语言学笔记The-Use-of-English
The Use of English
8.1 Pragmatic Approach to Language
8.1.1Pragmatics（语用学）
It is the study of meaning in use. meaning in context. speaker meaning. contextual meaning.
Pragmatics studies communication (utterance production and comprehension) from a functional (i.e. social, cultural, cognitive) perspective. 8.1.2 Semantics(语义学) V.S Pragmatics
Semanticism: semantics includes pragmatics
Pragmaticism: pragmatics includes semantics
Complementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.
8.2 Deictic Expressions （指示语）
8.2.1Deixis
Deixis: (from Greek) anchoring, pointing (toward the context) phenomenon.
The linguistic means used in this function are known as deictics, indexicals ( or indexical / deictic expressions).
Examples: pronouns, demonstratives, time and place adverbs, and some grammatical categories such as tense.
8.2.2 Characteristics in use
The egocentricity of deixis
Deictic expressions are anchored to specific points in the communicative event. The unmarked points, called the deictic center, are typically assumed to be as follows (S. Levinson: Pragmatics): I love this game!
1) the central person is the speaker
2) the central time is the time at which the speaker produces the utterance
3) the central place is the speaker’s location at utterance time
4) the discourse center is the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of his utterance
5) the social center is the speaker’s social status and rank, to which th e status or rank of addressees or referents is relative.
8.2.3 Deictic VS. Non-deictic
Deictic: gestural/symbolic
You, you, but not you, are dismissed. (gestural)
What did you say? (Symbolic)
Non-deictic: anaphoric /non-anaphoric
Jack is a student. He comes from Britain.
You can never tell what sex they are nowadays.
There you go again./There we go.
I did this and that.
8.2.4 Classification of deictic
Person deixis
Place deixis
Time deixis
Social deixis
Discourse deixis
8.3 Speech Act Theory
Saying is acting. (John Austin, How to Do Things with Words, 1962)
“Speech acts” refer to actions performed via utterances.
Speech acts are “the basic or minimal units of linguistic communication”.
8.3.1 Constatives (表述句）and performatives （施为句）
a. There is a book on the desk.
b. I promise I’ll be there ten sharp tomorrow.
hereby-test: first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice, performative verbs (with exceptions, though)
8.3.3 Collapse of Performative Hypothesis
a. Not all performative utterances require a performative verb;
b. An utterance with a performative verb may not be the type of act suggested by the verb;
8.3.4 felicity conditions （适切条件）
a. Essential condition （基本条件）
b. Preparatory condition (预备条件）
c. Propositional content condition （命题内容条件）
d. Sincerity condition （真诚条件）
Felicity conditions for a promise:
1) The speaker can do what is promised; (基本）
2）The promised act has not taken place yet; (预备）
3）The utterance is about a future act; The promised act is to the benefit
of the hearer; The promised act will be fulfilled by the speaker;（命题内
容）
4) The speaker means what he says. （真诚）
etc.
Searle’s classification of illocutionary acts
Representatives/assertives（阐述类）
describe, inform, deny, state, claim, assert, remind, etc.
Directives （指令类）:
request, ask, urge, tell, demand, order, advise, command, beseech, etc.
Commissives （承诺类）:
commit, promise, threaten, pledge, consent, refuse, offer, guarantee, etc.
Expressives （表达类）:
apologize, boast, thank, deplore, welcome, congratulate, greet, etc.
Declarations （宣告类）:
declare, resign, appoint, nominate, bless, christen, name, etc.
8.4 Presupposition
8.4.1Presupposition and entailment
8.4.2Presupposition triggers: linguistics device that make inference possible.
9.1 Cooperation in using English
9.1.1Cooperative Principle
Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
H. P. Grice, Logic and Conversation, 1975
9.1.2Maxims of the principle
Quality: Be truthful.
a. Do not say what you believe to be false.
b. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
Quantity: Be informative.
a. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange)
b. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
Relation: Be relevant.
Make sure that whatever you say is relevant to the conversation at hand.
Manner: Be perspicuous (明晰).
a. Avoid obscurity of expression.
b. Avoid ambiguity.
c. Be brief(avoid unnecessary prolixity)
d. Be orderly.
9.1.3 Implicature
It is a kind of extra meaning that is not contained in the utterance. When any of the maxims is blatantly(公然地) violated and the hearer knows that it is being violated, a particular conversational implicature arises.
