欧洲人绝非人类文明的先驱。在欧洲人能读和写之前一半有记载的人类历史已经过去。在4000和公元前3000年之间，埃及的祭司已经开始持续进行记录，但两千年以后，《荷马史诗》仍在于希腊城邦以口头形式流传。不久后，公元前3000年，当埃及的法老修建金字塔时，欧洲人在费力地堆砌庞大的，粗糙的被称为巨石的石头，其中巨石阵是最有名的例子。总而言之，直到公元前2000年以后，欧洲仍处于新石器时期。这是真正伟大的人类历史时代，人类学会了制造和使用尖锐的工具，编织衣物，修建住所，驯养动物，种植、收获作物，并意识到年和月的周期更替。但是，近东——埃及，幼发拉底河和底格里斯河河谷，克里特岛和爱琴海沿岸（其中多属于亚洲，而不是欧洲）先欧洲两千年进入新石器时期。大约在公元前4000年，近东已经步入青铜时代。
大约公元前2000年之后，欧洲当时还是黑暗的大陆，那里开始发生现在难以追溯的巨大变化。欧洲人也不例外，大约在公元前2000年随着青铜时代的到来，以及大约公元前1000年铁器时代的到来，学会了如何冶炼和锻造金属。那里也连续输入新的民族进入欧洲。他们说的语言与现在的印度和伊朗的语言相关，和类似的民族迁移几乎是在同一时代。这些所有的语言（直到19世纪才意识到其关联性）现在指的是印欧语言，这个操印欧语言的民族，对早期的欧洲族群进行合并和语言强加，成为了古典希腊罗马和现代欧洲人的祖先。今天所有的欧洲语言除巴斯克语外都是印欧语言，。这是在欧洲散播拉丁语、希腊语、日耳曼语、斯拉夫语、凯尔特语和波罗的海语言各种语言的印欧人的入侵，这些语言便是欧洲语言后来的起源。
希腊世界
在这平淡的历史长河中，希腊土地上的第一批印欧人出现在现在的欧洲，即希腊人居住地。他们在大约公元前1900年顺着巴尔干半岛到达爱琴海沿岸各地，到公元前1300年他们逐渐占领了现在所属希腊的大部分土地，他们的到来，破坏了早期的克里特文明。从公元前1150年开始，由一些分散的原始部落组成的其他入侵者的陆续到来引起了几年世纪的动荡和不安，直到9世纪才逐渐恢复安定，重新发展。“伊利亚特”和“奥德赛”，写于约公元前800年，不过故事形成和传诵的时间要更早些，可能是在希腊和小亚细亚的特洛伊战争期间。特洛伊战争一般认为发生在公元前1200年。
事实证明希腊人曾经是一个极有创造天赋的民族，他们实现了在思想和文化上有着最高的地位。他们吸收了神秘东方的知识，他们在小亚细亚和通往埃及的航程中发现了古老占星术的数学知识和艺术品。他们将一切都投入到所学的知识当中。这就是公元前15世纪到公元前14世纪的希腊人，他们首先充分意识到人类理性的力量，他们用公式表示西方世界很久以来美的准则，他们首先对政治自由进行探讨。
希腊人定居以后组成了小的城邦，各个城邦都是互相独立的，互相间经常征战，每邦纵横只有几英里，其特点是由一个沿海城市和附近农田组成。雅典、科林斯、斯巴达就是这样的城邦。许多城邦都是民主的，全体成年男性公民聚集于市场，选举官吏，讨论公共事务。奴隶、无自由身份的公民（被称为外邦人）和妇女都被排除在政治生活之外，因此在现代意义上，这些城邦都不是民主的。
在希腊小城邦，政治是动乱的。民主是由贵族政治、寡头政治、专制政治以及暴政交替实施。从丰富的政治经验积累中，产生了成体系的政治科学，如公元前四世纪苏格拉底的未用文字写下的思想以及柏拉图的《理想国》希腊人在编写历史时也首先把神话和传说区别开来。历史之父希罗多德足迹遍及整个希腊世界，甚至远涉它邦，搜集历史上一切可供他学习的东西。修席迪德记述了雅典和斯巴达之间的战争，使历史成为启发公民品德和培养建设国家才能的指南。
或许因为希腊人是生性好动、感情激烈的民族，所以他们很真视由他们确立的古典美德。对希腊人来说，理想寓于温和之中，就是他们的中庸之道。他们重视秩序、平庸、对称、明晰和控制。他们理想化的男性表现出如何才算男子汉的概念——为人高尚，严肃沉着，置生死于度外，能控制自己和自己的感情。他们的建筑物，如帕特农神庙，运用了精确测算的角度和排列成行的圆柱。古典的秩序，也就是按照规定的间隔排成直线的一组精心加工的柱子，它们体现了人类理智在无理性的自然物质上留下的牢固印痕。同样的观念也施加于浩瀚的人类文字上。对书面语言进行了设计，精心安排和组织，以便增加效果。史诗、抒情诗、戏剧、演说词以及历史和哲学性的对话，各有其写作规则和创作原理，后来逐渐变为生活与西方文化之中的作家长期用来表达自己思想的形式。
