Thursday in November.感恩节在每年11月的第4个星期四。Child as he is ,he can speak two foreign languages.尽管他是个孩子，但会说两门外语。
(3)名词前有one,no, each,every,either,neither,some,any,this,that,these,those,which,或所有格名词或代词时，不可再用冠词。如：
That’s my watch.那是我的表。（不可用my a）
Which apple wounld you like?你要哪一个苹果？(不可用which an)
（4）在bed,church,college,court,hospital,market,office,prison,sea,school,table等名词前如果带定冠词或不定冠词则表示该名词所表示的处所；若不用冠词，则表示该处所的功能。如：Go to hospital.去医院看病。
Go to the hospital.去医院。（并不是去看病，而是有其他目的）
(5)类指的television和radio通常没有冠词，但是on/over/to the radio中，the 不可省略，如listen to the radio ,on the radio等；而在television 之前却又可以不用定冠词watch(the) television,on television.
(6)疾病通常是不可数名词，前面不用冠词。但get a cold“感冒”和get a headache“头痛”一般要用冠词，have tooyhache“牙痛”却又不用冠词。
(7)某些词有多种意思，视不同词义决定是否需要冠词。
2.冠词的位置
（1）不定冠词a或an要放在what,such,many,half等形容词后。即：what/such/man/half+a/an(+形容词)+名词。如：
What a beautiful sunset it is!好美的日落啊！
I’ve never heard of such a thing in my life.我平生从来没有听过这种事情。
Many a student fails to pass the exam.许多考生没有通过考试。
（2）当名词前的形容词被副词as,so,too,how,however,enough修饰时，不定冠词应放在形容词之后：
So short a time.时间太短了。
Too long a distance.距离太远了。
How beautiful a sunset it is!好美丽的日落啊！
（3）冠词一般放在副词quite或rather之后，但如果该名词还有其他形容词，冠词也可放在quite或rather之前，但放在后面更普遍。如：
It’s rather a pity.这有点令人遗憾。（不可用a rather）
That’s a quite difficult question to answer.这是一个不太容易回答的问题。（用a quite difficult 也可以）
三、限定词
限定词与限定词的搭配关系
1.三类限定词
在名词词组中心词之间如果有两个或两个以上限定词出现时，就会产生限定词的先后顺序问题。按其不同的搭配位置，限定词可分为前限定词（Prediterminer）、中限定词(Central)、和后限定词（Postdeterminer）。
前限定词：all, both, 倍数（double,twice,three times,etc）;分数（one-third,two-fifths etc）;what a(n),such a(n)等。
中限定词：冠词（the ,a ,an）；指示代词（this, that, these, those）;人称代词（my, your, etc.）;名词属格（Mary’s, my friend’s, etc.）;不定代词（some，any, no, every, each, either, neither, enough); what(ever), which(ever), whose等。
后限定词：基数词（one, two, etc.）；序数词（first，second，etc.）;next, last, other, another, etc; many, much, (a) few, （a）little, fewer, (the) fewest, less, (the) least, more, most; sveral, plenty of, a lot of, lots of, a great/large/good number of,a great/good deal of, a large/small amount of; such等。
2.限定词的使用规则
（1）多个限定词同时限定同一名词时，遵循“前位+中位+后位”的基本顺序。同一个名词词组中，通常不可以并用两个前位限定词或两个中位限定词，而后位限定词可以叠用。如：Both the brothers (前+中) all his two daughters(前+中+后) All other students(前+后) those last few minutes(中+后+后) （2）such 既可作前位限定词，也可作后位限定词。作前位限定词时，such 后面跟有不定冠词a(n);与其他限定词（some, any, no, all, few, another, other,many, one, two等）搭配时，such 是后位限定词。如：
I’ve never seen such a dog!我从没见过一条这样的狗。（前位限定词）
All such problems should be considered.所有的这些问题都要考虑。（后位限定词）
3．特殊限定词的使用
（1）any , some
①Any 与复数可数名词和不可数名词搭配时，表示“一些”；some 与单数可数名词搭配时，表示a certain“某一”如：
Have you got any aspirins? 你有阿司匹林吗？
Some boy broke the window.有个男孩打破了那扇窗。
Any child could answer that question.任何一个孩子都能回答那个问题。
②Some 一般用于肯定句和希望对方给出肯定的疑问句中，any 一般用于疑问句、否定句（包括包含否定意思的否定句）、条件句和if/whether引导的名词性从居中。
If you have any trouble,please let me know.如果有任何麻烦，请让我知道。
Would you liake to have some tea ? 你想要喝些茶吗？
③固定搭配
Some day 来日some day or other 迟早
Not...any more/longer 不再at any rate//in any case 无论如何
（2）no 的用法
①no可修饰单数可数名词、复数可数名词和不可数名词，相当于not a(n)或not any ,因此no 之后不可再有a(n) 或any。
There is no end to our troubles.我们的麻烦没完没了。
No news is good news.没有消息就是好消息。
There are no (=not any ) letters for you this morning .今天早上没有你的信。
②句首以外的no 通常都可以用not a(n)或not any 代替，但no的否定语气更强。如：
He is no friend of mine .他根本不是我的朋友。
He is not a friend of mine. // He is not my friend .他不是我的朋友。（所有格my不可与a 连用）③在带有this ,that ,these, those,my, your等的名词之前不可用no, 要用none of。如：
None of my friends live near my house .我的朋友都没有住在我家附近。
None of this money is (不可用are )mine.这些钱没有一点是我的。
④no 可作副词修饰形容词或副词的比较级或easy/dierent, 此时的no 相当于not at all(完全
不是，决不是)。
He is no better off than his seighbors .他并不比他的邻居更富有。
It is no easy task .=It is not an easy task at all.这决不是件易事。
⑤no 的习惯用语
No doubt 无疑地no end 非常，连续不断
No end of 大量的，许多（后接可数或不可数名词）and no mistake 的确，没错There’s no such person/thing as 没有……这样的人/物no wonder 难怪
四、形容词
1.形容词在句中的位置
放在被修饰的名词后的情况：
(1)形容词修饰以-thing，-body，-one等结尾的复合代词时如something...