9.1.4 Some properties of conversational implicature
A. It can be cancelled, either by an explicit declaration that the speaker is opting out or, implicitly, by the co-text and context.
(cancellability可取消性)
B. It can be inferred (calculability可推导性)
Ways to calculate an implicature:
a.The conventional meaning of the words used, and the references of referring expressions;
b.the cooperative principle and its maxims;
c.the co-text and context;
d.background knowledge;
e.the supposition that all participants suppose that all relevant items falling under (1)-(4) are available to them all.
1 Since I have good reason to believe that she has information about X’s writing skills, the speaker has deliberately failed to observe (flouted) the maxim “Be informative”
2 But I have no reason to believe that she has really opted out of the cooperative principle. So, she is only being apparently uninformative.
3 If I draw the inference that X hasn’t got very good writing skills, then the speaker is being cooperative. She knows that I am capable of working this out.
4 Therefore, she has implied (or “implicated”to use Grice’s term) that the student’s writing skills are not very good.
C.It may be indeterminate:in many cases,the list of possible implicatures of an utterance is open.(indeterminacy不确定性)
D.Non-detachability [given the same proposition]
9.2 Politeness in using English
9.2.1Leech’s Politeness Principle
Minimize (other things being equal) the expression of impolite beliefs and Maximize (other things being equal) the expression of polite beliefs.
9.2.2The 6 maxims of Leech’s PP
Tact Maxim
Minimize cost to other
Maximize benefit to other
Generosity Maxim
Minimize benefit to self
Maximize cost to self
Approbation Maxim
Minimize dispraise of other
Maximize praise of other
Maxim of modesty
Minimize praise of self
Maximize dispraise of self
Agreement Maxim
Minimize disagreement between self and other
Maximize agreement between self and other
Sympathy Maxim
Minimize antipathy between self and other
Maximize sympathy between self and other
9.2.3Politeness scale:
Directness
Cost - benefit
9.3 Face considerations in using English
Face, the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself, consisting in two related aspects:
Negative face and positive face
According to Brown and Levinson (1978/1987)
Negative face: the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction
i.e. to the freedom of action and freedom from imposition.
Positive face: the positive consistent self-image or ‘personality’(crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants.
9.4 Developing pragmatic competence
The Varieties of English
10.1 Interrelation between language and society
Indications of interralation/relatedness between language and society An obvious indication of the inter-relationship between language and society is the fact that language is not always used to exchange information as is generally assumed, but rather it is sometimes used to fulfil an important social function--- to maintain social relationship between people.
Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. When we speak we cannot avoid giving our listeners clues about our origin and our background.
Chomsky (cognitive approach, ideal speaker) vs. Saussure (social semiotic approach)
Any use of language is socially marked/stamped.
As society changes, language will change. Language reflects society, as shown by the lexicon of "snow", "camel".
Whereas English, for example, has only one word for snow ( or two if we include sleet), Eskimo has several. The reasons for this are obvious. It is essential for Eskimos to be able to distinguish efficiently between different types of snow.
English, of course, is quite able to make the same distinctions: fine snow, dry snow, soft snow, and so on, but in Eskimos this sort of distinction is lexicalized---made by means of individual words.
10.1.2 Approaches to the study of the interrelation
Macro-sociolinguistics: a bird's-eye view: how language functions in society and how language reflects the social differentiations. [sociology of language] Micro-sociolinguistics: a worm's-eye view: how language functions in the communication between members of the society. [sociolinguistics]
It is an obvious fact that people who claim to be users of the same language do not speak the language in the same manner. For example all the English –speaking people do not speak the same type of English. And the language used by the same individual varies as circumstances vary.
10.2 Regional dialects of English
10.2.1 Language and dialect
Language: writing system; may include several dialects; often politically defined
Dialect: [traditionally only variation with space, but now with the space, the
temporal factor and social factors] usu. spoken; often part of a language; not distinct enough from other dialects of the same language to be treated as an independent language; often marked by geographical or social barriers; restricted purposes
Chinese vs. Cantonese
Regional dialect often coincides with geographical barriers, like mountains, rivers, etc. [accent]
Transition from one dialect to another is gradual rather than abrupt. Two neighboring dialects are often intelligible.
10.2.2 Temporal dialect
Language is also determined by the time we live in. [temporal distance] Old English; Middle English; Modern English [diachronic/historical linguistics vs.
synchronic linguistics]
10.3 Social dialects of English
10.3.1Social dialect (also social-class dialect, sociolect, class dialect) [social distance] arises from the separation brought about different social conditions. It refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.
