A review of the time management
literature
Brigitte J.C.Claessens,Wendelien van Eerde and Christel G.Rutte
Technische Universiteit Eindhoven,Eindhoven,The Netherlands,and
Robert A.Roe
Universiteit Maastricht,Maastricht,The Netherlands
Abstract
Purpose –The purpose of this article is to provide an overview for those interested in the current state-of-the-art in time management research.
Design/methodology/approach –This review includes 32empirical studies on time management conducted between 1982and 2004.
Findings –The review demonstrates that time management behaviours relate positively to perceived control of time,job satisfaction,and health,and negatively to stress.The relationship with work and academic performance is not clear.Time management training seems to enhance time management skills,but this does not automatically transfer to better performance.
Research limitations/implications –The reviewed research displays several limitations.First,time management has been de?ned and operationalised in a variety of ways.Some instruments were not reliable or valid,which could account for unstable ?ndings.Second,many of the studies were based on cross-sectional surveys and used self-reports only.Third,very little attention was given to job and organizational factors.There is a need for more rigorous research into the mechanisms of time management and the factors that contribute to its effectiveness.The ways in which stable time management behaviours can be established also deserves further investigation.
Practical implications –This review makes clear which effects may be expected of time management,which aspects may be most useful for which individuals,and which work characteristics would enhance or hinder positive effects.Its outcomes may help to develop more effective time management practices.
Originality/value –This review is the ?rst to offer an overview of empirical research on time management.Both practice and scienti?c research may bene?t from the description of previous attempts to measure and test the popular notions of time management.
Keywords Time measurement,Training,Control,Job satisfaction,Performance management Paper type Literature review
During the last two decades,there has been a growing recognition of the importance of time in the organizational literature.According to Orlikowsky and Yates (2002),the temporal dimension of work has become more important because of expanding global competition and increased demands for immediate availability of products and services.Garhammer (2002)has pointed at the increased pace of life shown in doing things faster (acceleration),contracting time expenditure (e.g.eat faster,sleep less),and compressing actions (making a phone call while having lunch).Other studies have examined the perception of time in organizational contexts (e.g.Palmer and Schoorman,1999)and the experience of time pressure among employees (e.g.Jackson and Martin,1996;Major et al.,2002;Teuchmann et al.,1999).
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at https://www.doczj.com/doc/1e5190067.html,/0048-3486.htm
Time
management
literature
255
Received 4July 2004Revised 13October 2004Accepted 15December 2005
Personnel Review Vol.36No.2,2007
pp.255-276
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0048-3486
DOI 10.1108/00483480710726136
The increasing salience of time is re?ected in theoretical as well as practical publications.A number of authors discussed the need for better incorporating time in theoretical models and research designs (e.g.Ancona et al.,2001;George and Jones,2000;Wright,2002).Others focused on the ways in which people in organizations manage their time,and on ways in which these efforts can be improved (e.g.Macan,1994).In this article we will address time from the second perspective,and review the empirical studies on time management.More speci?cally,we will review de?nitions of time management,discuss methods for studying time management,summarize empirical ?ndings on time management and the use and effectiveness of time management methods,identify gaps in the current research literature,and give suggestions for future research.
The interest in time management is by no means new.The problem of how to manage time was already discussed in the 1950s and 1960s,and several authors proposed methods on how to handle time issues on the job (e.g.Drucker,1967;Lakein,1973;Mackenzie,1972;McCay,1959).They suggested simple remedies such as writing work plans down on paper (so-called “to-do lists”)in order to increase job performance.At the same time,some authors (e.g.Drucker,1967)recognized that planning tasks and activities does not always lead to the completion of planned work,especially when time pressure is high.
McCay (1959)developed a concept for a time-management training program,which is still being used.Critical elements are:giving insight into time-consuming activities,changing time expenditure,and increasing workday ef?ciency by teaching people how to make a daily planning,how to prioritise tasks,and how to handle unexpected tasks.Many books and articles were written to convey these and similar ideas to managers,promising them a greater effectiveness while using less time (e.g.Blanchard and Johnson,1982).Over the years the focus of time management publications and training courses has shifted from managers as the major target group to a broad audience of working people.The term “time management”is actually misleading.Strictly speaking,time cannot be managed,because it is an inaccessible factor.Only the way a person deals with time can be in?uenced.Time management can be viewed as a way of monitoring and controlling time (e.g.Eilam and Aharon,2003).In this regard,it would be more appropriate to speak about self-management with regard to the performance of multiple tasks within a certain time period.But in the literature,the term self-management has a different meaning.It refers to monitoring and regulating oneself,but without any speci?c reference to techniques for monitoring time use.Therefore,we will stick to the use of the term time management in the present paper.In spite of all popular attention to managing time,relatively little research has been conducted on the processes involved in using one’s time effectively (e.g.by using “prime time”to carry out important tasks)and completing work within deadlines.In 1987,a review was published that addressed the increasing popularity of time management (Richards,1987).It discussed the principles mentioned by authors like McCay (1959)and concluded that,for instance,setting life goals and keeping time logs were important techniques for effectively managing one’s time.Although this article was helpful in understanding the ideas behind the notion of time management,it was not a review of empirical time management studies.In fact,to our knowledge,no reviews of empirical research of time management have been published since the article by Richards (1987).Therefore,the ?rst aim of the present study is to review past
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empirical studies on time management and to determine the state-of-the-art in this area of research.We will review the way in which researchers have incorporated time management concepts and methods in their research and critically discuss the research designs they used.Questions to be addressed are:What is time management behaviour?What are its antecedents?What is its impact on outcome variables,such as health and job performance?Our second aim is to determine in which areas more research is needed to extend the present knowledge of time management and the processes involved.
Method
Selection of studies
Empirical studies on time management published between1954(when time management was introduced)and2005were found through PsycInfo,Socio?le,and references of past studies.Query terms included time management,time use,time allocation,and time structuring.A?rst criterion for the selection of studies was that time management had been related to academic or work situations.Quite a few studies dealt with topics like rehabilitation after an injury or accident,geriatric af?ictions,and other medical conditions(for example,Sakelaris,1999),which fell outside the scope of our study.The second criterion was that time management behaviour or attitudes had been measured by means of instruments constructed for this purpose.In some studies (e.g.Sweidel,1996),time management was measured post hoc by combining some items that were more or less related to time management,rather than by means of validated scales to measure time management.Results were therefore questionable and were not included in this review study.
Using these two criteria,35empirical studies were selected for inclusion in this review.We will discuss these studies by presenting the theoretical contributions made, the de?nition of time management used,the measurement scales,the results,gaps in research,and suggestions for future research.
Results
Table I describes the studies included in this review in terms of:author(s)and publication year,the methods used,the samples,the measures of time management, and the variables involved.
As can be seen in Table I,we found no empirical studies published before1982. Obviously,time management has made its way into the literature without being accompanied by empirical research.The number of respondents in the studies ranged from four to701,with an average of90.Three types of research groups were included,
i.e:
(1)employees of different organizations(social service agencies,car dealers);
(2)students following psychology classes;and
(3)employees with double workload,that is,working full-time while studying
part-time,or working full-time and running a household with children.
The majority of respondents were recruited among students in psychology classes. Research methods included self-report questionnaires,diaries,and experiments.
Time management
literature
257
A u t h o r
M e t h o d
S a m p l e T i m e m a n a g e m e n t m e a s u r e V a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e s t u d y
1.A d a m s a n d J e x (1997)S u r v e y
522e m p l o y e d a d u l t s
T M B S T e s t o f f a c t o r s t r u c t u r e o f T M B S
2.A d a m s a n d J e x (1999)S u r v e y
522e m p l o y e d a d u l t s
T M B S T i m e m a n a g e m e n t b e h a v i o u r s ,p e r c e i v e d c o n t r o l o f t i m e ,W -F c o n ?i c t ,j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n ,h e a l t h 3.B o n d a n d F e a t h e r (1988)
S u r v e y
3s a m p l e s :312,160a n d 211s t u d e n t s
T S Q T i m e s t r u c t u r e ,s e l f -e s t e e m ,d e p r e s s i o n ,p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t r e s s ,s t a t a n x i e t y ,t r a i t a n x i e t y ,n e u r o t i c i s m ,e x t r a v e r s i o n ,h e a l t h ,p h y s i c a l s y m p t o m s ,h o p e l e s s n e s s ,t y p e A b e h a v i o u r 4.B a r l i n g e t a l.(1996)S u r v e y
102c a r s a l e s p e r s o n s S h o r t v e r s i o n T M Q
S h o r t -r a n g e p l a n n i n g ,l o n g -r a n g e p l a n n i n g ,a c h i e v e m e n t s t r i v i n g ,s a l e s p e r f o r m a n c e ,y e a r s o f s a l e s e x p e r i e n c e 5.B r i t t o n a n d T e s s e r (1991)
S u r v e y 90f r e s h m a n a n d s o p h o m o r e u n d e r -g r a d u a t e s i n p s y c h o l o g y c l a s s T M Q S h o r t -r a n g e p l a n n i n g ,l o n g -r a n g e p l a n n i n g ,t i m e a t t i t u d e s ,g r a d e p o i n t a v e r a g e ,s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e t e s t
6.B u r t a n d K e m p (1994)
S t u d y 1:e x p e r i m e n t
S t u d y 1:100s t u d e n t s A c t i v i t y p l a n n i n g ,T S Q S t u d y 1:e x p e c t e d ,r e t r o s p e c t i v e ,a n d a c t u a l t a s k d u r a t i o n
S t u d y 2:s u r v e y
S t u d y 2:50s t u d e n t s
S t u d y 2:t i m e s t r u c t u r e ,r o l e o v e r l o a d ,a c t i v i t y d u r a t i o n ,a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e 7.C l a e s s e n s e t a l.(2004)S u r v e y ,l o n g i t u d i n a l
70R &D e n g i n e e r s
P l a n n i n g s c a l e
P l a n n i n g ,p e r c e i v e d c o n t r o l o f t i m e ,w o r k s t r a i n ,j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n ,a n d j o b p e r f o r m a n c e 8.D a v i s (2000)
S u r v e y
W o m e n w o r k i n g i n 14d i f f e r e n t n u r s i n g h o m e s T M B S
T i m e m a n a g e m e n t b e h a v i o u r s ,j o b -i n d u c e d t e n s i o n ,s o m a t i c t e n s i o n ,j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n ,e x p e r i e n c e ,p e r f o r m a n c e
9.E i l a m a n d A h a r o n (2003)I n t e r v e n t i o n s t u d y ,o b s e r v a t i o n s ,a n d v i d e o r e c o r d i n g s 33s t u d e n t s
Y e a r l y a n d d a i l y p l a n n i n g r e p o r t s
P l a n n i n g t a s k s ,a w a r e n e s s o f d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e t w e e n s u g g e s t e d v e r s u s e n a c t e d w o r k (m o n i t o r i n g ),a n d r e a d j u s t i n g p l a n s o v e r t i m e 10.F r a n c i s -S m y t h e a n d R o b e r t s o n (1999a )
E x p e r i m e n t ,s u r v e y 48s t u d e n t s o r e m p l o y e e s
T M B S ,T S Q
E x p e c t e d t a s k d u r a t i o n ,r e t r o s p e c t i v e a n d p r o s p e c t i v e t a s k s ,t i m e m a n a g e m e n t b e h a v i o u r s ,t i m e s t r u c t u r e
(c o n t i n u e d )
Table I.
