现代语言学
一绪论
1 Linguisitics : Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language
2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants
3 Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.
4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.
5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.”
6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be f ound.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.
7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context.
8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language.
9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.
二音系学
1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.
2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.
3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t.
4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.
5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.
6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others.
9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme;
therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature.
10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest}
三形态学
1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.
4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.
5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes.
6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form
a word.
8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.
9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.
10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.
11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words.
12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words. {$isbest}
四句法学
1 linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.
3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.
4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.
5 Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а
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五语义学
1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.
2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.
3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.
5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.
6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.
7 homonymy :Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or
8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.
10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.
11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.
12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
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六语用学
1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.
3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a
4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.
5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.
6 perlocutionary act:A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
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七历史语言学
1 historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.
2 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segement, a phenomenon called apocope.
3 epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.
4 metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.
5 compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.
6 derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.
7 blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.
8 back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.
9 semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..
10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of
a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.
11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.
12 protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.
A protolanguage is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages.
13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes. {$isbest}
八社会语言学
1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.
2 speech community: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.
3 speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.
4 language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.
5 idiolect: Such a personal dialect is refered to as idiolect.
6 standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media.
7 nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.
8 lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.
9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.
10 Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as
a native language in some speech communication.
11 diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.
12 bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.
13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.
14 sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.
15 register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.
16 slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.
17 tabo A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.
18 euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemismos, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.
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九心理语言学
1 psycholinguistics:Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.
2 cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.
3 brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and percpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.
4 linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particulary interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.
5 dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks
6 right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is knowas the right ear advantage.
7 critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to pub erty during which the human
brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.
8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.
9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion
10 subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech”.
of linguistic relativism.
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十语言习得
1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.
2 telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.
3 holophrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also called
holophrastic sentences.
4 acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
5 learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.
6 language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.
7 positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.
8 negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.
9 contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.
10 interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.
11 formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.
12 instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.
13 integrative motivation: Inte grative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.
14 acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.
传播学教程名词解释(完整版)郭庆光 传播：是指社会信息的传播或社会信息系统的运行l 传播学：研究社会信息系统及其运行规律的科学l 信息：看作是消除事物的不确定性，从而获得确知的讯息或关于事物的确定状态、l 双重偶然性：是德国社会学家鲁曼提出的概念，指的是传播的双方都存在着不确定性，因此，通过传播所做出的选择有受到拒绝的可能性。l 传播障碍：包括结构与功能障碍，如传播制度是否合理，传播渠道是否畅通，信息系统的各部分的功能是否正常等等。l 传播隔阂：包括个人之间的隔阂，个人与群体的隔阂，成员与组织的隔阂，以及群体与群体、组织与组织、世代与世代、文化与文化间的隔阂等等。由于社会信息系统的参与者，无论是个人、群体还是组织，都是具有特定利益、价值、意识形态和文化背景的主体，这里的传播隔阂，既包括无意的误解，也包括有意的曲解。l 信息社会:是指信息成为与物质和能源同等重要甚至比之更加重要的资源，整个社会的政治、经济和文化以信息为核心价值而得到发展的社会。l 社会关系论:着重分析受众成负日常的社会关系对其媒介信息接收行为的影响（受众成员的种种社会关系，左右着他们对媒介信息的选择），从而制约着大众传播的效果。l 社会责任理论:传播媒介在享有充分自由的前提下，在社会为它提供自由保障的环境中，还应主动地积极地承担相应的社会责任，换句话说，在没有“他律”的情况下自觉地进行
“自律”，在没有外来约束、外来控制的条件下自觉地进行自我约束，自我控制。l 符号：是信息的外在形式或物质载体，是信息表达和传播中不可缺少的一种基本要素 l 意义：是人对自然事物或社会事物的认识，是人给对象事物赋予的含义，是人类以符号形式传递和交流的精神内容。l 象征行为：是用具体事物来表示某种抽象概念或思想感情的行为。这种行为一般是通过使用象征符来传达象征意义实现的。l 象征性社会互动：是指人与人之间通过传递象征符和意义而相互作用、相互影响的过程。 它是一种通过象征符来交流或交换意义的活动。象征性社会互动具有价值性、动机性和行为取向性，对实际社会生活产生多方面的影响。l “5W”模式：传播学奠基人拉斯韦尔在1948 年提出。该模式首次将传播活动解释为由传播者、传播内容、传播渠道、传播对象和传播效果五个环节和要素构成的过程，为人们理解传播过程的结构和特性提供了具体的出发点。意义： 1、传播史上第一个关于传播过程的模式，开传播学模式研究的先河。 2、确定了传播学研究的五大领域。局限性：角色和关系固定化，认为传播过程是传播者有意图的劝服受传者的过程。单向直线传播模式缺乏互动性。l 香农>意见领袖 Step flowhyPothesis）。它使人们认识到大众媒介渠道和人际传播渠道在人们信息获取和决策（态度形成和转变以及具体的行
现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain 1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludes research into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use Ian guage. 2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion. 3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cog nitive fun cti on. 5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage. 6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies. 7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on. 8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is called non-flue nt aphasia. 9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results in a type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia. 10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte n causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia. 11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems to have lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules. 12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un able to recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so und rules. 13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips. 14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ng of letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word. 15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used words tha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.