(2)由前缀a-构成的形容词作定语时要求后置，这些形容词包括：afraid, alone, alike, ashamed,
asleep, afloat, awake等。
(3)由两个或两个以上的词构成的形容词词组修饰名词时。
There is nothing wrong with the machine.机器什么问题也没有。
The climate here is always hot, summer and winter alike. 这里的气候总是那么热，夏季和冬季都一样。
She bought a bookcase, simple and beautiful. 她买了一个书柜，简洁而美观。
2.多个形容词修饰同一个名词时，它们按下列顺序排列：
“美小圆木黄，中国木书房”
①限定词（a/an, the, this, the, his, one, first, etc.）
②表示特征或性质等描述性形容词（good, pretty, etc.）
③表示大小、长短、高低的形容词（big, long, little, etc.）
④表示形状的形容词（round，elliptical，square，etc.）
⑤表示年龄、新旧的形容词（old, young, new, etc.）
⑥表示颜色的形容词（red, yellow, etc.）
⑦表示国籍、地区、出处的形容词（Amerian, sounth, Italian, etc.）
⑧表示物质材料的形容词（wooden, rocky, tin, etc.）
⑨表示用途、类别的形容词（medical, writing, etc.）
A beautiful large green Chinese carpet 一块漂亮宽大的中国地毯
A useful big white wooden box 一个有用的大的白色的木盒
五、副词
特殊副词用法
1. enough 作副词修饰形容词、副词、动词时，一般位于它们的后面；当它作为形容词修饰名词时，位于名词之前。如：
What he has written is good enough. 他写的东西非常好。（修饰形容词）
There is enough food in the fridge. 冰箱里有足够的食物。（修饰名词）
2.副词very 可以修饰形容词，但不能修饰动词。如;
I like English very much. 我非常喜欢英语。（但不能说I very like English. ）
六、比较结构
原级比较
1．As...as结构“和……一样”，前面有nothing like,表示“绝对不”。
You’re nothing like as critical as you used to be. 你一点也不像过去那样挑剔。
2．not so much...as...“与其……不如……”（否定前者，肯定后者）。如：
Success lies not so much in luck as in hard work. 与其说成功在于运气，不如说在于辛勤劳动。
He is not so much a scholar as a pedant. 与其说他是个学者，不如说他是个书呆子。
3．A is to B what C is to D句型，其中的连词what 可以用来表示比较两种事物或相似的关系，表示“A之于B就像C之于D一样”。但如果是数与数的比较，则一般用as。如：
To the Portuguese, the dry salted cod is what pasta to the Italian. 咸鳕鱼干对葡萄人来说，就像面食对于意大利人一样不可或缺。
2 is to 4 as 8 is to 16. //As 2 is to 4, (so) 8 is to 16. 2比4等于8比16。
比较级
1.much 可用在比较级前修饰表示程度的词，但当more 后面接复数名词时，不能用much 修饰，而用many 或far 等词修饰。如：
Mike much less heavy than his brother. 迈克远没有弟弟重。
They need many more volunteers than we think. 他们需要的志愿者的人数比我们设想的多得多。
2.比较级的特殊结构
more A than B或rather A than B 与其是说B，不如说是A
less A than B 或not so much A as B与其说是A,不如说是B
none other than 不是别的……正是……
no other... than不是别的……正是……
more than 不只是，极其
no more than仅仅，只不过
no more...than...与……一样不……
other than不同于……，非……
This room is no bigger than that one. 这间房和那间一样小。
This room is not bigger than that one. 这间房间不比那间大。
Not less...than是常规的比较结构形式，表示在两者之间进行数量和程度的比较，
No less...than则是一个特殊用法，强调“两者都……，与……一样”。
3.“of a/an+n.”相当于一个形容词，表示具有后面那个名词的性质，可用于以下搭配：
As much/little of a+n.+as分句more/less of a/an+n.+than分句
What he told us was more of an illusion than a reality.他对我们所说的在很大程度上是一种幻觉而不是真实的东西。
最高级
*表达最高级时，可用“among+最高级+复数名词”表达。如：
Issues of price, place, promotion, and product are among the most conventional concerns in planning marketing strategies. 诸如价格、地点、促销和产品等事宜是制定市场营销策略时最常见的考虑因素。
倍数表达法
“A is 倍数+the size/length/width of B”(A是B的几倍长/宽/大小)。
“A is 倍数as +形容词或副词原级+as B”(A是B的几倍)。
“A is 倍数more than B”(A比B多几倍)。
The Yangtz River is almost three times the length of (=three times as long as=twice longer than) the Pearl River.长江差不多是珠江的三倍长。/长江差不多比珠江长两倍。
具有比较意义的特殊形式
1. 一些本身就具有比较意义的单词，其后常接介词to引出比较的对象，而不能用than。常见的有：senior to(比……年长；比……地位高)，junior(比……年少；比……级别低)，superior to(比……优越)，anterior/prior to(在……之前)，posterior t o(晚于)，prefer to(更喜欢，宁愿)，inferior to(比……差，低于……的)。
2. 表示对比的一些标志性词语，如like, unlike, in contrast,in comparison with, compared with 等，可用于同级比较、比较级和最高级。
The Prime Minister’s support staff is tiny in comparison with(=compared with) that of a US President. 和美国总统比起来，首相的参谋团人数少得可怜。
*注意不要混淆compare with(与……相比)和compare to(把……比作)。
3. 一些表示完全、极限的形容词由于本身意义的关系，不能采用比较结构，常见的有：absolut(绝对的)，correct, compelet, excellent, empty, false, maximum(最大、高的)，perfect, unique, wrong等。
Shakespeare occupies a unique place in English literature.莎士比亚在英国文学史上占有独一无二的地位。
介词
1.过去分词作介词宾语只限于take...for granted 结构和用于regard...as done结构。
I took it for granted that she was from England.我想当然的以为她是英国的。
I can’t regard the matter as settle.我不能认为这事已经解决了。
2.在某些特殊结构中，形容词、副词、介词短语、句子等可用介词宾语。
His pronounciation is far from perfect.他的发音远不完美。（形容词）
I didn’t know it until recently.直到最近我才知道此事。（副词）
She looked at me from under her spectacles.她从眼睛下面看我。（介词短语）
I have doubts about whether he is the best man for the job.我怀疑他是否是做这份工作的最好人选。（句子。注意：这里的whether不能用if替换。）
情态助动词
1.can 和be able to 的异同：
●表示“能力”时，两者可互换；
●can 只有现在时和过去时，be able to 可有各种时态；
●在过去时中，could do表示过去的一般能力，而was/were able to 表示做某件具体事情
的“能力”，相当于manager to或suceeded in。
Can you tape?=Are you able to tape?你会打字吗？
The fire spread through the hotel very quickly but everyone was able to(≠could) get out.火势蔓延速度非常快，但每个人都得以逃出酒店。
2.may/might...as well “不妨，还是……的好”，也可以写作may/might as well.如：
Since it is raining hard, you may as well stay here. 既然雨下得那么大，你还是呆在这儿的好。
3.would/will
(1)用于第二人称疑问句中，表示请求、建议。Would或won’t的语气更委婉，不表时态。如：—Will you lend me your pen?你愿意借笔给我吗？
—Certainly I will.当然愿意。（would you提问，表示接受请求只能用will不可用would）(2)will 表示没有固定时间的习惯性动作或某种倾向，过去时用would,相当于used to。如：Boys will be boys. 男生就是男生。