Time management studies in the review
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258
A u t h o r
M e t h o d S a m p l e
T i m e m a n a g e m e n t m e a s u r e V a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e s t u d y
11.G r e e n a n d S k i n n e r (2005)
S u r v e y
232e m p l o y e d a d u l t s (134a l s o f o l l o w u p m e a s u r e m e n t )
K e y S k i l l s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e v e l o p e d f o r t h e s t u d y s e v e r a l t i m e m a n a g e m e n t s k i l l s T i m e m a n a g e m e n t s k i l l s ,t i m e c u l t u r e ,s t r e s s ,w o r k h o m e b a l a n c e
12.G r i f ?t h s (2003)S u r v e y
120c e n t r a l o f ?c e e m p l o y e e s o r t e l e w o r k e r s
T M B S
T i m e m a n a g e m e n t b e h a v i o u r s ,s e l f -r e w a r d ,s e l f -p u n i s h m e n t ,j o b p r o d u c t i v i t y ,j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n ,w o r k -f a m i l y c o n ?i c t ,s t r e s s ,p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e a f f e c t i v i t y ,c o n s c i e n t i o u s n e s s 13.H a l l a n d H u r s c h (1982)
D i a r y s t u d y
4m e m b e r s o f f a c u l t y a n d s t a f f a t a u n i v e r s i t y A n a c t i v i t y l o g a n d s h o r t s u r v e y
T i m e s p e n t o n h i g h -p r i o r i t y t a s k s ,f e e l i n g s o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s ,s a t i s f a c t i o n
14.J e x a n d E l a c q u a (1999)
S u r v e y
525e m p l o y e e s o f a v a r i e t y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s o r p a r t -t i m e s t u d e n t s T M B S
T i m e m a n a g e m e n t b e h a v i o u r s ,r o l e c o n ?i c t ,r o l e o v e r l o a d ,W -F c o n ?i c t ,s t r a i n ,f e e l i n g s o f c o n t r o l o v e r t i m e
15.K a u f m a n -S c a r b o r o u g h a n d L i n d q u i s t (1999)S u r v e y
112p a r t i c i p a n t s (o f w h i c h 95w o r k e r s )
T S Q
T i m e s t r u c t u r e ,p o l y c h r o n i c i t y
16.K e l l y (2002)
S u r v e y
130u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s T M B S ,T S Q
T i m e m a n a g e m e n t b e h a v i o u r s ,p e r c e i v e d c o n t r o l o f t i m e ,t i m e s t r u c t u r e ,w o r r y 17.K i n g e t a l.(1986)S u r v e y ,i n t e r v e n t i o n
56p a r t i c i p a n t s
T i m e m a n a g e m e n t s c a l e K n o w l e d g e o f t i m e m a n a g e m e n t ,h i g h -p r i o r i t y t a s k s ,s e l f -m o n i t o r i n g o f w o r k i n g o n h i g h -p r i o r i t y t a s k s ,s e l f -e f ?c a c y ,s o c i a l s u p p o r t ,s t r e s s ,l i f e e v e n t s ,s p o u s e r e p o r t s 18.K o o l h a a s e t a l.(1992)S u r v e y
469p e r s o n n e l o f ?c e r s P T P ’90(D u t c h s c a l e )O p t i m i s m ,s a v i n g ,h e r e a n d n o w ,p a s t ,r u s h ,v a g u e n e s s ,t i m e l i n e s s ,p e r s o n a l g r o w t h 19.L a n g (1992)
S u r v e y
96u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s T i m e m a n a g e m e n t c o p i n g s c a l e T i m e m a n a g e m e n t b e h a v i o u r ,c o p i n g ,s t r a i n ,s o m a t i c c o m p l a i n t s (c o n t i n u e d )
Table I.
Time
management
literature
259
A u t h o r
M e t h o d
S a m p l e T i m e m a n a g e m e n t m e a s u r e V a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e s t u d y
20.L a y a n d S c h o u w e n b u r g (1993)S u r v e y 65p s y c h o l o g y s t u d e n t s S h o r t v e r s i o n o f T M B S T r a i t p r o c r a s t i n a t i o n ,a g i t a t i o n ,d e j e c t i o n
21.M a c a n e t a l.(1990)S u r v e y
353e m p l o y e e s o f t w o o r g a n i z a t i o n s
T M B S T i m e m a n a g e m e n t b e h a v i o u r s ,p e r c e i v e d c o n t r o l o f t i m e ,r o l e a m b i g u i t y ,r o l e o v e r l o a d ,j o b -i n d u c e d t e n s i o n ,s o m a t i c t e n s i o n ,j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n ,T y p e A -B b e h a v i o u r ,j o b p e r f o r m a n c e 22.M a c a n (1994)
S u r v e y
S t u d y 1:353e m p l o y e e s o f 2o r g a n i z a t i o n s T M B S
T i m e m a n a g e m e n t b e h a v i o u r s ,j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n ,j o b p e r f o r m a n c e
S t u d y 2:341s t u d e n t s 23.M a c a n (1996)
S u r v e y ,i n t e r v e n t i o n s t u d y 38e m p l o y e e s f r o m a s o c i a l s e r v i c e a g e n c y T M B S
T i m e m a n a g e m e n t b e h a v i o u r s ,s t r e s s ,j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n ,j o b p e r f o r m a n c e 24.M u d r a c k (1997)
S u r v e y
701a d u l t s f o r T S Q T M B S ,T S Q
T e s t o f p s y c h o m e t r i c q u a l i t i e s o f T S Q a n d T M B S
207a d u l t s f o r T M B S 25.O r p e n (1994)
D i a r y s t u d y
96u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s
T i m e m a n a g e m e n t s c a l e c r e a t e d f o r t h e s t u d y T i m e m a n a g e m e n t b e h a v i o u r ,e x p e r i e n c e d o v e r l o a d ,a n x i e t y ,d e p r e s s i o n ,s o m a t i s a t i o n ,s o c i a l d e s i r a b i l i t y
26.P e e t e r s a n d R u t t e (2005)S u r v e y 123e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l t e a c h e r s S h o r t v e r s i o n o f T M B S B u r n o u t ,e m o t i o n a l e x h a u s t i o n ,p e r s o n a l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t
27.S h a h a n i e t a l.(1993)
S u r v e y S t u d y 1:93u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s
1:T M B S ,T S Q
1:T i m e m a n a g e m e n t b e h a v i o u r s ,i m m e d i a t e t i m e p r e s s u r e ,l o n g -t e r m p e r s o n a l d i r e c t i o n (g o a l ),t i m e u t i l i z a t i o n ,t i m e a n x i e t y ,t i m e s u b m i s s i v e n e s s ,t i m e p o s s e s s i v e n e s s ,g r e e d y a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t i m e S t u d y 2:106u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s 2:T M B S
2:C o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y o f l i f e ,m a n a g e a b i l i t y o f l i f e ,m e a n i n g f u l n e s s o f l i f e ,h i g h /l o w a c a d e m i c p r e s s u r e
28.S i m o n s a n d G a l o t t i (1992)
S u r v e y ,i n t e r v e n t i o n s t u d y ,a n d d i a r y s t u d y
S t u d y 1:88u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s
P l a n n i n g s u r v e y
P l a n n i n g p r a c t i c e s ,g o a l s e t t i n g ,p r i o r i t i s i n g ,a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s c h e d u l i n g
(c o n t i n u e d )
Table I.
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A u t h o r M e t h o d S a m p l e
T i m e m a n a g e m e n t m e a s u r e V a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e s t u d y
S t u d y 2:39u n d e r g r a d u a t e p s y c h o l o g y s t u d e n t s 29.S l a v e n a n d T o t t e r d e l l (1993)
S u r v e y ,d i a r y s t u d y ,i n t e r v i e w s ,a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n
34d e l e g a t e s o f t w o t i m e m a n a g e m e n t t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s
E v a l u a t i o n o f m a n a g e m e n t t r a i n i n g ,e x e c u t i v e s t i m e m a n a g e m e n t i n v e n t o r y W o r k c o m m i t m e n t ,i n t e r n a l w o r k m o t i v a t i o n ,w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t f a c t o r s
30.S t r o n g m a n a n d B u r t (2000)
S u r v e y ,d i a r y s t u d y
S t u d y 1:101?r s t y e a r s t u d e n t s S t u d y 1:T S Q T i m e s t r u c t u r e ,p r o c r a s t i n a t i o n ,r o l e o v e r l o a d ,s e l f -e s t e e m ,b r e a k s
S t u d y 2:17s t u d e n t s S t u d y 2:d i a r y 31.T r u e m a n a n d H a r t l e y (1996)S u r v e y
293s t u d e n t s T M Q
D a i l y p l a n n i n g ,c o n ?d e n c e i n l o n g -t e r m p l a n n i n g ,a g e ,a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e 32.V a n
E e r d e (2003)
S u r v e y
37t r a i n e e s i n t i m e m a n a g e m e n t w o r k s h o p s a n d 14p a r t i c i p a n t s i n c o n t r o l g r o u p S h o r t v e r s i o n o f T M B S
T M B ,t i m e m a n a g e m e n t t r a i n i n g ,e m o t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y ,w o r r y i n g ,a v o i d a n c e r e a c t i o n s ,t r a i n i n g m o t i v a t i o n
33.V o d a n o v i c h a n d S e i b (1997)S u r v e y
115s t u d e n t s
T S Q
T i m e s t r u c t u r e ,p r o c r a s t i n a t i o n
34.W i l l i a m s e t a l.(1995)S u r v e y
204p s y c h o l o g y s t u d e n t s T M Q T i m e m a n a g e m e n t ,p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s
35.W o o l f o l k a n d W o o l f o l k (1986)
E x p e r i m e n t ,s u r v e y ,a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n
81b e g i n n i n g t e a c h e r s E v a l u a t i o n t i m e m a n a g e m e n t t r a i n i n g ,s e l f -r e p o r t s a b o u t t i m e m a n a g e m e n t s k i l l s
T a s k s t h a t n e e d t o b e ?n i s h e d (w i t h d i f f e r e n t d e a d l i n e s a n d m e a s u r e m e n t o f m e e t i n g d e a d l i n e s ),s e l f -r e p o r t a n d e x t e r n a l r a t i n g s o f u s e o f t i m e m a n a g e m e n t
Table I.