10.3.2 Social factors
Social factors that are believed to influence our language behavior: class, gender, age, ethnic identity, education background, occupation, and religious belief.
10.4 Register theory
10.4.1Field of discourse: related to what is going on, the purpose and the subject matter of communication; answers the questions of why and about what communication takes place.
Technical: linguistic lectures, specialist communication [vocabulary]
Non-technical: shopping, chatting
10.4.2Tenor of discourse: answers the question of to whom the speaker is communicating, determines the level of formality of language use.
10.4.3Mode of discourse: answers the question of how communication takes place ; spoken or written; spontaneous or non-spontaneous.
11.1 Speech community
Speech Community is a concept in sociolinguistics, it is a group of speakers who share the same regularities of language use, and have the same language attitude toward communitiy language variation.
Virtual SC, migrant worker SC, urban SC, rural SC, international student SC, etc.
Five elements of a SC: population, region, public facilities, interaction, identity. 11.2 Pidgin and Creole
Pidgins(洋泾浜) are mixed or blended languages used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.
Chinese-English pidgin: limited vocabulary and reduced grammar.
1)Phonetics: [l]→[r] room-loom right-light
2) the word side was widely used to signify space, top-side=above, bottom-side=below, farside=beyond, allo-side=around, what-tim=when nother tim=again
3) basic words origin from English: chin-chin
die-lo, buy-lo, pay-lo, wailo, numpa one,
plopa=proper, you belong to plopa? = Are you well?
When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their mother tongue, it is said to be a Creole(混合语).
The original pidgin is expanded in terms of its grammar and vocabulary. English-based Creole of Jamaica and the French-based Creole of Haiti.
11.3 Bilingualism and Diglossia
Bilingualism（双语）: two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; language switching/code switching occurs when the situation changes. It is often a result of immigration.
Diglossia（双言）: two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. [Ferguson in 1959]
11.4 Code Mixing and Code Switching
Code switching: Weinreich (1953)
Intersentence code-switching
Intrasentential code-switching
Tag code-switching
CS has its social values and communicative aims.
Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学 1.What is pragmatics? 什么是语用学？ Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used. 语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。 由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。 2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学 Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。 3.Context 语境 Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。 4.Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。 5.Speech act theory 言语行为理论 Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. 言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。 According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.
第一章 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures https://www.doczj.com/doc/7811667070.html,nguage 1.1Why study language?为什么学习语言 A tool for communication交流的工具 An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知. 1.2What is language?什么是语言 1.2.1different senses of language 语言的不同意义 1. what a person says( concrete act of speech) a person’s consistent way of speaking or writing a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language an abstract system 2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”: a. human speech 人类的言语 b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力 c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声 音及这些声音互相结合的系统 d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达 3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交 流的一种方式. Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言 是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文 化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类 区别于动物. 1.2.2definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. What is communication? A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener). A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary? Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is
Chapter 5 Semantics ?Semantics----the study of language meaning. ?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. ?Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. ?Meaning is central to the study of communication. ?Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist) ? 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. ? 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent, peripheral ? 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression ? 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer towards what is referred to ? 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ?Taboos ? 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it ?(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less stable, more culture-specific ) 7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order ?What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning ?Naming theory (Plato) ?The conceptualist view ?Contextualism (Bloomfield) ?Behaviorism Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things. The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things ?Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…
新编简明英语语言学教程笔记 Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 二、知识点 https://www.doczj.com/doc/7811667070.html,nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. 语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。 ⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家 Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. Hall----language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols. Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. ⑷U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett美国语言学家Charles Hockett 提出了语言的识别特征design features
Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学 1.The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 研究语言变化的目的和意义 The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence. Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages. The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change. 研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。 历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系，为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。 历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素，如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。 2.The nature of language change 语言变化的本质 All living languages change with time. Unless a language is no longer spoken by the general public of a society, such as Latin, its change is inevitable. As a general rule, language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic. Language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar. Although language change is universal, inevitable, and in some cases, vigorous, it is never an overnight occurrence. Language development may be regarded as linguistic evolution from one stage to another. 所有尚在使用的语言都随着时间的变化而变化。语言的变化是不可避免的。语言变化是普遍的、连续的，在一定程度上也是规则的和系统的。语言变化涉及语法系统的各大组成部分。在语言演变过程中，词汇和语法规则有的消亡了，有的诞生了，有的是外借的，有的则转化了其意义或功能。 尽管语言变化是普遍的，必然的，有时甚至是显著的，但语言的变化是一个缓慢的渐变过程，其变化是同代人所不易察觉的。 语言的发展可以看作是语言从一个阶段到另一个阶段的演化过程。 3.Major periods in the history of English 英语历史发展的主要阶段 a)Old English (450-1100) 古英语阶段 b)Middle English (1100-1500) 中古英语阶段 c)Modern English (1500-今) 现代英语阶段 Most Modern English speakers find Middle English only partially comprehensible, and Old English simply unintelligible, just like a foreign language hardly recognizable as the native language they speak. 大多数现代英语的使用者发现，对于他们来说，中古英语只能部分地被理解，古英语则如外语一般，简直不可理解。 Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxons invaded the British Isles from northern Europe. Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England. Middle English had been deeply influenced by Norman French in vocabulary and grammar. Modern English is separated with Middle English with European renaissance movement.