Tom will talk for hours if you give him the chance. 汤姆有机会的话，就会讲上几个小时。She would(=used to) listen to music when she was in low spirits. 她精神低落的时候就听音乐。
4.shall
(1)用于第一、三人称疑问句中，表示征询对方的意见或向对方请示。如：
The room is so dirty. Shall we clean it? 房间很脏，我们清扫一下吧？
Shall he come tomorrow? 他要明天来吗？
(2)用于第二、三人称的肯定句，表示命令、警告、威胁、强制、允诺等。如：
You shall do it, whether you want or not. 不管你愿不愿意，你必须做这项工作。(命令)
Tell him that he shall have the book as soon as I finish it.告诉他这本书我一看完就给他。(允诺)
You shall pay for it.你一定会受到惩罚的。(威胁)
5.should
(1)表示劝告、建议时，可译为“应该”，与“ought to”通用；但表示道义上的责任、义务时只能用ought to.。如：
We should/ought to learn about the computer and make full use of it. 我们应该了解计算机并加以充分利用。
You are his father. You ought to take care of him. 你是他的父亲，你应该照顾好他。
(2)表示推测、可能时，往往有一定的根据，含有“按道理应该”之意。如：
They should be at home by now for they have been away for two hours. 他们现在应该在家了，因为已经离开两小时了。
6.need
* need用作实义动词时，need doing 表示被动意义，相当于need to be done。如：
How often does your hair need washing(=need to be washed)? 你的头发多久需要洗一次？
7. dare用作实义动词时，有人称和数以及时态的变化。其后的动词不定式可带to也可不带，一般肯定句中要有to，否定句和疑问句中没有to。如：
I dare to jump down from the top of the wall. 我敢从墙头跳下来。
She doesn’t dare (to) face her teacher. 她不敢面对老师。
8 .might as well 意为“不妨”
Since the whether is fine we might as well walk for a while. 既然天气很好，我们不妨出去走一走。
八、非谓语动词
不定式和动名词做主语的区别
1,。不定式一般表示具体或一次性的动作，而动名词则表示一般或抽象的多次动作。如：Smoking is not good for health.抽烟不利于健康。(抽象)
It is not good for you to smoke so much. 你抽这么多烟不好。(具体)
2.不定式和动名词都可以用it代替做形式主语。动名词常用:
“it is no use / no good / fun /a waste of time / a good pleasure 等名词+doing”结构和
“it is useless / nice / good / interesting / worthwhile等形容词+doing”结构中做主语。如：
It is a waste of time seeing that movie. 看那部电影是浪费时间。
It is useless speaking. 光说没用。
3.动名词也可在“there is/was no+doing”结构中做主语。如：
There is no standing still in this life; one must either advance or fall behind. 在这样的生活中没有原地不动的。一个人要么前进，要么后退。
It is not common for there to be problem of communication between the old and young. 老年人和年轻人普遍存在沟通问题。(如果there be 中的be 要用不定式，则其逻辑主语there要用for 引导,形成for there to be sth.结构，表示“有”或“存在”某种情况。)
What’s the chance of there being a general election this year?今年举行大选的可能性多大？(there be 可以作介词of, about的宾语，用there being的形式。)
非谓语动词作补语时
1. want, wish等后接to be done 作宾补时，to be可省略，直接用过去分词作宾补。
When do you wish it (to be) finished? 你希望它什么时候完成？
2. 在SVC(主、系、表)句型中，如果主语部分有实义动词do的某种形式，则主语补足语的不定式既可带to也可不带to。
All you do now is compele your homework. 你现在要做的就是完成作业。
非谓语动词作定语时
1. 动名词定语一般表示所修饰词的用途，它和所修饰词之间没有逻辑上的主谓关系。
the sleeping bus = the bus for sleeping 卧铺汽车
a changing room = a room for changing clothes 更衣室
a working stick = a stick for walking 手杖
2. 不定式作定语，通常表示未发生的动作，且常后置。
The topic to be discussed at the meeting is still unknow. 会议上将要讨论的议题仍未知。
非谓语做状语时
1. 独立不定式
(1) 有些不定式不属于句中的任何人或物，而是修饰全句，这类不定式为独立不定式（absolute
infinitive）,常用的有：to cut/make a long story short(长话短说)，to tell the turth(老实说)，to be plain with you(坦白地说)，to be brief(简言之)，to conclude(最后，总而言之)，to sum up(总而言之)，needless to say(不用说)，strange to say(说来也奇怪)，to say nothing of//not to speak of//not to mention(更不用说)，to say the least(不夸张地说)，to be sure(的确、当然)，to begin/start with(起初、首先)等。
To tell the turth, I thought I wounld keep silent. 老实说，我本来不想说的。
To be brief, he was happy with the result. 简言之，他对这个结果感到高兴。
To conclude, I wish you all good health and a long life. 最后，祝大家健康长寿。
To cut a long story short, we said, “No!”长话短说吧，我们不同意。
He can speak French, German and Japanese, not to mention English. 他会说法语、德语和日语，更不用说英语了。
It is a good idea, to be sure, but it costs too much. 的确，这是个好主意，可是花钱太多。(2) only to 这一不定式作结果状语，意为“不料，结果”。如：
The three men tried many times to sneak across the border into the neighbouring country, only
to be captured by the police each time. 这三个人好多次试图偷偷溜过边境进入邻国，结果每次被警察发现了。
九、名词性从句
主语从句
1.由连接词what, whatever, whoever 等引导的主语从句一般不能用it作形式主语。如：What he found surprised me greatly. 他的发现使我非常吃惊。
Whoever is finished may rest. 凡是做完的人都可以休息。
2.whether与if引导主语从句的区别：
Whether引导的主语从句既可以放在句首也可以放在句尾，if引导的主语从句只能放在句末；
Whether 后面可跟or或or not，其中or not既可紧跟whether之后，也可分开放在句末或者省略，而if后面通常不跟or not，如要接，则需与if分开放在后面。
Whether she comes or not makes no difference. 她来不来都没有关系。
It is doubtful whether/if the President knew the details of the plan. 总统是否知道这个计划的细节，这有一点疑问。
宾语从句
1.whether和if引导的宾语从句可以互换，但介词后的宾语从句只能用whether，不能用if。
I dont’t care whether/if they are following my advice.我不介意他们是否听从我的建议。
It is a question of whether we should go. 问题是我们是否应该走。
2.宾语从句中连词that通常可以省略，但以下情况不可省略连词that:
(1)当主句谓语动词后接两个或两个以上宾语从句，除第一个从句外，其他从句的that不可省略。
The teacher told the students(that) they should hand their homework on time and that they would have a test the next day. 老师告诉学生，他们应该按时交作业，并且他们第二天考试。
(2)当主句与that引导的宾语从句之间有插入语时，that不可省略。
He didn’t know, I’m sure, that John was going to America. 我确信他不知道约翰要去美国。(3)当宾语从句是复合句，且该复合句的从句位于主句之前时，that不可胜略。
He promise that if he come back early, he would cook for her. 他承诺说，如果他回来得早，就会给她做饭。
(4)当that宾语从句是双宾语中的直接宾语时，that一般不可省略。