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De?nitions of time management
There is no agreement on the de?nition of time management in past studies.Although many authors referred to Lakein (1973),who suggested that time management involves the process of determining needs,setting goals to achieve these needs,prioritising and planning tasks required to achieve these goals,several other de?nitions were suggested.Thus,time management has been referred to as:techniques for managing time (Jex and Elacqua,1999;Davis,2000;Macan,1994,1996;Macan et al.,1990;Mudrack,1997);a technique for effective time use,especially having enough time to accomplish the many tasks required (Orpen,1994;Slaven and Totterdell,1993;Woolfolk and Woolfolk,1986);planning and allocating time (Burt and Kemp,1994;Francis-Smythe and Robertson,1999a);the degree to which individuals perceive their use of time to be structured and purposive (Bond and Feather,1988;Strongman and Burt,2000;Sabelis,2001;Vodanovich and Seib,1997);a way of getting insight into time use (Koolhaas et al.,1992);a technique to increase the time available to pursue activities (King et al.,1986);practices intended to maximize intellectual productivity (Britton and Tesser,1991);an application of self-regulation processes in the temporal domain (Grif?ths,2003);coping behaviour in at-risk populations (King et al.,1986);self-regulation strategies aimed at discussing plans,and their ef?ciency (Eilam and Aharon,2003);the use of procedures that are designed to help the individual to achieve his or her desired goals (Hall and Hursch,1982);ways to assess the relative importance of activities through the development of a prioritisation plan (Kaufman-Scarborough and Lindquist,1999);clusters of behaviour that are deemed to facilitate productivity and alleviate stress (Lay and Schouwenburg,1993).Some authors gave no de?nition at all (Barling et al.,1996;Simons and Galotti,1992;Trueman and Hartley,1996).
Besides time management,other terms,such as time structure (Bond and Feather,1988),were used interchangeably with essentially the same meaning.Because a commonly accepted de?nition of the concept was lacking,we found it dif?cult to determine the exact content of time management in past research,to describe the current state of affairs,and to identify which parts are responsible for what results.
Based on the literature,we suggest a de?nition of time management as “behaviours that aim at achieving an effective use of time while performing certain goal-directed activities”.This de?nition highlights that the use of time is not an aim in itself and cannot be pursued in isolation.The focus is on some goal-directed activity,such as performing a work task or an academic duty,which is carried out in a way that implies an effective use of time.
These behaviours comprise:.
Time assessment behaviours,which aim at awareness of here and now or past,present,and future (Kaufman et al.,1991)and self-awareness of one’s time use (attitudes,cognitions,e.g.Wratcher and Jones,1988),which help to accept tasks and responsibilities that ?t within the limit of one’s capabilities..
Planning behaviours,such as setting goals,planning tasks,prioritising,making to-do lists,grouping tasks (e.g.Britton and Tesser,1991;Macan,1994,1996)which aim at an effective use of time.
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.Monitoring behaviours,which aim at observing one’s use of time while performing activities,generating a feedback loop that allows a limit to the in?uence of interruptions by others(e.g.Fox and Dwyer,1996;Zijlstra et al., 1999).
Measurement instruments used
Past studies have mainly used self-report questionnaires.There were only a few diary studies and experiments.In total,ten different types of self-report questionnaires were used to measure time management behaviours,three types of which were used more often.These questionnaires are:
(1)the time management behaviour scale(TMBS,Macan et al.,1990);
(2)the time structure questionnaire(TSQ,Bond and Feather,1988);and
(3)the time management questionnaire(TMQ,Britton and Tesser,1991).
The TMBS was constructed by Macan et al.(1990),and was based on a list of popularised concepts of time management behaviours examined by factor analysis. The subscales were:setting goals and priorities,mechanics of time management(e.g. making to-do lists),preference for organization(e.g.having a preference for an orderly way of working),and perceived control of time.Reliability levels were moderate and differed greatly among different studies(see,for instance,Davis,2000).In her study in 1994,Macan argued that perceived control of time was actually an outcome variable of time management behaviours,and should not be considered part of the TMBS.
Adams and Jex(1997)tested the underlying factor structure of the TMBS using con?rmatory factor analysis and found additional evidence for a three-factor solution, although they included only28of the33original items.Shahani et al.(1993) investigated the convergent validity of the TMBS by examining the relationships with three other scales(including the TSQ).They found that the TMBS factors were signi?cantly correlated with the other scales and concluded that the TMBS had convergent validity.They stated that the TMBS is the most elaborately validated scale to measure time management behaviours.The studies that included the TMBS did not present all information on the internal consistency of the scales(e.g.Adams and Jex, 1997).Those who did present coef?cient alphas found that they ranged from0.50to 0.90(Adams and Jex,1999;Davis,2000;Francis-Smythe and Robertson,1999a;Macan et al.,1990;Macan,1994;Mudrack,1997;Shahani et al.,1993).The lowest coef?cients alphas were found for the preference for organization-scale(0.50,0.60,0.68,0.70,and 0.83,respectively).
The TSQ was constructed by Bond and Feather(1988)and consists of items referring to the extent to which time is used in a structured and purposeful way.Factor analysis on the items of the TSQ revealed six factors,but only?ve could be named,i.e. sense of purpose,structured routine,present orientation,effective organization,and persistence.Bond and Feather(1988)claimed that the TSQ meets the usual psychometric criteria for further use as a research instrument,and concluded that the scale had face validity.Although the internal consistency of the total TSQ score in the three samples amounted to0.88,0.92,and0.91respectively,the internal consistency for the subscales ranged from0.55to0.75.A total of eight other studies included the TSQ and found internal consistencies ranging from00.66to0.75.
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Mudrack (1997)compared the TMBS and the TSQ psychometrically and suggested to use shortened versions of both scales.His goal was to establish whether the factor structures of the TSQ en TMBS could be accurately replicated and whether a shorter scale would be acceptable.The coef?cient alpha of both the TSQ and TMBS scales equalled or exceeded 0.70,with small differences between the original and shortened form.Based upon these ?ndings,Mudrack (1997)recommended using a 20-item version (versus 26original items)of the TSQ and a 26-item version (versus 46original items)of the TMBS.
The TMQ was constructed by Britton and Tesser (1991)and included items on attitudes towards time management (e.g.“do you feel you are in charge of your own time,by and large?”)and planning the allocation of time.The scale consisted of three factors,namely short-range planning,long-range planning,and time attitudes,which together accounted for 36percent of the variance.Williams et al.(1995)included all three scales in a study but did not present internal consistency values or other psychometric information about the TMQ.Barling et al.(1996)used shortened forms of two scales,short-range and long-range planning,and conducted a con?rmatory factor analysis.They found that a two-factor solution ?tted their data reasonably well,producing coef?cients alpha of 0.85and 0.73,respectively.Trueman and Hartley (1996)used 14items of the original 18-item TMQ and identi?ed two subscales,namely daily planning and con?dence in long-term planning,with coef?cient alpha 0.85and 0.71,respectively.
A common feature of the time management measures is that each includes items that refer to planning behaviour.The TMBS subscale “setting goals and priorities”,the TSQ factor “structured routine”,the TMQ subscales “short-range planning”and “long-range planning”all refer to planning tasks and activities.Other time management measures covered by this review also included planning behaviour items relating,for instance,to yearly and daily planning reports (Eilam and Aharon,2003),using an activity log (Hall and Hursch,1982),and setting goals,following priorities,scheduling,organizing and planning (Lang,1992).
As for reliability and construct validity,the existing time management measures can clearly be improved.So far,most support was found for the TMBS (Macan,1994)as a psychometrically reasonably sound measure for studying time management behaviour.However,it is not an ideal measure because of the variability of internal consistency values and inconsistencies in ?ndings with respect to the relations between the subscales and outcomes measures,which will be discussed next.Time management theory
Not only a de?nition,but also a theory on time management is lacking.The question “how does time management work and why?”is still unanswered.Only Macan (1994)presented a model of time management that comprised antecedent,mediating,and outcome variables with respect to time management behaviours.Macan (1994)stated that time management training programs lead to three types of time management behaviours:
(1)setting goals and priorities;
(2)mechanics of time management;and (3)preference for organization.
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She hypothesized that these behaviours would result in perceived control of time,or the feeling of having control over one’s time.Furthermore,perceived control of time was hypothesized to mediate between the time management behaviours and job-induced and somatic tension,job satisfaction,and job performance.Results showed that time management training was positively related to only one scale of the time management behaviours,goal setting and priorities.Setting goals and priorities and the mechanics of time management were positively related to perceived control of time,whereas preference for organization was not.Job-induced and somatic tension was negatively related,and job satisfaction was positively related to time management behaviour and mediated by perceived control of time.Perceived control of time was not signi?cantly related to job performance.These results imply that by implementing time management techniques,one is able to experience control over what can be done within workday time.This feeling in turn has a positive effect on job satisfaction,and job-induced and somatic tensions.
Three replication studies(Adams and Jex,1999;Davis,2000;Jex and Elacqua,1999) provided only partial support to Macan’s(1994)model.Jex and Elacqua(1999)found that perceived control of time partially mediated the relations between goal setting and prioritising,and preference for organization on the one hand,and strain on the other hand.Adams and Jex(1999)found that perceived control of time mediated between setting goals and priorities,mechanics of time management,and preference for organization on the one hand,and health and job satisfaction on the other hand.Setting goals and priorities and preference for organization were positively related to perceived control,whereas mechanics of time management were negatively related to perceived control of time.Davis(2000)found that perceived control of time only acted as a mediator in the relation between preference for organization and the outcome variables job related tension,somatic tension,and job satisfaction.Claessens et al.(2004)used a different time management scale to test the mediation model over time.A planning scale was used instead.This study also revealed partial mediation of control of time.
In conclusion,these studies found some support for Macan’s(1994)process model that hypothesised perceived control of time to fully mediate between time management behaviours and job-and person-related outcomes.
As for the relationship between particular time management behaviours and outcomes,it was found that planning showed most signi?cant results.Bond and Feather(1988)for instance,found that the TSQ factor“sense of purpose”accounted for most of the variance in the total TSQ score and was therefore identi?ed as the most important factor of the TSQ.Macan(1994)found that the subscale“goal setting and prioritising”was signi?cantly related to outcomes such as perceived control of time and job satisfaction.Britton and Tesser(1991)found a positive relation between short-range planning and grade point average of students,whereas long-range planning was unrelated.They stated that short-range planning was a more effective time management technique than long-range planning because plans could be adjusted to fast changes or unpredictable situations,which allowed for?exibility. Antecedents of time management
Only a few studies have investigated antecedents of time management behaviour.Yet, it is quite likely that certain personality traits act as antecedents of time management. Also,as is suggested by Macan’s(1994)model,time management training is a likely
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antecedent of time management behaviour.To our knowledge,six studies focused on possible dispositional antecedents of time management,whereas eight studies investigated the effects of time management training.
Dispositional characteristics .The study of Bond and Feather (1988)included many possible antecedent variables,such as neuroticism and extraversion,related to time structure or time management.Bond and Feather (1988)found that time structure (total TSQ score)was positively related to sense of purpose in life,self-esteem,and type A behaviour,and negatively to neuroticism and anomie (i.e.the individual’s generalized sense of self-to-others alienation (Bond and Feather,1988,p.323)).