语义学 1.？什么是语义学？ . 语义学可定义为对语言意义的研究。 2. 语义研究的几种主要理论 1)命名论 . , , , . . 命名论是最原始的语义理论，是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。 2)意念论 ; , . 意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。 3)语境论 . : . 语境论以这样的假设为基础：人们可以从显而易见的语境中推知或归纳出语义。语境有两种：情景语境和语言语境。 语境论认为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境，语义不是抽象的，它存在于语境之中，它来自语境，取决于语境。 4)行为主义论 “ .” , , . 语义的行为主义论和语义的语境论有相似之处，它也把语义放到语境中去研究，但它更注重人的心理活动，认为语言的意义存在于语言使用者在交际过程中对听到话语的反应。 3.意义和所指 . 它们是词汇意义的既相互联系又有所不同的两个方面。 1). ; . . 意义关心的是语言形式的内在意义。它是语言形式所有特征的总和，它是抽象且脱离语境的。它是词典编写者们所感兴趣的语义方面。 简单地说，意义是词汇内在的，抽象的，游离于语境之外的意义。 2), ; . 所指是语言形式在现实世界中所指称的东西；涉及语言成分和非语言的经验世界的关系。简单地说，所指是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。 4.主要意义关系
1）同义关系 . . 同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近。词义相近的词叫同义词。 , : a)–. . 方言同义词－用在不同地域方言中的同义词。 英国英语和美国英语是英语的两大地理变体。 示例： 英国英语美国英语 b)–. , . , , , . 文体同义词－在文体上有差异的同义词。 有同样意义的词可能在文体上，或者在正式程度上有所不同。也就是说，有些往往比较正式，有些比较随意，有些在问题上则是中性的。 示例： , , , , , , , , c) , . 情感意义或评价意义有所不同的同义词。 有着相同的意义却表达了使用者的不同情感的词语，这些词暗示使用者对他所谈论的事情的态度或倾向。 示例： 合作者同谋者，帮凶 , , , , , , , , , d)–. , ., . . 搭配同义词－同义词在其搭配上各不相同，即能和这些不同的同义词相配的词各不相同。示例： … … … e)–. 语义上不同的同义词－同义词的意义非常接近，但却有细微差别。 示例： 暗示困惑和迷惑暗示难以置信 意味逃离不愉快或者危险的事意味匆匆离开 2）多义关系 . , . , .