I will never tell anyone that you have ever been there.我不会告诉任何人，你曾经到过那里。
(5)当it作形式宾语，that 引导的宾语从句后置时，that不可省略。
She makes it clear that the meeting won’t be put off. 她明确表示会议不会推迟。
表语从句
1.表语从句可用whether引导，也可用as if/though引导，但不能用if引导。
He looked as if he was going to impress everything in the room into his mind. 他看上去是要把屋里的一切都印入脑海。
His first question was whether Tom had arrived yet. 他的第一个问题是汤姆是否已经到了。2.当主句的主语是reason时，表语从句的引导词要用that, 不能用if引导。
区分以下句式：
That’s why+结果；
That’s because+原因；
The reason why/for...is/was that...
He is careless and irresponsible. That was why he was dismissed. 他既粗心又不负责任，这就是他被解雇的原因。
He was dismissed. That was because he is careless and irresponsible. 他被解雇了，这是因为他既粗心又不负责任。
The reson why he was dismissed was that he was careless and irresponsible. 他被解雇的原因是他既粗心又不负责任。
同位语从句
1.doubt在否定句中带同位语从句时的引导词通常是that；在肯定句中则一般用whether。There is some doubt whether he will come on time. 人们怀疑他是否会准时来。
I don’t doubt at all that he will finish it on time. 我绝对相信他会准时完成任务的。
定语从句
1.只能用that，不能用which引导定语从句的特殊情况：
●当先行词是all, something, nothing, everything, anything, little,few等不定代词时；
●当先行词被序数词或形容词最高级修饰时；
●当先行词被no, every, some, any, only, very, much等限定词修饰时。
●当先行词既有人又有物时；
●当先行词为主句的表语或或关系代词为从句的表语时；
●There be 句型中，先行词为物时；
●当先行词前面有who, which, what等特殊代词时。
All that we need is the support from you. 我们所需的一切就是你的支持。
The first lesson that I learned will never be forgotten. 我永远不会忘记我的第一堂课。
He is the only person that I what to see. 他是唯一一个我想见的人。
The passengers and parcels that filled the car were mixed. 满车的旅客和行李混在一起了。
Our school is no longer the school that it used to be. 我们学校不再是曾经的那所学校了。There is a room in the building that is still free.这栋楼里有间房仍然空着。
Who is the lady that is waiting at the school gate? 在校门口等候的那位女士是谁？
2.all作先行词时只可以与关系词that搭配使用，all that 相当于what。
I was interested all that she told me. 我对她所告诉我的一切非常感兴趣。
3.只能用which；不能用that引导定语从句的特殊情况：
●which 能引导非限制性定语从句，that则不能；
●which之前可以接介词，that则不能；
●当先行词本身为that 时。
He changed his mind, which made me very angry. 他改变了主意，这使我很生气。
The questions were all on opera, about which I know nothing. 那些问题都是关于歌剧的，我对歌剧一无所知。
What’s that which flashed in the sky just now? 刚刚空中闪现的时什么？
定语从句与同位语从句的区别
同位语从句的形式与定语从句相似，通常都位于名词或代词后面，但区别有：
●定语从句相当于形容词的作用，对先行词加以限制或修饰；同位语从句相当于名词的作
用，对名词性成分加以补充说明，是其具体内容的体现。
●定语从句的关系词要代替先行词在从句中作适当的句子成分，有时可省略；同位语从句
的引导词不在句中充当句子成分，但不可省略。
●定语从句不能用whether，how 等连词引导，同位语从句可以。
The fact that he had not said anything surporised everyone. 他什么也没说，这个事实让所有人
感到惊讶。(同位语从句，that起引导作用，不代替fact在从句中充当句子成分)
The fact that you are talking about is important. 你所讲的事实很重要。(定语从句，that 在从句中作talking about的宾语)
状语从句
如果一个句子用作状语,功能相当于副词并修饰动词、形容词或整个句子，那么该从句就是状语从句。
时间状语从句
1.在no sooner...than和scarely/hardly/barely...when(刚……就)结构中，若把no sooner, screly, hardly,barely句首，需用倒装结构。
No sooner had I reached home than to rain. 我刚到家，就下雨了。
Hardly had I sat down when he stepped in. 我刚坐下，他就进来了。
2.由till或until引导的时间状语从句。
Till和until一般情况下两者都可以互换，但是从句位于句首时，只能用until,
强调句型中多用until,为“It is not until...that...”。
如果主句中的谓语动词是瞬间动词时，必须用否定形式，
如果主句的谓语动词是延续性动词时，用肯定或否定形式都可以，
但在肯定句中，表示“直到……为止”，
在否定句中表示“直到……才”。
I didn’t go to bed till/until my father came back. 直到我父亲回来，我才上床睡觉。
It was not until the meeting was over that he made a call to his wife. 直到散会之后他才打了个电话个妻子。
Please wait until I finished the book. 请等到我看完这本书为止。
条件状语从句
If only和only if的区别：
1. only if(只要……)引导陈述语气的真实条件句，放在句首主句需用倒桩语序；
2. if only引导虚拟条件句，也可引导感叹句，表示“但愿……就好了”。
Only if you work hard will you achieve success.你只要努力，就会成功。
If only it would stop snowing! 要是不下雨该多好！
原因状语从句
1.She disliked him on the ground(s) that he is crazy. 因为他懒，所以她不喜欢他。
2. A gas differs from liquid in that it is has no definite shape. 气体不同于固体的地方就在于它
没有固定的形状。
3.not...because否定because引导的从句：
在由because引导的主从复合句中，如果主句中含有否定词not, 则可能是否定because引导的从句。如：
She didn’t marry you because you had money. = She married you not because you had money. 她嫁给你，不是因为你有钱。
The mountain is not famous because it is high. = The mountian is famous not because it is high. 这座山有名，并不是因为它的高度。
让步状语从句
1.despite, i n spite of, for all 也表示“尽管”，但后面只能接名词结构，不可接从句。Desspite(=in spite of/for all) the bad weather, we enjoyed our holiday. 尽管今天天气不好，我们的假期仍过得很愉快。
2.no matter whether...or...结构通常将no matter省略，形成whether...or(not)引导的让步状语从句，表示“不管……还是……”。当从句中含有be动词时，可进一步省略，表达成“be + 主语+...or...”。
You’ll have to attend the ceremony, whether you’re free or busy. 不管你忙不忙，都要参加这个典礼。
She listens to the music for one hour every day. (=whether she is free or busy). 她不管闲还是忙，每天都会听一个小时的音乐。
3.while引导让步状语从句时，只能放在句首，意义上相当于although。
While I understand your viewpoint, I don’t agree with you. 不管我是否理解你的观点，但我还是不同意。