Francis-Smythe and Robertson (1999b)introduced a ?ve-factor scale of time personality (time personality indicator,TPI),four of which are work-related:Punctuality,Planning,Polychronicity,and Impatience.Planning for instance,was operationalised as an attitude towards planning and structuring tasks in advance.This study was conducted to examine the dimensions of time personality,rather than examine the relation between with behaviour and outcomes.However,the authors suggested that people who obtain high scores on punctuality,planning,and polychronicity might have a higher need for controlling the situation and use these attitudes to achieve control.
Lay and Schouwenburg (1993)studied the relation between trait procrastination,i.e.the habitual tendency to avoid the start and completion of tasks,and time management.They found that people high on trait procrastination exhibited a greater likelihood of being behind schedule on their personal projects,studying fewer hours than intended for an examination,and having low scores on feeling in control of time,setting goals and priorities.They also used fewer time management techniques.
Shahani et al.(1993)examined the relation between time management behaviours and sense of coherence,a construct that is assumed to reduce vulnerability to stress.They also studied the stability of time management behaviours under varying levels of academic stress.If time management is based on a personality trait,as they asserted,the reported use of time management behaviours should be unchanged under varying levels of stress.Their data provided some support for this idea.
Kaufman-Scarborough and Lindquist (1999)studied the relation between time management and two styles of dealing with multiple tasks over time,i.e.the polychronic style (preference to perform two or more tasks simultaneously),and the monochronic style (preference to perform tasks sequentially).They found that people with a monochronic style more often engaged in detailed planning than those with a polychronic style.Yet,they found it hard to enact the planning,probably because they wanted to focus on one thing at the time.Polychronics perceived that they reached their planned goals more often than and were better able to manage work interruptions and activity switches than monochronics.
Williams et al.(1995)investigated the relationship between the Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)and time management practices.They found that all TMQ-factors (Britton and Tesser,1991),i.e.short-range planning,long-range planning,and time attitudes,were signi?cantly related to the J-P (judgment-perception)index of the MBTI.A high score on this scale indicates “...having a preference for a planned,orderly,and controlled way of living”(Williams et al.,1995,p.37).
In conclusion,some support for a dispositional foundation of time management behaviour was found because TSQ factors (Bond and Feather,1988),TMQ factors
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(Britton and Tesser,1991),and TMBS factors(Macan et al.,1990)appeared to be related to several personality variables,but this needs further exploration in future research.Within the?ve factor model of personality,time management appears to be most closely related to Conscientiousness,whereas Neuroticism may be a second relevant factor.
Time management training programs.The effect of time management training programs on time management and on outcomes such as job performance was investigated in eight studies included in this review.The results with respect to the effectiveness of time management training were mixed.Five studies(Green and Skinner,2005;King et al.,1986;Macan,1994;Slaven and Totterdell,1993;Van Eerde, 2003)found support,as participants indicated that they did engage in time management behaviour more frequently after a time management training program; one study(Macan,1996)did not.A positive relation between time management training and performance(e.g.time spent on working on high-priority tasks)was found in three studies(Hall and Hursch,1982;King et al.,1986;Orpen,1994),whereas in two other studies(Macan,1996;Slaven and Totterdell,1993)this relation was not found. Orpen(1994),for instance,conducted a?eld experiment in which a self-developed time management scale was used.The participants of the training group rated their time management skills higher than the control group.A diary study showed that participants made more effective use of their time than the control group did,as rated by managers who examined their activity diaries.Although Macan’s(1996)study time management behaviours did not increase after the training program compared to a control group the participants did report more feeling of control of time after they had participated in a time management program.Van Eerde(2003)found that time management training signi?cantly increased participants’time management behaviours and decreased worrying and trait procrastination in relation to a control group.Green and Skinner(2005)did not compare the results to a control group,but obtained post-training scores and follow-up scores after several https://www.doczj.com/doc/1e5190067.html,panies from different sectors were included.Generally,the results were positive over a range of behaviours linked to the coursebook.
In conclusion,past studies have demonstrated that time management training programs generally increased participants self-reported time management skills. Supervisor rating was positive in one study(Orpen,1994),and some con?rmation from supervisors or peers with the self-reports was obtained in three studies(Green and Skinner,2005;Macan,1994;Van Eerde,2003).
Effects of time management
Time management activity has been studied in relation to several other outcome variables.A?rst group of studies have looked into effects on proximal variables,such as accurately estimated time duration(Burt and Kemp,1994;Francis-Smythe and Robertson,1999a);spending time on high-priority tasks(Hall and Hursch,1982);the ability to readjust plans to improve progress rate(Eilam and Aharon,2003).
Other studies have examined effects on performance in work and academic settings, such as sales performance(Barling et al.,1996);job performance(Davis,2000;Macan, 1994);college grades(Britton and Tesser,1991;Trueman and Hartley,1996);academic performance(Burt and Kemp,1994);grade point average(Britton and Tesser,1991); and total study habits score(Bond and Feather,1988).
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A third group of studies have investigated the effects on attitudinal and stress-related outcomes,such as perceived control of time (Adams and Jex,1999;Davis,2000;Jex and Elacqua,1999;Francis-Smythe and Robertson,1999a;Macan,1994);job satisfaction (Davis,2000;Macan,1994);role overload (Burt and Kemp,1994);job-related and somatic tension (Davis,2000;Macan,1994);work-family interference (Adams and Jex,1999);strain (Jex and Elacqua,1999;Lang,1992);emotional exhaustion (Peeters and Rutte,2005);and health (Bond and Feather,1988).
The proximal outcomes time estimation and spending time on high priority tasks were positively affected.Francis-Smythe and Robertson (1999a)concluded that participants who perceived themselves as practicing time management behaviours estimated the expected time durations more accurately than those who did not,but tended to underestimate time in passing.The authors emphasized the role of motivation,as they found that more motivated respondents had better results in planning.
There appeared to be a difference between the academic and job-related performance outcomes.College grades and total study habits score were positively affected,but the expected relation between time management behaviours and job performance was modest or even non-signi?cant.Macan (1994)failed to ?nd a positive relation with job performance,whereas Barling et al.(1996)did ?nd a relation with sales performance,but only for those participants scoring high on achievement motivation.
Results on stress-related outcomes showed that time management was positively related to perceived control of time,job satisfaction,and health,and negatively to job-induced and somatic tension,strain,and psychological distress.Jex and Elacqua (1999)found a moderating effect of time management behaviour on the relation work-family con?ict and strain,with a stronger relation between work-family con?ict and health for participants who applied time management techniques.This moderation is similar to what Peeters and Rutte (2005)found,time management moderated the relation between high demands and low autonomy on the one hand,and emotional exhaustion on the other.
In conclusion,research has found positive effects of time management behaviour on proximal outcomes,performance,and stress-related outcomes.However,the results obtained for performance appear to be the weakest within these three categories.Gaps in research
Surprisingly,little research attention has been given to the question what time management can contribute in combination with organizational or work place factors.In a job in which it is not possible to plan one’s workday because managers,or the work?ow procedures determine the order and timing of activities,or,in other words,where job autonomy is low,time management might not be an option.Time management assumes that the workplace is suitable for planning one’s workday and being able to say “no”to more work,whereas in practice,this is often not the case.Conditions in the workplace and the prerequisites for time management behaviour were not included in past research.
Second,as planning was identi?ed to be an important aspect of time management,time management research on detailed aspects of planning such as prioritising and planning alternative tasks in case the original plan could not be executed (e.g.due to
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work interruptions or the unavailability of information)would have seemed logical. Yet,it appears that such research has not yet been done.Also,although some authors have suggested that good planners can be poor at managing time while performing their planned work(Burt and Kemp,1994;Eilam and Aharon,2003;Francis-Smythe and Robertson,1999a),this topic has not been researched thoroughly.People might overestimate the time required to complete a task as a safe estimation strategy. Overestimating time may be a means of controlling time and avoiding stress because they allow enough time for tasks to be completed(Burt and Kemp,1994).
Third,it appears that research has not studied time management techniques aiming at completing work as planned or persisting in the execution of tasks,such as self-regulation and self-monitoring.Self-regulation refers to the extent to which people are motivated and able to stick to their goal and persist into action towards the goal even when they are confronted with competing motivations(Kuhl and Fuhrmann, 1998).Self-regulation tactics(e.g.effort)have been found to be related to sales performance(Vandewalle et al.,1999)and thus may also be important with respect to time management.A fourth point is that studies have not addressed the social context, such as the work relations among individual workers.Colleagues or co-workers, supervisors,and customers can also be responsible for a disorganized workday and not feeling in control of time(e.g.Perlow,1999).In de?nitions and questionnaires of past time management studies,these factors cannot be found.Depending on the type of work,a person can be more or less interdependent of the work or information of others. Time management could include in?uencing or stimulating others to?nish their work in time or to organize their work in a way that it supports one’s own work.Also, engaging in time management behaviour can be annoying for others if they do not work in a similar way.For instance,a proposed time management technique is to reserve certain of?ce hours(e.g.between4and5pm)for questions of co-workers.This technique might be helpful for the individual in the reduction of interruptions at work but,at the same time,it can be inef?cient for the work of others.Moreover,avoiding work interruptions,especially being interrupted by phone or e-mail,might be an important aspect in time management research and has not been part of research yet. The relation of“time managers”with others was not addressed in past research,but could be an important factor in time management research.
Fifth,motivational aspects or self-regulation of individuals who are responsible for maintenance and effectiveness of time management techniques have not been not included in previous studies,although for instance Francis-Smythe and Robertson (1999a)suggested that motivation may be important.It has been shown that motivational aspects are important drives to energize behaviour.Gollwitzer(1999),for example,stated that an action process consists of two motivational phases.In the pre-decisional phase,preferences are set by deliberating the desirability and feasibility of options.In this phase,the goal to pursue is chosen.The second,pro-actional phase involves an evaluation of the necessity of further goal pursuit.When the outcome of this evaluation is that plans are not reached,people have to motivate themselves in the persistence of goal or task pursuit.Also,Sansone and Harackiewicz(1996)stated that individuals might hold similar goals,but differ in their motivation to reach them. Motivation to reach goals has a direct effect on initial and maintenance behaviour. Maintenance behaviour or persistence is in?uenced by phenomenal experiences as “feeling like it”and task involvement.Farmer and Seers(2004,p.280)studied the
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motivation entrainment model in relation to how “individuals use time to guide their work and evaluate progress”and “synchronize”their multiple tasks with shifting deadlines.Thus,motivational aspects could be included in future research as they are possibly important determinants of time management behaviours and behavioural change.
While the foregoing gaps relate to issues of content,the ?nal gap we would like to point at is of a methodological nature.Given the very nature of the topic,one would have expected that studies of time management would have looked at how people plan and execute their activities within a given time interval,and that researchers would have investigated plan-action discrepancies as a function of dynamic events,time budgets etc.However,as we have noted,most research studies have used cross-sectional designs and measurement instruments that emphasize stable rather than dynamic aspects of time management behaviour.In our view,future research could pro?t much from dynamic approaches to theory building and research (Mitchell and James,2001;Zaheer et al.,1999).