传播学名词解释 第一章：传播学的对象和基本问题 1、社会信息：社会信息是除人的生物和生理活动以外的，与人类的社会活动有关的一切信 息，是指人类社会在生产和交往活动中所交流或交换的信息。 2、传播：传播学结合社会学和信息科学视点将传播概念的定义为传播即社会信息的传递或 社会信息系统的运行。 3、系统：指由相互联系和相互制约的若干组成部分结合在一起并且具有特定功能的有机整 体。 4、传播隔阂：包括个人之间、个人与群体、成员与组织的隔阂，群体之间、组织之间、世 代之间、文化之间等社会信息系统的参与者在特定利益、价值、意识形态和文化背景方便的隔阂，及有无意的误解和有意的曲解。传播隔阂是社会信息系统运行不畅的结果之一。 5、传播障碍：包括结构与功能障碍，如传播制度是否合理、传播渠道是否畅通、信息系统 的各部分功能是否正常等，传播障碍是社会信息系统运行不畅的结果之一。 6、传播学：传播学是研究社会信息系统及其运行规律的科学。既是社会科学，也是应用科 学。 7、精神生产：即表现在某一民族的政治、法律、、道德、形而上学等的语言的生产中，精 神交往是以“语言”为媒介的人与人的精神交往关系。与之相应的是人与人之间的精神交往。 8、社区：由地缘关系和社会关系构成的共同体。 第二章：人类传播的历史和发展 1、示现的媒介系统：即人们面对面传递信息的媒介，是由人的感官或器官本身来执行功能 的媒介系统。 2、再现的媒介系统：包括文字、绘画、摄影等。这一系统对信息的生产和传播者来说需要 使用物质工具或机器，而对信息的接收者来说则不需要 3、机器媒介系统：包括、电视、广播、计算机通信系统等。这些媒介，要求传播者和接收 者都必须使用机器。 4、信息社会是指信息成为与物质和能源同等重要甚至比之更重要的资源，整个社会的政 治、经济和文化以信息为核心价值而得到发展的社会。 第三章；人类传播的符号和意义 1、人类传播：人类传播是一种交流和交换信息并由此发生社会联系和社会互动的行为。 2、符号化（编码）：传播者将自己要传递的讯息或意义转换为语言、音声、文字或其他符 号的活动。 3、符号解读（解码）：传播对象对接收到的符号加以阐释和理解，读取其意义的活动。 4、能指：也叫意符，指语言的声音形象。它通常表现为声音或图像，能够引发人们对特定 对象事物的概念联系 5、所指：也叫意指，指语言所反映的事物的概念。 6、符号：是指能够独立存在，并和另一事物有联系，而且可以被”解释“的事物。符号具 有的三个特征：一是代表事物的形式，而是被符号指涉的对象，三是对符号意义的解释 7、意义：是人对自然事物和社会事物的认识，是人为对象事物赋予的含义，是人类以符号 形式传递和交流的精神容。人在与自然和社会打交道的过程中，不断地认识和把握对象事物的性质和规律，并从中抽象出意义。 8、情景意义：是由一系列情景符号及其相互组合所形成的意义。 9、传播情境：指的是对特定的传播行为直接或间接产生影响的外部事物、条件或因素的总 称，它包括具体的传播活动进行的场景，广义上也包括传播行为的参与人多处的环境。 10、象征行为：指的是用具体事物来表示某种抽象概念或思想感情的行为，是通过象征符来
1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole. 3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. 4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say). 5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C) 6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04) 7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C) 8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence: universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C) 15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users. 16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.