历年(1994-2012专四语法词汇题汇总及答案附 714 道词汇模拟题2012 年 51.Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT A.Twenty miles seems like a long walk to him.B.No one except his supporters agree with him.C.Neither Julia nor I were going to the party.D.Few students in my class are really lazy.52.Which of the following determiners限定词can be placed before bothsingular count nouns and plural count nouns A.many a B.few C.such D.the next 53.Which of the following reflexive pronouns 反身代词is used as anappositive同位语A,He promised himself rapid progress.B.The manager herself will interview Mary.C.I have nothing to say for myself.D.They quarreled themselves red in the face.54.My boss ordered that the legal documents ____ to him before lunch.A.be sent B.were sent C.were to be sent D.must be sent 55.Which of the following sentences expresses WILLINGNESS A.By now she will be eating dinner.B.I shall never do that again.C.My brother will help you with the luggage.D.You shall get a promotion.56.Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT A.How strange feelings they are B.How dare you speak to me like that C.What noise they are making D. What a mess we are in 57.which of the italicized parts functions as a subject A.We never doubt that her brother is honest.B.The problem is not who will go but who will stay.C.You must give it back to whoever it belongs to。 D.It is clear that the crime was done deliberately.58.which of the italicized parts functions as an object A.He doesn’t like the idea of my speaking at the meeting.B.It is no use your pretending not to know the matter.C.My parents strongly object to my going out alone at night.D.Her falling into the river was the climax of the whole trip.59.All the following sentences have an appositive EXCEPT A.She bought herself a pair of new shoes.B.Only one problem still remains-the food.C.My friends all understand and support me.D.She liked her current job,teaching English.60.Which of the following best explains the meaning of“Shall we buy the tickets first” A.He said that we were going to buy the tickets first.B.He requested that we buy the tickets first.C.He suggested that we buy the
Test Three 关于dare的意义和用法 作为情态动词表示“胆敢”，dare通常只用于否定陈述句和疑问句。例如： How dare he s dare作为情态助动词没有过去式形式，其否定式为daren’t，既可指现在时间，也可指过去时间。例如：Tom wa dare还可用主动词，随后的不定式可带to,也可不带to。例如： He does 近义词辨析 bes 这组词均含有“除…外”的意思。 besides “除…外，还有…”，指更进一步的拥有，包括所“除”事物在内。 Have you got any clothes besides these?除了这些衣服你还有别的吗 but不包括所引事物在内，多与nothing, not anything, nobody, nowhere, all, anybody 等连用。 He has nobody but himself to blame for that.那件事他没法指责别人，只能怪他自己。 except不包括所引事物。常与no, none, nothing等否定词或all,everyone, everything 等连用，但不可用于句首。 They all went to the Summer Palace except one.除一人之外他们都去了颐和园。 except for常指除去所引情况让人稍感遗憾之外，整体情况尚属理想，被除去的 事物与正在谈及的事物之间不具有共同属性或性质。 The roads were clear except for a few cars.除几辆小汽车外，路面很空旷。 全真模拟试题 1. The bank is reported in the local newspaper ______ A. to be robbed B. robbed C. to have been robbed 2. ______before, his first performance for the amateur dramatic group was a A. Though having never acted B. As he had never acted C. Despite he had never acted D. In s 3. By the middle of the 21st century, the vast majority of the world’s population ______ in citie A. are living C. have lived D. will 4. Mr. Milton prefers to res shonest bus A. than take B. than to take C. rather than take 5. No one would have time to read or listen to an account of everything ______ going A. it is B. as is C. there is D. 6. There is a real possibility that these animals could be frightened, _____ a sudden
英语专业四级词汇与语法模拟练习 41. My brother has decided to become a policeman,____what may. A. came B. come C. coming D. having come 42. My friend and adviser____ to lend me his money. A. have agreed B. has agreed C. agreed D. are agreed 43. A series of robberies ____recently. A. has been reported B. has reported C. have been reported D. have reported 44. “Which coat did your husband buy?” “The black one, but I____ the green one.” A. would rather have bought B. would rather buy C. would have rather bought D. rather had bought 45. I was to have a trip abroad if____. A. I had not been fired B. I was not fired C. my boss won’t have fired me D. I were not fired 46. Not until three years ago____ to work outside. A. he began B. he begins C. began he D. did he begin 47.____ that it was going to rain, he took a raincoat with him A. Seeing B. Saw C. Seen D. To see 48. If you____hard, you____in the exam. A. worked/ wouldn’t have failed B. had worked/ wouldn’t fail C. had worked/ wouldn’t have failed D. worked/ wouldn’t fail 49. When we drove to the country, we saw many ____. A. herds of cattles B. herds of cattle C. herd of cattle D. herd of cattles 50. Don’t go there this afternoon, I’d rather you____ tomorrow. A. went B. go C. will go D. would go 51. They saw a new movie at the theatre,____they had dinner at a Chinese restaurant. A. then which B. which after C. after which D. after that 52. In my country, the____ are all distributed free. A. letters box B. letters boxes C. lette r’s box D. letter boxes 