Discussion
This review of time management studies has shown that time management is not a well-de?ned construct.Also,the quality of measurement instruments was shown to be questionable.The effect of time management on outcomes such as job performance was not clearly established,but the results on proximal and stress-related outcomes were generally positive.Some support was found for a dispositional foundation of time management behaviour,as some of the time management behaviours appeared to be related to personality variables.Time management training was demonstrated to enhance the use of time management behaviours,but there are no conclusive results about tt he effect of these behaviours on outcome variables.
Most of the past studies were ?eld studies and used questionnaires.Our main criticism on these instruments is that they were based on different de?nitions of time management and thus represent non-equivalent operationalisations of the time management construct.The internal consistency of the scales differed somewhat over studies and was in some cases below the generally accepted level of 0.70.Planning was part of all three mostly used time management questionnaires (TMBS,TSQ,TMQ),suggesting that planning is an important time management component.
A large number of past studies used student samples.It can be questioned whether the results for students also hold for employees,because students deal with different kinds of tasks than employees,and it has not been demonstrated that the processes involved are comparable.One of the differences is that students are able to postpone activities by deciding not to study for an exam,while employees have less possibility to do so and may face more negative outcomes of not doing certain things in time.In conclusion,this review of time management literature demonstrates that there is still a lot of work to be done on the subject of time management.Past studies have covered only parts of the conceptual spectrum and did not always demonstrate which considerations led to their point of view on time management behaviours and to the selection of outcome variables.
In future research,time management behaviour should be studied in more detail.We believe that it is necessary to explore how people plan and prioritise their work activities,whether and how they perform their planned actions,and how they
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implement time management techniques.To be able to do this,we?rstly suggested a de?nition of time management behaviours that incorporates all relevant aspects.Next, a time management measure that operationalises this de?nition should be constructed and a model of time management should be developed that covers antecedents as well as outcomes of time management behaviours.Based on this research,time management training programs might be developed and evaluated.All this stands in stark contrast to the current situation where research has taken popular notions of time management and topics included in time management training programs as points of departure.
Future research could also focus on the characteristics of the work situation, including the lack of autonomy in work,a heavy workload,the in?uence of others, or a planning system to organize one’s time at work in relation to time management behaviours.Characteristics of non-work life conditions should be considered as well,as they can also in?uence the use of time management techniques.People with double workload, e.g.work and study,or work and a family with children,have a bigger likelihood of experiencing priority con?icts because they have to balance between the two situations constantly.Furthermore, personality type,personal characteristics(for instance a preference for a structured work style or work strategy),and openness for learning new strategies could in?uence the success of time management behaviours.Individuals differ widely from one another in the degree to which they handle the passage of time and the pursuit of goals.Some individuals are constantly drawing up schedules and lists, and setting deadlines for themselves,while others pay less attention to short-term concerns(Conte et al.,1998).
With respect to the outcomes of time management behaviours,future research should be directed at the effects on perceived control of time and effectiveness in terms of task completion within the available time(deadlines).Factors determining whether the timely completion of tasks results in higher job performance(e.g.Kelly,2002),more leisure time,or working less overtime(e.g.Rau and Triemer,2004),could be included in future research.
Besides quantitative studies on time management,qualitative research studies could be conducted to obtain detailed information about the application of time management behaviours in practice.For instance,by means of a diary study on how people plan and prioritise their tasks from day to day,how they actually spend their workday and what considerations are important here,what unexpected events come up,and how they handle this.The advantage of a diary study is that information on how people use their time is obtained as it occurs(Conway and Briner,2002;Pentland et al.,1999;Reis and Wheeler,1991;Symon,1999).
Another suggestion is to focus future research on speci?c target groups.As most studies have dealt with student samples,further research on time management at work could focus on employees in their work situations,preferably from different organizations in order to ensure suf?cient variation in contextual factors.To be able to show the differences in decision-making and strategy between individuals,research groups could be divided into persons that are good or average time managers. Sonnentag and Schmidt-Bra?e(1998)have shown how this can be done.They asked supervisors to name employees that they thought had the quality to either be good or not as good at performing a certain task.