第6章语用学 6.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. Speech act theory 言语行为理论 2. Cooperative principle and its maxims 合作原则及其准则 3. Gricean theory of conversational implicature 格莱斯会话含义理论 本章考点： 语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论(发话行为、行事行为和取效行为)；合作原则。实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。 本章内容索引： I. Pragmatics 1. Definition 2. Pragmatics vs. semantics 3. Context 4. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning
II. Speech act theory 1. Austin’s model of speech acts 2. Searle’s classificati on of speech acts 3. Indirect speech acts III. Principle of conversation 1. Cooperative Principle and its Maxims 2. Violation of the Maxims IV. Conversational Implicature 1. Definition 2. Characteristics of Conversational Implicature (1) Calculability. (2) Cancellability (3) Non-detachability (4) Non-conventionality. V. Cross-cultural Pragmatic Failure I. Pragmatics（语用学） 【考点：名词解释，与语义学的关系】 1. Definition（定义） It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 它是研究某一语言的言者是如何利用句子成功进行交际的。
2019自考语言学概论笔记第六章（文字） 第六章文字 1. 解释“字符” 答：字符即文字符号，是文字的最基本的单位，是直接跟某种语 言单位相联系的符号。 2. 解释“他源文字”。 答：他源文字是在已有的别的文字的基础上创制的文字。 3. 解释“复合字符”。 答：复合字符是由单纯字符组合而成或由单纯字符和复合字符再 组合而成的字符。 4. 解释“表意文字”。 答：表意文字即全部字符都是意符的文字。 5. 解释“意音文字”。 答：意音文字即一部分是意符，一部分是音符的文字。 6. 所有的书写符号都是文字吗? 答：文字是用来书写某一种语言单位的符号，如果不是用来书写 某一种语言单位的符号，即使表示一定意义，也不是文字。如红绿灯 不直接与哪个语言单位对应，所以是一种符号，但不是语言符号，因 而也不是文字。旗语、莫尔斯电报代码则不同，它们直接代表文字符号，能够说是文字的符号，所以是语言的符号。 7. 什么是文字的作用? 答：文字的作用能够从三方面来理解：(1)从交际层次看，文字 作为人类最重要的交际工具，它克服了语言在时间和空间上的局限性，
扩大和完善了语言的交际功能。(2)从文化遗产和科学知识层次来看，文字是人们积累文化遗产和传播科学知识的媒介。(3)从整个人类的发展历史看，文字的产生是人类进入文明社会的标志。 8. 现代汉语中的“文字”含有那些义项? 答：(1)书写或记录评议的符号，也说“字”或“字母”。如汉字，英文字母。(2)语言的书面形式或书面语，如中文、英文等。(3)文章(多指形式方面)。 9. 解释“楔形文字”。 答：楔形文字是公元前4000多年前，苏美尔民族用芦管在泥版上“压印”出来的文字。它们的笔道像一个个楔子，所以后人就叫这种文字为楔形文字。楔形文字是一种词语文字，同时也是意音文字。 10. 简答“文字的创制”含义。 答：文字的创制指现代社会里为没有文字的语言创制文字，特别是政府或语言学家为没有文字的民族创制文字，不涉及历各种民族语言的文字的创制过程。 11. 简答文字改革的类型有哪些情况。 答：文字改革的类型有三种情况：(1)整个文字类型和字符类型不变，仅仅对正字法的个别规则和个别字符实行调整。(2)整个文字类型不变，但是字符类型变了，如1928年土耳其实行的文字改革，几个月内，用拉丁字母拼写的新土耳其文全面替代了用阿拉伯字母拼写的旧土耳其文。(3)整个文字类型和字符类型都变了。如越南原来使用汉字作为他们的表意文字，现在改用拉丁字母的表音文字。
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学 1.What is semantics？什么是语义学？ Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可定义为对语言意义的研究。 2.Some views concerning the study of meaning 语义研究的几种主要理论 1)The naming theory 命名论 It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things. 命名论是最原始的语义理论，是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。 2)The conceptualist view 意念论 The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. 意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。 3)Contextualism 语境论 Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context. 语境论以这样的假设为基础：人们可以从显而易见的语境中推知或归纳出语义。语境有两种：情景语境和语言语境。 语境论认为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境，语义不是抽象的，它存在于语境之中，它来自语境，取决于语境。 4)Behaviorism 行为主义论 Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the sp eaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest. 语义的行为主义论和语义的语境论有相似之处，它也把语义放到语境中去研究，但它更注重人的心理活动，认为语言的意义存在于语言使用者在交际过程中对听到话语的反应。 3.Sense and reference 意义和所指 They are two related but different aspects of meaning. 它们是词汇意义的既相互联系又有所不同的两个方面。 1)Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compliers are interested in. 意义关心的是语言形式的内在意义。它是语言形式所有特征的总和，它是抽象且脱离语境的。
英语语言学笔记 Linguistics Chapter 1 Introduction: Language and Linguistics What is language? Different definitions of language Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916) [Language is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957) Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. Each of the definitions above has pointed out some aspects of the essence of language, but all of them have left out something. We must see the multi-faceted nature of language. As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Features of human language Creativity Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding brand new messages. The grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences are infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively. Duality Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meanings. Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings. Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences of speech sounds. Arbitrariness The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between sound and meaning. Displacement There is no limit in time or space for language. Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future. Cultural transmission Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned. Language is a way of transmitting culture. Interchangeability All members of a speech community can send and receive messages. Reflexivity Human languages can be used to describe themselves. The language used to talk about language is called meta-language. Functions of language– three meta-functions