53. I wish to go home with you,____? A. may I B. shall I C. would I D. can I 54. Our country is trying to____ the serious problems created by the environment pollution. A. comply with B. cope with C. cope to D. comply to 55. The thieves____the possibility of the alarm system sounding A. overtook B. overcame C. overlooked D. overworked 56. Although the main characters in the fiction are so true to life, they are certainly____. A. imagining B. imaginative C. imaginable D. imaginary 57. She stumbled and____ the coffee. A. spoiled B. spilled C. poured D. splashed 58. A sheet of metal was shaken to____the sound of thunder. A. stimulate B. simulate C. reproduce D. duplicate 59. In today’s newspaper, it____ that th ere will be a new election tomorrow. A. tells B. states C. writes D. records 60. When he bent down to tie his shoelace, the belt of his trousers____. A. ruined B. cracked C. broke D. split
bear，endure，stand，tolerate都含有一定的"忍耐、忍受"之意 在表示忍受pain，suffering，hardship等时，在许多情况下这四个词可以互换使用；通常与can或cannot连用 bear 强调忍受者对痛苦、忧虑、烦恼以及责任的承受力（常用于否定句中）endure (=bear bravely)指经受长期的艰难、困苦或折磨而不屈服，强调持久力和意志坚强（常用于否定句中） stand 强调不屈不挠或经受得起（常用于否定句中） tolerate指忍受某人或某种行为而不反抗，语气最弱（即可用于肯定句也可用于否定句） He quietly endures the pain of a loveless marriage.他默默地忍受着没有爱情的婚姻的煎熬。 The sorrow was almost more than she could bear.她几乎忍受不了那种悲伤。 I can’t stand hot weather.我受不了热天。 A government that refuses to tolerate opposition cannot last long. 一个不听取反对意见的政府是不会长久的。 It’s hard for people to put up with that kind of treatment.人们很难忍受那种待遇。 assure，ensure，insure与reassure 区别 assure，ensure，insure与reassure这四个单词可谓是形近意似，但用法却不无区别。 ㈠assure ▲assure用来表示向某人保证某事将要发生，既可以用来确证某事，也可以表
Section 1 介词 01The older New England villages have changed relatively little ___ a gas station or two in recent decades. A. except for B. except 02_____ time, he’ll make a first-class tennis player. A . Giving B. Given 03We take or skin for granted until it is burned ____ repair. A. without B. beyond 04Which sport has the most expenses ____ training equipment, players’ personal equipment and uniforms? A. in place of B. in terms of 05 A gas forms no free surface but tends to diffuse throughout the space available; it must therefore be kept in a closed container, as _______ a planet’s atmosphere. A. in the case of B. with reference to 06Most people can’t get ____ the day without at least one cup of tea or coffee. A. over B. through 07I’d ____ his reputation with other farmers and business people in the community, and then make a decision about whether or not to approve a loan. A. account for B. take into account 08The membership card entitled him ____ certain privileges in the club. A. on B. to 09We had to ____ a lot of noise when the children were at home. A. hold on to B. put up with 10The police let him go, because they didn’t find him guilty ____ the murder. A. over B. of 11The party, _____ I was the guest of honor, was extremely enjoyable. A. at which B. for which 12The guest team was beaten by the host team 2 ____ 4 in last year’s CFA Cup Final. A. over B. to Section 2 形容词/副词和比较结构 01All the arrangements should be completed ___ your departure. A. prior to B. contrary to C. superior to D. parallel to 02Rita of Passage is a good novel by any standards; ____, it should rank high on any list of science fiction. A. consistently B. consequently C. invariably D. fortunately 03Do you enjoy listening to records? I find records are often ____ or better than actual performances. A. as good as B. as good C. good D. good as 04The atmosphere is as much a part of the earth as ___ its soil and the water of its lakes, rivers and oceans. A. has B. do C. is D. are 05Intellect is to the mind ___ sight is to the body. A. what B. as C. that D. like 06The experiment requires more money than ____. A. have been put in B. has been put in C. being put in D. to be put in 07Fat cannot change into muscle ____ muscles change into fat. A. any more than B. no more than C. no less than D. much more than 08John is ____ hardworking than his sister, but he failed in the exam. A. no less B. no more C. not less D. no so 09Nuclear science should be developed to benefit the people ____ harm them. A. more than B. other than C. rather than D. better than 10The less the surface of the ground yields to the weight of a fully-loaded truck, ___ to the truck. A. the greater stress is B. greater is the stress C. the stress is greater D. the greater the stress 11Just as the builder is skilled in the handling of bricks, ___ the experienced writer is skilled in the handling of his words. A. as B. thus C. so D. like 12Last year Mike earned ___ his brother though his brother has a better position. A. twice as much as B. twice as many as C. twice than D. twice as more as Section 3 as及含as的复合连词 01Fool ___ Jane is, she could not have done such a thing. A. who B. as C. that D. like