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A shortcoming of the present study is that only 32studies on time management were included in the study,which can account for a biased view of past research,although they were the only studies available within the selected criteria.Also,as there were few time management studies available and time management measures were quite different,it was not possible to do a meta-analysis on the results of previous studies.
Conclusion
This review of time management studies gives an impression of how useful time management may be.Although some appear to be sceptical about the results of implementation of time management in practice,scienti?c studies have demonstrated that the popularity of time management is justi?ed in as far as it has some favourable effects on people’s perceptions and feelings.Results of past studies were consistent in showing evidence of positive effects of time management on perceived control of time,job satisfaction,and negative effects on job-induced and somatic tensions.Additionally,perceived control of time was found to be associated with higher job satisfaction,and to mediate the relation between time management and several other outcome variables.As for the effects of time management on job performance,results were inconclusive.
In this article,we have introduced a new de?nition of time management and suggested directions for future research.We feel that time management deserves further research,using more rigorous methods of analysis.Such research may clarify both the processes involved and the effects on perceptions,feelings and performance.From a practical perspective,this time management review has identi?ed aspects of time management,including time assessment,setting goals,planning,prioritising and monitoring,that seem to affect outcomes positively.Several of these aspects were already covered in the original work by McCay (1959).Incorporating all these aspects in a systematic manner may help to improve current time management training programs and to develop new time management interventions.
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文献综述 物流管理 供应链管理下的供应商质量管理 一、引言 由于在供应链环境下产品的设计研发、生产、运输、分销和售后服务都是由相应的供应链成员企业来共同完成，产品和服务质量是由分布在整个供应链范围内的全体成员共同保证和实现的，而传统的质量管理理论和方法主要关注企业自身内部的质量管理活动，对于上游供应商质量管理则缺乏一种有效的管理手段与策略，如何在供应链的环境下来对供应商的质量进行有效管理与控制是一个严峻的问题，而且随着我国市场经济体制的不断深入和世界经济一体化进程的不断加快，企业之间的竞争变得越来越激烈。企业间的竞争也已从原本价格的竞争，技术的竞争逐步转变到上下游整条产业链的竞争。伴随着中国加入WTO，许多外国一流企业的强势加入使得中国国内竞争极度激烈化。第三方物流，外包等等都在速度的发展，怎么样才能在供应商之中选择适合自己而且质量符合要求的企业就是实现企业盈利的一个重要依据。随着经济的全球化，为降低成本，许多跨国企业都把中国当作其全球的原料、零件供应基地。同时，国内的企业也将越来越多的零部件发包给供应商生产。于是就形成了企业、供应商、分承包方的复杂的供应网络，在网络的每一个环节的成本、质量、及时性都将影响整个网络的正常运转。在激烈的市场竞争下，如何提高质量，降低成本是每个企业必须面对的难题。供应商质量管理成为企业急需挖掘的利润增长点，对供应商的选择、评审、培养使之成为企业的合作伙伴，随企业的发展共同成长。 面对供应商质量管理，学术界已经通过不同的角度，运用不同的方法取得了多角度，为数众多的研究成果。然而随着当今科学技术的发展，人们个性化需求的增加，企业时刻面对着产品寿命周期短，企业交货期紧，产品需求质量高和不断要求提高售后服务的困境，对于供应商管理企业也需要时刻不断优化和更新。 二、主题 本人大量查阅、浏览了中国期刊网上当前已收录的相关文献资料，综观期刊网对于供应商下的供应商质量管理的大量文献研究成果，为本文的这次写作提供比较好的素材资源和值
选题及研究意义、国内外状况、文献综述文档 (一)选题地缘起和意义 引言 1．选题缘起 改革开放30多年以来，我国政府将大量地精力投入到如何更快地促进经济增长上，对就业难问题、收入分配不均问题以及社会保障体系、教育和医疗等体系不健全等问题地关注力度不够，政府职能地缺位、错位、越位现象严重.随着社会主义市场经济体制地发展和完善，尤其是国有经济结构地战略性调整和国有资产管理体制地改革，政府过去传统地管制型管理模式已经不能适应经济社会飞速发展地现实情况，迫切需要进行全面地政府体制改革，转变 出：“. 南) 等现象严重，以大量消耗自然资源为代价实现经济高速增长造成了大规模生态环境被破坏和环境污染，社会不稳定因素明显增加.社会发展与经济发展地这些严重失衡，说到底与政府制定地经济社会发展战略、不同时期地方针政策，与政府地管理方式、管理手段，与政府地宏观经济调控能力和公共行政管理能力，有着密切地、甚至决定性地关系④.要解决发展失衡问题，关键是进一步转变政府职能，明确政府地职能定位，合理界定政府管理经济地范围，切实把政府工作重点转变到提供基本公共产品和有效地公共服务上来，建设以公平、公正、社会经济和谐发展为目标地公共服务型政府.建设服务型政府是切实改进地方政府某些不良状态地迫切要求.由于长期以来政府一直停留在管制型政府地官本位、权力本位地理念之下，地方政府地“单边主义”和信用缺失现象比较严重.由此导致地政府官僚主义、衙门作风使得
政府与公众之间地关系渐行渐远.除此之外，地方政府在相当程度上出现了以发展经济、经营城市地名义进行圈地、兴建开发区，以公共利益地名义强行拆迁民房，以及拖欠农民工工资等现象.与此同时，相当一部分地方政府地政策缺少连续性，缺乏协调性和整体配套，让公众无所适从，“这些信号意味着在原有地制度路径下地改革所带来地额外收益地增加已接近临界值，不进行制度创新，就难以出现所谓地帕累托改进"@，就难以把中国地改革事业推向一个新地阶段，甚至政府地合法性也会遭到一定程度地挑战.另一方面，伴随着经济社会地全面转型，广人群众日益迫切地要求政府能够为他们提供基本而有保障地公共产品和有效地公共管理、公共服务；广人群众越来越期望建设一个公开、透明和没有腐败地政府. 2．研究意义 从实践方面讲，对我国目前服务型政府建设地现状与改进进行研究，有利于贯彻落实党地十 @，1．2 (--) 1 国外( 化地 企业家精神如何改革着公营部门》一书中阐述了企业家政府理论这一新公共管理地理想实践模式，主张政府在公共服务中地职能是“掌舵而不是划桨"①.治理理论成为改革公共服务地～个重要理论.治理理论地创始人是詹姆士·N·罗回[美]戴维·奥斯本，特德·盖布勒．改革政府——企业家精神如何改革着公营部门[M]．周敦仁等译.上海：上海译文出版社，2006：1．3⑧＼：一，硕士学位论文MASTER’S THESIS西瑙.他在《没有政府地治理》一书中提出全球治理地思想.奥斯特罗姆夫妇在《公共事物地治理之道》、《多中心与地方公共经济》等著作中提出多中心制度设计地理念.他们认为，高度地多中心与分化不会导致公共服务成本地提高.对此他们开 列了公共服务多种提供途径地清单：经营自己地生产单位、与私营公司签约外包、确立公共
人力资源管理绩效管理的文献综述 【摘要】绩效管理提升企业的竞争力都有巨大的推动作用，进行绩效管理是非常必要的。绩效管理对于处于成熟期企业而言尤其重要，没有有效地绩效管理，组织和个人的绩效得不到持续提升，组织和个人就不能适应残酷的市场竞争的需要，最终将被市场淘汰。在经济竞争异常激烈的环境下，绩效管理日益受到经济管理人员的重视。从绩效管理思想的起源、绩效管理的概念,以及绩效管理系统三个方面,对绩效管理的发展和趋势进行了综述。从中可以看出,绩效管理经历了由单一的评估制度,逐步向系统性、综合性的方向发展的过程。【关键词】绩效管理系统绩效管理的概念绩效管理模型经济竞争文献综述 对于绩效管理的文献综述，我想先向大家介绍下我对绩效管理的认识。绩效管理在一个组织中包括两个层次的含义：一是指整个组织的绩效；二是指个人的绩效。对于绩效的含义，人们有着不同的理解，最主要的观点有两种：一是从工作结果的角度出发进行理解；二是从工作行为的角度出发进行理解。因此我们主张应当从综合的角度出发。所谓绩效，就是指员工在工作过程中所表现出来的与组织目标相关的并且能够被评价的工作业绩、工作能力、工作态度，其中工作业绩就是指工作的结果，工作能力和工作态度是工作的行为。 一、参考文献对绩效管理的理解和认识 2003年陈瑜编写的《DT公司绩效考核体系研究与设计》中以是以DT公司为研究对象。DT公司是一家由研究所转制形成的高科技上
市公司，本文的作者作为DT公司的人力资源部经理，同业界知名的管理咨询公司合作，指导并实施了公司整个绩效考核体系的建立，有力地支撑了公司业绩的高速成长。作者所建立的绩效考核体系，是以对DT公司绩效考核体系的研究、方案设计与实施为主线，针对DT公司在人力资源管理和绩效考核中的问题，在对企业现有的职位进行职位分析和职位评估并据此建立薪酬体系的基础上，分为部门、干部和员工三个不同的层面分别进行绩效考核体系的设计，并对绩效考核体系的实施进行研究，构建了企业的基础激励框架。本论文的意义在于：通过综合运用绩效考核理论、技术与方法，根据高科技企业人力资源管理的实际情况，成功建立了适合于DT公司的绩效考核系统，并对体系的推行和实施进行了研究，为高科技企业员工绩效考核体系的建立提供参考和借鉴。 2007年杨建奎编写的《国有大型企业经营绩效评价研究》中指出在经济全球化社会背景下,企业经营目标已由追求利润最大化向提升企业价值转变。经营绩效评价,作为企业战略管理的一部分,不仅是激励与约束的重要手段,而且已成为企业实施价值战略管理的重要工具。绩效是企业价值增长的具体体现。从而对影响企业价值的三大策略,即价值源泉、价值动力和价值形象进行了系统剖析,归纳出影响这些策略的驱动因素,进而应用价值战略的思想构建了经营绩效评价模型。同时,在评价模型中嵌入了中国传统文化的影响因素,使模型更加完善和体现我国国有大型企业的特征。以经营绩效评价模型为基础,以企业价值主体对价值的判断为依据,以经济增加值、平衡计分卡和
公共管理理论的文献综述 一．传统的公共行政学派 传统的公共行政管理( 1865 一1970 )发韧于西方工业化和城市化的进程之中:德国的稗斯麦时代,法国的后拿破仑时代,美国的进步运动时代,都强调运用国家的力量管理社会,推动其进步。在美国,建国先贤——汉密尔顿提出的国家干预经济发展、凯恩斯主义等思想, 伴随着20 世纪初期的美国社会蹒跚向前,并且在20 世纪30 年代大规模经济危机中得到了充分的发挥。传统公共行政强调“效率”, 国家对于社会和经济事务大包大揽。这些方法一度被认为是,也确实是拯救西方资本主义危机的良药, 使西方各国从原始资本的积累走上了充满活力的现代资本主义社会。 从理论意义上讲, 完整的传统公共管理模式存有三大理论支柱: 1.政治与行政的二分法 1887 年伍德罗.威尔逊在(政治学季刊）.上发表公共行政学的开山之作《行政之研究》,指出行政应当在政治的适当范围之外。行政问题不是政治问题,虽然政治为行政确定任务,但政治不能去操纵行政。从此政治与行政的严格二分为传统公共行政定下了主基调,之后百年的理论研究和管理实践都建立在它之上。 2.理性官僚制理论（官僚制度学派） 如果说政治行政二分法为传统公共行政奠定了理论基石, 那么传统行政模式中最重要的理论原则是马克斯.韦伯的理性官僚制理论,它在形式上、方法上都与传统公共行政中其他理论配合默契,有浑然天成之感.韦伯笔下的官僚制组织是一个拥有法理权威、严格规则、职责明确的层级体制。良好的效率通过组织本身的规则和程序获得保证。在传统公共行政时代,官僚制作为理性和效率的工具, 确实为资本主义国家迅速发展立下了汗马功劳.其最大的进步莫过于:运用以理性规则为基础的，非人格化的行政取代了人格化的行政.它举起理性和逻辑的旗帜,批判和否定了产业革命初期个人专制、裙带关系、暴力威胁、主观判断和感情用事的管理方法。 其代表人韦伯认为官僚制度学派有着高度结构化，标准化，非人格化，理想形态等特征的行政组织体系，是强制控制的合理手段，能够达到最高程度的效率。官僚机制传统上被认为是政府管理的主要组织形式;官僚体系的设计、激励、控制等运行管理和改造,包括人事、财政、技术使用及公共工程项目等都是公共管理学科最关注的问题。韦伯认为,现代官僚制度是人类有史以来最高效的大型组织管理形式,这一点,在军队、国家和大型企业的核心结构都无一例外地采用官僚机制的实践中得到了有力的证明。但是,官僚机制也象市场机制一样,有使自己失灵的天敌,如人浮于事、臃肿、繁冗的程序等等。这些天敌会负面影响官僚机制的良性运作,需要得到管理和监督。 3.科学管理理论（古典管理学派） 古典管理学派，该学派主要关注行政效率，寻求为行政管理提供一系列的方法和技术。该学派为公共行政学的产生提供了重要理论基础。代表人物泰勒（1911）在《科学管理原则》中提出“共同利益”为基础的原则，该理论强化了人们对追求效率和消除浪费的关注，从而成为公共行政的核心追求。弗雷德里克.泰勒在他的科学管理原理中贡献了这样一种工作方式.泰勒的科学管理理论包含两个重要的观点:一是标准化的工作.这与僵化的等级制度、程序和先例相符合;二是广泛而严密的控制.与传统理论中公务员职业化、终生制完全吻合.