名词解释 https://www.doczj.com/doc/302047026.html,petence and Performance: The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. ) 2.Sociolinguistics: is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.( It is a field of study that assumes that human society is made up of many related patterns and behaviors, some of which are linguistic.) https://www.doczj.com/doc/302047026.html,nguage Acquisition: refers to t he child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s devel opment of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.) 4.the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf (and also a belief held by some scholars). It states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. (2) The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis consists of two parts, i.e. linguistic determinism and relativism. Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, i.e. the notion of linguistic determinism. Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, i.e. relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism. 5.Phrase structure rule: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP →(Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP →(Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP →(Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP →(Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.
名词解释： 1,传播： 社会信息的传递和社会信息系统的运行。 2，符号： 信息的外在形式或物质载体，是信息表达和传播中不可缺少的一种基本要素。 3，符号化： 传播者将自己要传递的讯息或意义转换为语言，音声，文字或其它符号的活动。 4，符号解读： 传播对象对接收到的符号加以阐释和理解，读取其意义的活动。 5，意义： 人对自然事物或社会事物的认识，人给对象事物赋予的含义，是人类以符号的形式传递和交流的精神内容。 6，传播情境： 对特定的传播行为直接或间接产生影响的外部事物，条件或因素的总称。 7，讯息： 由一组相互关联的有意义的符号组成，能够表达某种完整意义的信息。8，反馈： 受传者对接收到的讯息的反应或回应，也是受传者对传播者的反作用。
9，人内传播： 个人接受外部信息并在人体内部进行信息处理的活动。 1 / 26 10，人际传播： 个人与个人之间的信息传播活动，也是由两个个体系统相互连接组成的新的信息传播系统。 11，群体： 具有特定的共同目标和共同归属感，存在着互动关系的复数个人的集合体。 12，群体压力： 群体中的多数意见对成员中的个人意见或少数意见所产生的压力。13，信息压力： 一般人在通常情况下会认为多数人提供的信息，其正确性概率会大于少数人，基于这种信念，个人对多数意见会持较为信任的态度。 14，趋同心理： 遵从性，个人希望与群体中的多数意见保持一致，避免因孤立而遭受群体制裁的心理。 15，下行传播： 有关组织的目标任务方针政策的信息，自上而下得到传达贯彻的过程。16，上行传播： 下级部门向上级部门或部下向上司汇报情况，提出建议愿望与要求的
信息传达活动。 17，大众传播： 专业化的媒介组织运用先进的传播技术和产业化手段，以社会上的一般大众为对象而进行的大规模的信息生产和传播活动。 18，信息环境： 2 / 26 一个社会中由个人或群体接触可能的信息及其传播活动的总体构成的环境。 19，拟态环境： 不是现实环境镜子式的再现，而是传播媒介通过象征性事件或信息进行选择和加工，重新加以结构化以后向人们提示的环境。 20，热媒介： 传递的信息比较清晰明确，接受者不需要动员更多的感官就能理解的媒介。 21，IPP指数： 既有政治倾向指数，是一个人从社会经济地位，居住区域和宗教信仰3个方面来显示受众在接触媒介宣传前已有的政治立场和态度的综合指数。 22，知晓权： 社会成员获得有关自身所处环境及其变化的信息，保障社会生活所需的各种有用信息的权利。