英语专业四级词汇语法模拟试题（套五） 1. Public acceptance of rabbit as an economical source of protein dependson ____ . A. how aggressively do producers market it B. if it marketed aggressively C. how aggressively producers market it D. whether or not aggressive marketing 2. You mustn’t eat these apples ____ they are unripe. A. much as B. because of C. even if D. in case 3. Although ____ happened in the developed country sounds like science fiction, it could occur elsewhere in the world. A. which B. what C. how D. it 4. It was he in ____ we had the greatest faith. A. who B. whose C. whom D. that 5. Being in no great hurry, ____ . A.we went the long route B. the long scenic route was our preference C. we took the long, scenic route D. our preference was taking the long, scenic route 6.Neither of the answers ____ right. A. were B. is C. has been D. are 7. He is ill, ____ I am only a little tired. A. whereas B. on the contrary C. and D. however 8. She is rich, and ____ is more, very beautiful. A. who B. that C. what D. which 9. Say ____ you like，it is your father that made you ____ you are. A. that ;that B. that;what C. what ;that D. what ;what 10. ____ you made your bed, ____ you must lie on it. A.Because;so B.For;and C. Once ;and D. As ;so 11. If reading is to accomplish anything more than ____ time, it must be active. A. wasting B. spending C. passing D.idling
286 As all of us know, color-blind people often find it difficult to ___ between blue and green. A separate B distinguish C compare D contrast 287 Many artists predict that this brilliant young actor ___ to be a shining star. A destines B will be destined C is destined D has been destined 288 The local government leaders are making every effort to ___ the problem of poverty. A abolish B tackle C remove C encounter 289 His companions have threatened to ___ his crimes to the police. A impose B express C enclose D expose 290 All their ___ have been shown up by their own deeds. A debates B decorations C deductions D deceptions 291 fruit is cheapest ____ season. A at B on C in d through 292 In their latest design, the company is clearly ___ the success of previous years. A building up B building upon C building out D building over 293 In Beijing, the best season of the year is probably ___ fall. A later B last C latter D late 294 Even though he was guilty, the ___ judge did not send him to prison. A merciful B impartial C conscientious D conspicuous 295 Although he thought he was helping us to prepare the dinner, he was actually ___ the way. A in B off C by D on 296 A large part of human activity, particularly in relation to the environment, is ___ conditions or events. A in response to B in favor of C in contrast to D in excess of 297 The bus driver is ____ for the passengers’ safety. A skillful B responsible C strict D intensive 298 I hate people who ___ the end of a film that you haven’t seen before. A reveal B rewrite C revise d reverse 299 Care should be taken to decrease the length of time that one is ___ loud continuous noise. A subjected to B filled with C associated with D attached to 300 The human voice often sounds ___ on the telephone. A twisted B irregular C distorted D deformed 301 Since the ground is wet, it ____ last night. A must have rained B must be raining C must rain D had rained 302 If you are required to do some work, it must be done ____.
一、不定代词 1. Another two/three...+复数名词=two/three more+复数名词，意为“再两/三……”。如：I want to stay for another four (=four more) days.我想再待4天。 2. Other 可作形容词或代词，作形容词时，意为“别的，其他”，作代词时泛指其他（人或物）。Any other 通常接单数名词，表示“其他任何……”。“other +复数名词”相当于others,多用于与前面提到的some并举。如:Tome runs faster than any other student (=any of th e other students) in his class.汤姆比他班上的任何人都跑得快。 Some students are playing games,others(=other students )are boating.一些学生在玩游戏，另一些在划船。 3.the others 是the other 的复数形式，特指某一范围内的“其他的（人或物）”，the others=the other+复数名词。如：Two boys will go to the zoo,and the others(= the other student) will stay at home .两个男孩将去动物园，其余的留在家里。 二、冠词 1.冠词的习惯用法 （1）在世上独有的事物、方位、前文提到的事物、说话语境中明确的事物、最高级以及序数词修饰的事物、山、河、湖、海、楼、塔、沙漠以及各含有普通名词构成的专有名词等等，一般都要用定冠词。 The sun is bigger than the moon. 太阳比月亮大。 I love the mountains,but hate the sea. 我喜欢山，却讨厌海。 （2）以下场合一般不用定冠词：专有名词、物质名词、抽象名词；节假日、星期、月份、季节、疾病名称前；头衔前；球类运动前；泛指的三餐前；by 引导的交通工具前；某些独立结构的名词前；“普通名词+as ”引导的让步状语从句的普通名词前。如： Unity is strength.团结就是力量。 Thanksgiving Day falls on the 4th Thursday in November.感恩节在每年11月的第4个星期四。Child as he is ,he can speak two foreign languages.尽管他是个孩子，但会说两门外语。 (3)名词前有one,no, each,every,either,neither,some,any,this,that,these,those,which,或所有格名词或代词时，不可再用冠词。如： That’s my watch.那是我的表。（不可用my a） Which apple wounld you like?你要哪一个苹果？(不可用which an) （4）在bed,church,college,court,hospital,market,office,prison,sea,school,table等名词前如果带定冠词或不定冠词则表示该名词所表示的处所；若不用冠词，则表示该处所的功能。如：Go to hospital.去医院看病。 Go to the hospital.去医院。（并不是去看病，而是有其他目的） (5)类指的television和radio通常没有冠词，但是on/over/to the radio中，the 不可省略，如listen to the radio ,on the radio等；而在television 之前却又可以不用定冠词watch(the) television,on television. (6)疾病通常是不可数名词，前面不用冠词。但get a cold“感冒”和get a headache“头痛”一般要用冠词，have tooyhache“牙痛”却又不用冠词。 (7)某些词有多种意思，视不同词义决定是否需要冠词。