政府创新的原因分析（丁月华2009200528） 一、外部环境 政府作为公共组织是一个不断与环境发生作用的开放系统。公共组织越开放，与其组织环境的关系就越密切，对社会需要就越敏感。面对组织环境的变化，政府只有进行创新才能提高自己对环境的适应力。 1、技术环境 陈振明（2003）认为，技术本身是组织的因素之一，制约着组织管理和活动方式方法。在今天，信息技术的发展则从多个方面影响着公共组织的结构和行为。 （1）信息技术的应用使组织结构出现“去中心化”的趋势。政府特别是地方政府的最底层与高层通过电子化沟通可及时、方便地进行信息交流，这就是政府创新的表现之一。电子化政府不再需要传统上过多的管理层次，各级管理者的权力在缩小，基层的自主权得到扩大，“去中心化”的结果是大规模的集权化层级结构让位于扁平化网络。 （2）计算机网络的出现使虚拟政府成为可能。虚拟政府基于网络引入了企业式的竞争,调动全社会的力量,具有很高的运行效率。计算机网络使政府传统的科层制的上级控制逐步转向下级的自我管理、项目管理等。[1] 2、经济环境 市场经济的发展，理性与效率观念的倡导，政府传统的强制性资源配置手段已经不能适应环境的发展。必须依靠市场机制来改造公共管理，引入竞争机制与企业家精神来提高政府提供公共物品的效率。王伟（2007）认为，政府作为公共利益的代表机构，必须能够代表公共利益，切实保证公共行政权力、公共利益和公共需求的平衡与健康发展，这就需要政府自身健全政府体制、优化运行机制、完善权责配置、降低行政成本、革新治理工具，以此来提高政府自身的行政效率和效能。[2] 3、社会环境 进入90年代以后，全球化和分权化的社会趋势极大地改变了公共管理的生态环境，社会关系日益复杂多变，相互依存的程度不断加深，范围不断扩大。Gilles Paquet (1999)认为，政府、工商界和市民之间的合作正成为民族国家竞争力和国家繁荣的基本构成要素。[3]在这种背景下，合作网络应运而生，要求社会各界人士通力合作，一起处理共同关注的社会问题，使公共管理成为真正的社会联合行动。正如瓦尔特（1997）所言：“作为治理的公共管理，遇到的主要挑战是处理网络状，即相互依存的环境。公共管理因而是种网络管理。”作为一种新型的治理模式，合作网络为政府处理公共事务引入了新的机制。[4] 4、舆论环境 公共舆论因素渗透于各种环境因素之中，并形成了相对独立的公共舆论环境。公共舆论有时在很大程度上左右着政府的目标和行为。海尔·G·瑞尼认为：“公共组织需要来自政治科学家所说的公众（或者说是更广泛的、遍布的群众）——特别是关注事态的公众（他们更有组织，对某些机构也更感兴趣）——的支持。”[5]当今社会，媒体高度发达，人们的受教育水平越来越高，人们的权利意识和社会责任感日益高涨，于是舆论愈加发达，其影响力与日具备。由于公共舆论的重要性，政府组织不得不重视与民众的关系。服务型政府旨在公民本位、社会本位理念的指导下，为民众提供更好的服务以获得民众支持，优化舆论环境。 5、知识经济时代的影响 “学习型组织”论认为组织依赖的技术不以机器为基础，而以知识为基础，它的设计是用来处理知识和信息的，组织成员的首要任务不是为了追求单一的效率，而是如何识别和解决新的问题。在“学习型组织”理论的影响下，建立“学习型政府”的要求因运而生。
质量管理发展方向和趋势研究综述 学生：XX 指导老师：XXX 摘要：搞好质量管理是提高企业形象和竞争力的关键一环，在查阅大量文献的基础上,本文就本文拟对质量管理的涵义、发展历程及动向进行论述。同时,也总结了国内外学者对质量管理改进新趋势的分析,并提出了今后的研究的方向。 关键词：质量管理；发展历程；发展趋势；改进新趋势。 Review of the development of quality management and trends Student：XX Tutor：XX Abstract: Do a good job in quality management is the key to improve the image and competitiveness of a enterprise. Based on amounts of former works in this field, this paper discuss some main issues about the meaning of quality management, development history and the development direction. Meanwhile, the paper have a summary of the new trend of improvement from scholars at home and abroad as well as the suggestion of some future researches in this field. Keywords Quality Management:；Development history；the new trend of improvement 引言：飞利浦电器公司总裁蒂默宣称:质量是一种生活方式。它反映了质量与社会、人类的生活息息相关.全球经济一体化的时代，质量已成为了效率、完美、合理和进步的同义词，“生活质量”的提出把质量渗透到社会的各个领域.[1]。为了保证和提高商品质量，人类对质量管理科学的研究和人类的质量管理活动经历了长期的发展过程,并且随生产力的发展而不断深化。由于人类质量观念的不断更新也导致了质量管理新的发展。本文将探讨质量管理的发展方向及趋势，通过综述相关学者的理论研究，分析了质量管理的基本理论和发展历程，通过比较目前各学者的研究，深入探讨未来质量管理的发展趋势，初步提出质量管理今后发展应克服的问题及建议。 1．质量管理发展理论回顾 1.1质量管理的基本理论 质量管理是指为了实现质量目标，而进行的所有管理性质的活动。在质量方面的指挥和控制活动，通常包括制定质量方针和质量目标以及质量策划、质量控制、质量保证和质量改进。而质量管理的目的是通过组织和流程，确保产品或服务达到内外顾客期望的目标；确保公司以最经济的成本实现这个目标；确保产品开发、制造和服务的过程是合理和正确的。质量管理的方法和手段不断丰富,先后形成了事后质量检验、事中质量控制和事前质量预防等方法,也出现了质量检验、质量控制和质量保证等手段。质量管理的发展持续地提高了企业的经济效益和效率,极大地丰富了产品市场,更好地满足了人们日益增长的需
本科生学年论文1 题目：绩效管理理论研究综述 院（系）经济与管理系 专业班级11级信息管理与信息系统学生姓名胡婷婷 指导教师（职称）麻凤梅（讲师） 提交时间二〇一三年七月
绩效管理理论研究综述 胡婷婷 （安康学院经济与管理系，陕西安康，72500） 摘要：在经济竞争异常激烈的环境下，绩效管理日益受到管理人员的重视。本文对国内、国外绩效管理理论的发展和现状进行了研究,从中可以看出，绩效管理理论经历了由单一的评估制度，逐步向系统性、综合性的方向发展的过程，最后形成了一套完整的绩效管理理论体系。 关键词：绩效；绩效管理；文献综述
Performance management theory research were summarized Hu Tingting (Department of Economics and Management, Ankang University Ankang, Shaanxi, 72500) Abstract:In the economic and competitive environment, performance management theory is becoming more and more brought to the attention of the management. In this paper, the development and status quo of domestic and foreign performance management were summarized. From which it can be seen that performance management theory has experienced by single evaluation system, and gradually developed to the direction of systematic, comprehensive process, finally formed a complete set of performance management theory system. Key words: performance; performance management theory; review
公共治理文献综述 内容提要：公共治理，是一种多元的，民主的，合作的法意识形态的公共行政。这种新型的行政就是“治理”式的行政。20世纪末，该理论被广泛地运用于政治发展和行政改革的研究与实践领域。它强调社会公共事务治理中各种民间组织机构的参与，强调国家与社会组织间的相互依赖及互动合作，打破了国家与社会二元对立的传统思维，对当前我国的政府改革具有重大的启示意义。 关键词：公共治理理论政府改革综述 一、西方治理理论的兴起及背景 治理理论兴起主要有两个方面的原因，一是由于西方福利国家出现管理危机。第二次世界大战后，在民族国家内部，政府被视为“超级保姆”，职能扩张、机构臃肿、服务低劣、效率低下，财政危机遍布各国，社会分裂和文化分裂同时出现。在国际市场上，随着全球化、区域一体化的逐步深入，联合国的安全机制和国际社会的和平力量也无法拯救世界一些地区大规模的无政府状态，尤其是毒品，跨国犯罪、核武器扩散、科技风险、环境保护等问题已对国际社会的管理提出了严峻的挑战。在这样的背景下，治理理论作为一种既重视发挥政府的功能，又重视社会组织群体势力相互合作、共同管理的方式和理念登上了历史舞台。二、治理理论的基本内涵 (一)治理理论的主要内容 1.治理的主体。除了包括一国的政府以外，还包括其他各种公共组织、民间组织、非营利组织、私人组织、行业协会、科研学术团体和社会个人等等。 2.治理的对象或客体。凡是现实生产生活中所涉及的事务和活动，无不是治理的对象。 3.治理的手段方式。除了国家的常规手段和方法外，更多的是强调各种机构、团体之间的自愿、平等合作。 4.治理的目标。在各种不同的制度关系中运用权力去引导、控制和规范公民的各种活动，以最大限度地增进公共利益。① (二)治理理论的基本特征：② ①沈荣华,周义程.善治理论与我国政府改革的有限性导向[M].理论探
建筑施工项目质量管理文献综述 摘要: 建筑施工项目质量管理是围绕建筑施工项日质量方面进行的指挥、 协调、控制等一系列活动。本文围绕建筑施工项目质量管理,对其特点、过程等展开了分析,并就当前问题提出了对策。 关键词: 建筑施工项目质量管理 The Problems and the Countermeasures in Bidding Management of the Construction Engineering Project Abstract: Dividing the bidding document into technical bidding and commercial bidding and scoring them respectively, then evaluating and awarding the bidding according to soma principles and the fixed procedures and it m ay be the promising solution to problems existing in the bidding. Construction engineering project; bidding; procedure。 正文 1、建筑施工项目质量管理及其特点 一般地,工程质量是指工程满足业主需要的,符合国家法律、法规、技术规范标准、设计文件及合同规定的特征综合。就建筑施工项目质量
而言,其特点主要有: 1.1. 使用性 所谓使用性,就是指建筑工程能够满足使用目的的各种性能。包括理化性能,如规格、尺寸、保温、隔热、隔音、耐酸、耐碱、耐腐蚀等;结构性能,如地基基础牢固程度、结构的足够强度、刚度和稳定性等;使用功能,如民用住宅要能满足居住的需要,工业厂房要能满足生产的需要等。 1.2. 安全性 所谓安全性,就是指建筑工程建成后在使用过程中保证结构安全以及保证人身和环境免受危害的程度。一般地,工程的结构安全度、抗震、防火、耐火、放腐能力以及抗核污染、抗爆炸波等能力,是否能够达到特定的要求,都是安全性的重要标志。 1.3. 经济性 所谓经济性,就是指建筑工程从规划、勘察、设计、施工到整个产品使用寿命周期内的成木和消耗的全部费用。 1.4. 可靠性 主要指工程在规定的时间和规定的条件下完成功能的能力。一般地,工程不仅要求在竣工验收时要达到规定的指标,而且在一定的使用期内要保持应有的正常功能,保证具有使用价值。 1.5. 环境适应性