希腊人对周围世界进行思考得出结论：除外表的世界之外，还存在着某种更为直接的东西，真正的是在并非目之所及。在其他民族以及早期的希腊人中，与此相同的认识导致了神话的形成，此类神话所谈论的是被称作神的强有力的无形之人，是在遥远的山顶之上、地下深处和死后的世界。希腊思想家则不然，他们着手批判这种神话。他们对于目睹的形形色色、杂乱无章的事物背后起作用的究竟是什么东西这一问题，设法去寻求理性的、亦即合乎自然的解释。有些思想家考察人体的疾病，说疾病并非恶魔附体，而是人体种种自然条件的结果，可以识别、理解、预见，甚至可按某种自然的方式加以治疗。另一些人则考察物体性质，说一切物质是有极少数东西——原子或元素组成，他们通常把这些东西说成是水、火、土与空气。有的说，变化不过是某种幻觉，一切基本的实在皆始终统一；有的说，只有变化才是真实，世界就是变动。有的人，例如毕达哥拉斯，在束河数学中找到永恒的存在。简言之，希腊人为科学奠定了基础。他们也研究智能活动的方式或应如何让活动，以便达到真实的结论，这样，他们就发展了逻辑的科学。对古典时期全部的科学几乎全部精通集雅典思想之大成者，是公元前384——前332年生活与雅典的亚里士多德。
罗马世界
公元前146年，希腊本土的希腊人被一个新的民族——罗马人所征服。罗马人在保持自己拉丁语的同时，竭力迅速吸收希腊人在知识上和艺术上的成就。经过二三百年，他们建立起一个囊括古代文明世界（波斯以西）的帝国。埃及、希腊、小亚细亚、叙利亚都成为罗马的行省，不过，在这些地方，除政治外，罗马人几乎没有造成任何深刻的影响。在西部，即今日的突尼斯、阿尔及利亚、摩洛哥、西班牙、葡萄牙、法兰西、瑞士、比利时和英格兰，罗马人征服的手段尽管残酷无情，但归根结底仍起着文明使者的作用，将东方的古老成就和希腊罗马本身的最新文化传播
到那时候还处于落后状态的各国。在罗马帝国西部，罗马化及其彻底，拉丁语也成为当时的口语。拉丁语后来在非洲被阿拉伯语所淘汰，但直至今日（当然随着时间而有了变化），它仍在法、意、西、葡和罗马尼亚诸语言中存留了下来。
罗马帝国始于公元前31年，至公元前5世纪后期，期间历经多次盛衰。实际上，在罗马帝国里，整个古代西方文明世界在政治上是统一的，并享有好几百年的内部和平。罗马是中心，四面八方围绕着所谓的环形地，即已知世界，也就是西方当时所知道的世界，因为那时中国的汉帝国也是一个高度组织起来的文化政治整体。罗马帝国基本上由地中海沿岸组成。地中海成为交通运输的大动脉。在宽广帝国，精英们的文化是极其一致的，没有明显差别的民族特性。唯一重要的文化差别，彼此进行着忙碌的商业活动和思想交流，与其他古代文化的城市一样，依靠奴隶劳动生活。城市仍然大部分都在东部，那里依旧集中这大部分的制造行业，人口也最稠密，但西部也出现了城市——的确，法兰西、葡萄牙、英格兰、西德和南德的多数古老城市，都以与罗马统治时期有着某种渊源上的关系而颇感自豪呢。
罗马人的杰出才能表现在组织、行政、政府和法律方面。从来没有哪支军队像罗马军队那样组织得井然有序，能维持那么长时间，能服从发自远方的指挥命令，能在战场上那么卓有成效地加以调动；从来没有那么多的民族为一个单一中心所统治。罗马人本来拥有自治和共和的制度，但这些制度在他们从事军事征服的过程中丧失，因为在帝国时期他们所表现出的管理才能属于独裁主义性质——不是自制的才能，而是管理、协调、统治罗马帝国庞大体系内多样化的和分散的各个地区的才能。地方上，城市和城邦享有许多自治权。但是在地方之上，建立起一个由罗马帝国官吏和行省长官组成的金字塔，位于顶点的就是皇帝。帝国维持和平，即罗马和平甚至还为帝国内部众多民族之间的关系提供某种公正裁决。法律人员按照一整套原则进行工作，这套原则后来成为罗马法。