传播学重点名词 一、拟态环境（李普曼《公众舆论》） 早在20世纪20年代，美国著名政论家李普曼就在其所著的《公众舆论》一书中，论及拟态环境问题。并首次使用“Pseudo-environment”一词。拟态环境有如下特点：一方面，拟态环境不是现实环境“镜子式”的摹写，不是“真”的客观环境，或多或少与现实环境存在偏离。另一方面，拟态环境并非与现实环境完全割裂，而是以现实环境为原始蓝本。李普曼认为，在大众传播极为发达的现代社会，人们的行为与三种意义上的“现实”发生着密切的联系：一是实际存在着的不以人的意志为转移的“客观现实”，二是传播媒介经过有选择地加工后提示的“象征性现实”（即拟态环境），三是存在于人们意识中的“关于外部世界的图像”，即“主观现实”。人们的“主观现实”是在他们对客观现实的认识的基础上形成的，而这种认识在很大程度上需要经过媒体搭建的“象征性现实”的中介。经过这种中介后形成的“主观现实”，已经不可能是对客观现实“镜子式”的反映，而是产生了一定的偏移，成为了一种“拟态”的现实。 二、把关人（库尔特·卢因） “把关人”理论是由美国社会心理学家、传播学四大先驱之一的卢因率先提出的。他在《群体生活的渠道》（1947年）一文中，首先提出“把关”（gate keeping）一词。他指出：“信息总是沿着含有门区的某些渠道流动，在那里，或是根据公正无私的规定，或是根据‘守门人’的个人意见，对信息或商品是否被允许进入渠道或继续在渠道里流动做出决定。”“信息传播网络中布满了把关人。”他认为在群体传播过程式中，存在着一些把关人，只有符合群体规范或把关人价值标准的信息内容才能进入传播的渠道。1950年，传播学者怀特将社会学中的这个概念引入新闻传播，发现在大众传播的新闻报道中，传媒组织成为实际中的"把关人"，由他们对新闻信息进行取舍，决定哪些内容最后与受众见面。从此，新闻选择的"把关人"理论从人们的不自觉行为成为大众传媒组织的有意操作，在更大范围和程度上或明或暗的影响新闻实践。经怀特、麦克内利等众多学者的深入挖掘研究，最终成为传播学控制分析领域最具科学性的理论之一。 三、传播效果的魔弹论和皮下注射论 媒介本身被认为是根据媒介和媒介内容的控制者的意志，以强大的力量去形成舆论和信念、改变人们的生活习惯并指导人们的行为（Bauer and Bauer，1960）。核心观点，传播媒介拥有不可抵抗的强大力量，它们所传递的信息在受传者身上就像子弹击中躯体，药剂注入皮肤一样，可以引起直接速效的反应；它们能够左右人们的饿态度和意见，甚至直接支配他们的行为。对第一次世界大战中宣传心理战的效果研究则进一步促成了这样一种观点：媒介是万能的，可以随心所欲地影响受众，从而产生巨大的传播效果。在两次世界大战之间的几十年内，大众传媒如报刊、电影、广播等迅速发展并普及，对人们的日常生活产生了巨大的冲击力，人们普遍认为大众传播具有惊人的强大效果，传播研究者认为大众媒介具有"魔弹式"的威力。代表这种观点的理论被称为"枪弹论"、"魔弹论"或"皮下注射论"。这种观点产生的理论背景是当时西方盛行的本能心理学和大众社会理论。本能心理学认为，人的行为正如动物的遗传本能反应一样，是受"刺激—反应"机制主导的，施以某种特定的刺激就必然会引起某种特定的反应。大众社会理论是在孔德、斯宾塞的社会有机体思想和韦伯等有关工业化社会理论的基础上形成的。他们认为，大众社会中的个人，在心理上陷于孤立，对媒介的依赖性很强，因而导致媒介对社会的影响力很大。 有关这一理论的研究大都是建立在观察基础上的结论，并未经过严密的科学调查与验证。这种理论过分夸大了大众媒介的影响力，同时也忽视了受众对大众传播的自主权的前提。受众是具有高度自觉的主人，他们对信息不仅有所选择，而且还会自行决定取舍。此外，这一理论还忽视了影响传播效果的各种社会因素。传播效果与当时当地的社会环境、媒介环境、群体心态、政治军事经济及文化背景密切相关。不能把传播效果放到"真空"中去考察。 除此之外，欧洲国家的广告客户、内战时期的独裁国家以及俄国新革命制度对媒介的利用都证实了媒介万能这样一种观点。人们已经倾向于认为媒介具有非常强大的力量。同时期盛行的本能心理学和社会学理论也从另一个角度支持了媒介万能的说法。实际上，这种效果观是很片面的，是“不分时间和地点，不讲环境条件和对象，将传播效果绝对化和神化的错误观点…”
现代语言学 1 language: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 1 interlanguage:The type of language produced by nonnative speakers in the process of learning a second language or foreign language. 1 Linguistics : Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants 3 Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology 形态学:The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax 句型: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics语义学: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worr ied.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics语用学: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme音素: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone同位音: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 10 intonation朗诵: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation. 3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation. 4 morpheme词素: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. 5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes. 6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. 7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be