政府绩效管理研究综述 摘要：政府绩效改革是西方国家在新公共管理思潮影响下风靡起来的一项管理改革举措，旨在提高政府机构的效率和公信力。近年来，西方国家公共管理的理论界对政府的绩效结构，绩效管理等进行了较为深入的研究。为政府绩效的改革运动提供了有价值的借鉴。本文将综述西方理论界在近几年的相关研究，为我国政府绩效改革提供参考。 关键字：政府绩效绩效测量绩效管理 1政府绩效管理的内涵 绩效原来是管理学家德鲁克用来表示企业成本收益的经济学概念，而后被广泛应用。政府绩效内涵的表达是多种多样，中国行政管理学会课题组在《政府部门绩效评估研究报告》中指出，政府绩效也称为“政府生产力”、“国家生产力”、“政府业绩”等，不仅指字面解读出来的政府成绩和效益，而且包括政府提供公共服务和进行社会管理的表现，以及政府在行使其职能过程中的表现。美国国家绩效评估小组认为，绩效管理就是利用绩效信息协助设定同意的绩效目标，进行资源配置与优先顺序的安排，以告知管理者维持或改变既定目标计划并且报告成功符合目标管理过程。总之，政府绩效就是政府的行为结果以及行动过程的表现，一般包括绩效评估、绩效衡量和绩效追踪三个阶段，也就是政府部门根据其价值选择确定治理工具和行为选择，并对行为结果按既定标准进行衡量并促使其做出有利于实现组织目标的改变的整个过程。 2国外学者对绩效管理的研究 国外的政府绩效一般认为是从上个世纪七八十年代的新公共管理运动开始的。由于政府绩效本来就是从西方发展起来的，而且其制度和社会基础较好，因此国外的政府绩效管理理论研究自然也完备的多。 首先，是基础性研究。以美国史蒂文·科恩和威廉·埃米克为代表，其在《新有效公共管理者》中对政府推行绩效管理的原因、目标组织结构、工作关系等进行了阐述。 其次，是目标管理。帕特里夏·基利等著的《公共部门目标管理》指出，标杆管理效果显著，确定最佳而不是最好的标杆。标杆管理需提前进行组织准备并选择适当的标杆管理程序，防止“排异性”反应，最后对标杆管理的细节问题实践的基础上做了适当性研究。 再次。是预算管理排的。珍妮特·M·凯丽的《地方政府绩效预算》将绩效管理转化为绩效预算，只有将政府绩效管理指标与绩效预算结合起来，才能真正地达到绩效管理的预期目标。 最后，实践经验型研究。阿·哈拉契米在《政府业绩与质量测量》中选择性地介绍了荷兰、美国等西方国家的实践经验。 总体上，国外的研究呈现这样重视过程、程序、注意具体问题和案例以及积
第一章绩效管理综述 【学习目标】 通过本章的学习，要求学生掌握：绩效与绩效管理的含义；绩效管理的特征、意义、目的及其战略地位；影响员工绩效的因素以及企业绩效管理存在的问题与绩效管理体系的主要内容。 【关键概念】 绩效(Performance) 绩效管理(Performance Management) 人力资源管理(Human Resource Management) 【引导案例】 我国企业绩效管理的现状与未来 题记：本文的12个问题是《首席人才官》的采访稿，简要勾勒了绩效管理在我国企业的应用现状以及未来的发展方向，其中部分观点发表在《首席人才官》2008年第11期的杂志上。 问题一：中国企业目前在引入绩效管理体系方面做得如何？ 我在企业从事绩效管理工作已有6年，从事管理咨询工作已有3年，根据我的观察，目前中国企业在引入绩效管理方面的工作现状可以用7个字来形容：认认真真走形式。 所谓认认真真是指我国的企业在绩效考核方面都有要求，而且表格、程序都比较齐备，每年都会考核几次，而每次考核大家都会认真对待，因为要完成人力资源部布置的任务，否则就会欠账，就可能被老总耳提面命。所有的管理者都会认真地对待人力资源部下发的考核表格，在空白处打分。同时，为了不伤害下属的感情，避免在下属员工之间产生亲疏远近的嫌疑，通常管理者给下属的分数都会比较接近，要么都比较高，要么都比较低，也就是理论界所谓的“趋中效应”。这样的考核“成果”不宜用作薪酬和晋升的依据。于是，轰轰烈烈的考核过程，冷静的考核结局，郁闷的煎熬和等待，之后恢复平静，我国企业的考核大致都不会超出这样的境界。
值得一提的是，随着经济的发展，企业对管理水平的提升需求越来越明显，一些原来一手掌握员工考核与工资的老板，越来越头疼发工资的事情，因为随着企业规模的扩大和员工工资水平的提升，老板已经越来越没有精力和耐心亲自提一袋现金去给每个员工发奖金。 于是，这些企业开始寻求外力的帮助，请咨询公司介入，帮助企业建立绩效管理体系。根据我的观察，这些企业在考核方面开始走向规范化，考核目的更加明晰，帮助企业改善绩效的定位越来越明晰，在改善绩效的同时解决员工绩效工资和奖金的问题，考核程序更加正规，考核前的培训以及考核后的绩效面谈也逐步完善，使得考核逐渐向绩效管理的方向转变。 当然，由于我国民营企业的职业化程度比较低，企业管理者的素养可提升的空间还比较大，因此，在民营企业，绩效考核只是呈现出绩效管理的一些特征，要真正做到绩效管理，恐怕还有很长的路要走。 问题二：绩效管理在中国有没有一个演变或变革的过程？ 对于这个问题，学术界没有定论，也没有一个明确的划分标准。我认为，绩效管理总体的趋势是从绩效考核向绩效管理转变，从事后打分到事前计划转变，从单纯以发放工资为目的的短期行为到致力于帮助员工改善绩效的转变。 问题三：企业实施绩效管理的真正目的应该是什么？它能带给企业哪些方面的帮助？ 我的观点是，绩效管理只有一个目的，那就是帮助员工改善绩效，进而提升企业的绩效。在这个大前提的基础上，它可以给企业带来以下几个方面的改变： (1) 帮助企业落实战略目标。通常企业的战略目标都比较宏大，描述得比较宽泛，不容易被人们理解和执行。有人形容企业的战略说，“三万英尺的高度”，也就是说，战略目标离现实有比较远的距离，和员工工作之间的联系不好界定。因此，企业要通过实施绩效管理，把战略目标从三万英尺的高度落实到员工可具体实施的工作目标，而所采用的方法就是目标分解，逐级分解，层层落实。 (2) 帮助企业有效规避法律风险。特别是在劳动合同法实施的大背景下，这一作用体现得尤为突出。很多企业习惯了粗放式的管理模式，在裁员或开除员工等方面做得比较简单，甚至很随意。当员工起诉到仲裁机构，需要企业提供相关证据的时候，企业经常拿不出证据，最多只能提供一些考勤、工资发放等基础的数据，而对于员工的表现，以及针对员工的表现企业作出的帮助行动等事实依据，往往很难提供，这就使得企业在劳动仲裁中处于被动的地位。而实施了绩效管理，企业可以形成绩效沟通记录、绩效考核记录、绩效
公共管理硕士（MPA）专业学位研究生 《文献阅读与综述》相关要求 根据公共管理硕士（MPA）专业学位研究生2015级培养方案，《公共管理文献阅读与综述》课程(1学分)以课程论文形式考核，为加强课程的管理，提高实效性，特制定本规定： 一、课程论文要求 1、撰写一篇以公共管理领域相关问题为内容的“文献综述”； 2、综述主题内容的选择要与毕业论文选题结合起来，即综述内容要与本人的毕业论文选题相关，不能脱离自己的毕业论文； 3、字数为3000字——5000字。 二、“文献综述”格式及其要求 文献综述是在确定了选题后，在对选题所涉及的研究领域的文献进行广泛阅读和理解的基础上，对该研究领域的研究现状（包括主要学术观点、前人研究成果和研究水平、争论焦点、存在的问题及可能的原因等）、新水平、新动态、新技术和新发现、发展前景等内容进行综合分析、归纳整理和评论，并提出自己的见解和研究思路而写成的一种不同于毕业论文的文体。它要求作者既要对所查阅资料的主要观点进行综合整理、陈述，还要根据自己的理解和认识，对综合整理后的文献进行比较专门的、全面的、深入的、系统的论述和相应的评价，而不仅仅是相关领域学术研究的“堆砌”。 文献综述的格式与一般研究性论文的格式有所不同。这是因为研究性的论文注重研究的方法和结果，而文献综述介绍与主题有关的详细资料、动态、进展、展望以及对以上方面的评述。文献综述的格式并没有固定，但总的来说包括几个部分：引言；国内外研究现状；评论。 （一）引言部分 引言部分，主要是说明写作的目的，介绍有关的概念、定义以及综述的范围，扼要说明有关主题的研究现状或争论焦点，使读者对全文要叙述的问题有一个初步的轮廓。作者要用简明扼要的文字说明写作的目的、必要性、有关概念的定义，综述的范
毕业论文（设计）文献综述 一、前言部分 企业质量管理体系是企业现行标准体系中的主流体系，它对提高企业质量管理水平能起到重要作用。作为国际上通用的质量标准，ISO9000等标准反映了质量管理体系的基本思想和过程要求，适用于以企业为代表的各类组织的管理和运作，也为中小企业质量管理提供了依据和工具。本文综述主要探讨的是企业质量管理体系的重要性，及其存在的哪些问题，以及如何采取措施解决这些问题。 二、主题部分 一企业质量管理体系的构成要素 企业质量管理体系是企业为保证和提高企业产品质量，运用系统概念和方法将质量管理涉及到的各阶段、各环节的职能组织起来，形成一个任务、职责和权限明确而又互相协调、互相促进的有机整体。 中小企业属于生产性机构，而一个企业的质量管理体系取决于四个方面的要素，包括管理职责，资源管理，产品生产过程，测量、分析与改进等。 管理职责管理职责是建立企业质量管理体系中的一个关键要素。明确管理职责的具体工作主要有以下几项。 （一）制定企业的质量方针。 （二）规定企业的质量目标。 （三）确定企业的质量职责和权限。 （四）进行企业的质量评审。 资源管理主要包括三个方面：其一是人力资源管理。其二是信息资源管理。 其三是物质资源管理。 企业产品实现过程企业产品实现过程可以用企业产品质量环来表示。企业产品质量环，是指从识别消费者的需要，到评定这些需要是否得到满足的各阶段中，影响产品质量的相互作用活动的概念模式。这个概念模式，存在于整个企业管理和企业产品的过程中，包括消费者意见汇总过程、产品设计过程和产品生产过程。 测量、分析与改进企业质量管理体系的运行，需要一个有效的自我完善机制，以识别产品生产过程中存在的问题，并采取措施加以解决。为适应这个要求，企业需要做测量、分析与改进工作，开展内部质量审核。 二、企业质量管理体系建设中存在的问题 1．管理体系的建立和贯彻脱离了组织战略的管理体系，使体系运行流于形式主义。 ISO标准作为管理类标准，既是科学的体现，又渗透一定的文化痕迹，有一个与本组织具体情况相结合的问题。现在不少获证企业求证心切照搬照抄标准或“范本”条款，体系文件是按照标准条款展开表述的，而不是按照企业业务过程的固有规律展开描述的，加之监督和审核活动，强化了标准的制约功能，使得管理体系变的缺乏生气。人们已经习惯了在形式主义下活动，审核员已经成为“文件要素的审核的熟练工种”。 2．认证证书成了“假文凭”，管理体系退化。
企业绩效管理的文献综述 学院:东方科技学院班级：食科一班 姓名：曾浩学号:201241905103 课程名称：食品企业管理 摘要：在经济竞争异常激烈的环境下绩效管理越来越受到各大企业的重视，本文从绩效管理的概述、当前企业绩效管理中存在的问题与对策三个方面进行论述。通过对企业绩效管理的综述，从中可以看出企业绩效管理研究的发展趋势与关注重点。 关键词：绩效管理、企业管理、战略管理、文献综述 竞争永远是推动企业管理变革的原动力。在市场经济发展的初期，大部分企业的成长，是源自于国内消费市场的快速增长。随着竞争的加剧，企业的成长将主要依靠高效的管理体系和制度所培育的独特竞争力。绩效管理作为一个必要的程序，运用在每一个组织中，如果设计的合理，绩效管理能使企业中的每个部门的活动和每个员工的努力都有利于企业目标实现，就会成为企业战略落地的不可缺少的管理工具和手段。绩效管理的有效性体现企业战略执行的能力，其重要性引起越来越多管理者的关注。绩效管理是所有管理理念和管理手段的综合，可以说，企业的管理就是企业对绩效的管理。尽管绩效管理有着它非常重要的作用，但其在企业的实施同样存在着一些问题需要解决。 一．绩效管理的概述 1.1绩效管理的涵义 所谓绩效管理，是指管理者与员工在职责目标与如何实现目标上达成共识，并且在管理实践中创造机会，促进员工取得有效成果的过程。西方国家对绩效管理进行过很多研究，特别是在20世纪80年代后期和90年代，针对绩效管理的含义出现了许多不同的观点。其中最主要有以下三种观点。
第一种观点认为绩效管理是管理组织绩效的系统，这种观点是从对组织绩效进行管理角度来解释绩效管理的，持有这种观点的代表是英国学者罗杰和布莱德普（Rogers,1990;Bredrup,1995）。其核心在于决定组织战略及通过组织结构、技术事业系统和程序来加以实施，这种观点并不考虑个体因素即员工受到的技术、结构、作业系统等变革的影响。 第二种观点认为绩效管理是管理员工绩效的系统，这种观点是从对员工个人绩效进行管理的角度来解释绩效管理的，其核心在于将绩效管理看作组织对一个人关于工作成绩以及其发展潜力的评估和奖惩[5]。 第三种观点认为绩效管理事综合管理组织和雇员绩效的系统，即组织和人员整合的绩效管理，在这一观点中所强调的重点也有两种情况。其一是更加强调组织绩效，绩效管理通过将每个员工或管理者的工作与整个工作单位的总旨连接在一起，来支持公司或者组织的整体事业目标；其二是更加强调员工绩效，绩效管理的中心目标是挖掘员工的潜力，提高其绩效，并通过将员工的个人目标与企业战略结合在一起来提高公司的绩效[6]。 因此，我们认为绩效管理是一个完整的管理过程，侧重于信息沟通与绩效提高，强调事先沟通与承诺，它伴随着管理活动的全过程。 1.2绩效管理对企业的作用 绩效管理对于企业目标的实现及全部企业管理活动的有效进行具有重要作用。首先，绩效管理奠定了企业战略目标实现的基础。战略是对未来结果的一种期望，这种期望的实现要依靠组织的所以成员、按一定的职责和绩效要求、通过持续努力和发挥创造性来实现，因此绩效管理的系统成为企业战略控制系统落地的不可缺少的管理工具和手段。其次，绩效管理能够增强企业计划管理的有效性。绩效管理能使企业中每个部门的活动和每个员工的努力都朝向企业目标，从而强化了企业中对业务的计划性，增强了计划管理的有效性。再次，绩效管理是建设企业文化的有效工具。在绩效管理过程中，组织通过对考评指标维度及权重的设计，可以引导和强化员工的行为，使之符合企业的价值导向，形成核心的价值观，这更有可能使得企业文化建设落到实处。 二．企业绩效管理中存在的问题与对策 3.1企业绩效管理中的问题