专四词汇语法练习（13） A 1. A) 【句意】由于铝总是和其它元素结合在一起，最常见的是和氧气在一起，所以自然界中哪里也不会找到单独的铝元素。 【难点】owing to 是介词，后应接名词或动名词，根据题意，应接被动语态形式。 C C. what, which 2. C) 【句意】当今的物理就是以前被称之为自然哲学的等同物，大多数现代科学都产生于自然哲学。 【难点】what used to be called作定语，修饰natural philosophy,from which引导一个非限制性定语从句。 A A. should you B. you should C. shall you 3. A) 【句意】你决不应该把小孩一个人放在家里。 【难点】on no account 意为“决不”属否定意义的词，引导倒装句，所以只有A)项正确。 B B. That the su 4. B) 【句意】太阳系的中心是太阳而不是地球这一事实被中世纪的教会认为是异端邪说。 【难点】That引导主语从句，全句的谓语是was considered. 5. The reason that his property was confiscated by the country, it _D that he was 5. D) 【句意】后来证明他的财产被国家没收的原因是，战争期间他参与了诈骗活动。 【难点】it turned out (to be)这里作插入语，意为“证明是…”。 6. I’d r A 6. A)
【句意】我宁愿你乘火车去，因为天气预报说明天将有大雪。 【难点】would rather 后接虚拟语气的从句，用一般过去时。 7. Einstein won the Nobel Prize in 1921 and enjoyed great fame in Germany until the rise of Nazism _A___ he was expelled from Germany because he was a Jew. 7. A) 【句意】爱因斯坦于1921年获诺贝尔奖金，在德国享有盛誉。后来随着纳粹主义的兴起，他被逐出德国，因为他是个犹太人。 【难点】关系副词when引导的定语从句修饰名词词组the rise of Nazism。 8. Nowhere but in the remotest region of the country __A__find a place to set 8. A) 【句意】他只能在最遥远的地方找个安身之处。 【难点】Nowhere是否定副词，位于句首引导倒装句。 A 9. A) 【句意】在车祸中，他的一条腿骨折，他连走路都不行，更不用说跑了。 【难点】let alone意为“更不必说”；not to mention意为“再加上”；that is to say意为“也就是说”。 B C. Disgracing 10. B) 【句意】失宠后，她过着完全隐居的生活。 【难点】disgraced在这里是过去分词作状语，表示伴随状态。 C 11. C) 【句意】有时，公共汽车检票员上车查票。 【难点】bus conductor意为“公共汽车售票员”；agent意为“代理人，中介人”；officer意为“军官，官员”inspector意为“检查员，视察员”。 B 12. B) 【句意】他很快恢复了健康。 【难点】recovery意为“恢复，复苏”，后接介词from;relief意为“宽慰，安心”；relaxation 意为“放松”；survival意为“生存”。 C A. While B. Even though C. Now that 13. C) 【句意】既然考试的紧张已经过去，我们现在可以放松了。 【难点】now that意为“既然；由于”，用于新的事情的发生，接一般现在时的句子。while 意为“虽然”；even though意为“即使”，for意为“因为”，不能用于句首。
1. My pain ____ apparent the moment I walked into the room, for the first man I met asked sympathetically: "Are you feeling all right?" A. must be B. must have been C. had been D. had to be 2. It is only when you nearly lose someone ____ fully conscious of how much you value him. A. do you become B. then you become C. that you become D. have you become 3. Just as the soil is a part of the earth, ___ the atmosphere. A. as it is B. so is C. the same as D. and so is 4. While driving along the treacherous road, ___ . A. my right rear tire blew out B. my right rear tire had a blowout C. I had a blowout on my right rear tire D. I had my right rear tire blowout 5. Jean Wagner's most enduring contribution to the study of Afro-American Poetry is his insistence that ___________ it in a religious, as well as worldly, frame of reference. A. is to be analyzed B. has been analyzed C. be analyzed D. should have been analyzed 6. __ there is little we can do to modify the weather, we can at least know what kind of weather to expect. A. Since B. When C. While D. Unless 7. This organization brought Western artists together in the hope of making more of an impact on the art community _____ any of them could inpidually and to promote Western art by women. A. rather than B. rather C. than D. other than 8. But the Swiss discovered long years ago that constant warfare brought them ___ suffering and poverty. A. anything but B. nothing but C. none other than D. no more than 9. After ___ seemed an endless wait, it was her turn to step into the doctor's office. A. it B. that C. what D. which 10. The board deemed it's urgent that these files ___ right away. A. had to be printed B. should have been printed C. must be printed D. should be printed 11. The sale usually takes place outside the house, with the audience ___ on benches, chairs or boxes. A. having seated B. seating C. seated D. having been seated 12. __ in this way, the situation doesn't seem so disappointing. A. To look at B. Looking at C. Looked at D. To be looked at 13. Nobody came to see me while I was out, ___ ? A. did they B. didn't they C. did she D. didn't she 14. You will see this product ___ wherever you go. A. to be advertised B. advertised C. advertise D. advertising 15. Suddenly ___ fire broke out in the room and everything in it was soon on ___ fire. A. /, a B. The, / C. a, / D. /, the 16. If you ___ Jerry Brown until recently, you'd think the photograph on the right was strange. A. shouldn't contact B. weren't to contact C. didn't contact D. hadn't contacted 17. Scientists think __ helps some trees to conserve water in the winter. A. when losing leaves B. leaves are lost C. that losing leaves D. the leaves losing