地方习俗互相抵触的不同地区的人们之间，例如西班牙商人和埃及商人之间是有纠纷的，罗马法官不得不以某种方式加以排解。于是，罗马法逐渐形成这样的观点：习俗未必正确，还有一种藉以做出公平决定的更高的、普遍的法则，这种高级而普遍的自然的法则，或者叫做自然法，是从人的本性和理性产生出来的，因而是为所有人所了解和接受的。法律人员在这一方面曾经求助于希腊哲学。他们还认为，法律的力量来自于某一正当权威所规定的东西，而不是仅仅来自习俗、惯例或以前的合法判断，他们把法律的权利叫做最高权力，认为这种最高权力属皇帝所有。因此，罗马人把法律观念从只不过是风俗习惯的看法中解放出来，另一方面又使它仅仅是任性而已的看法中挣脱出来。他们认为法律应该有开明的智慧来形成，应符合理性喝事物的本性，他们还把法律和官方权利的正式行动联系起来。但必须补充说明一点，罗马法所保护的是国家或政府认为的公共利益，而不是个人的利益或个人的自由。一般说，它向男人提供了比女人更多的特权，这些原则，连同关于财产、债务、婚姻、遗嘱等更明确的概念，在以后若干世纪对欧洲有着极大影响。
第一章汽车总论 1)Today’s average car contains more than 15,000 separate, individual parts that must work together. These parts can be grouped into four major categories: body, engine, chassis and electrical equipment 。P1 现在的车辆一般都由15000多个分散、独立且相互配合的零部件组成。这些零部件主要分为四类：车身、发动机、底盘和电气设备。 2)The engine acts as the power unit. The internal combustion engine is most common: this obtains its power by burning a liquid fuel inside the engine cylinder. There are two types of engine: gasoline (also called a spark-ignition engine) and diesel (also called a compression-ignition engine). Both engines are called heat engines; the burning fuel generates heat which causes the gas inside the cylinder to increase its pressure and supply power to rotate a shaft connected to the power train. P3 发动机作为动力设备，常见的类型是内燃机，其原理是通过发动机缸内的液体燃料燃烧而产生能量。发动机可分为两类：汽油机（点燃式）和柴油机（压燃式），都属于热力发动机。燃料燃烧产生热量使缸内气压上升，产生的能量驱动轴旋转，并传递给动力传动系。 第二章内燃机 1)Power train system: conveys the drive to the wheels 2)Steering system: controls the direction of movement 3)Suspension system: absorbs the road shocks 4)Braking system: slows down the vehicle P4 传动系把发动机输出的扭矩传递给驱动轮。传动系包括离合器（对应机械变速器）或液力变矩器（对应液力自动变速器）、变速器、驱动轴、主减速器、差速器和驱动桥。 5)Drum brakes have a drum attached to the wheel hub, and braking occurs by means of brake shoes expanding against the inside of the drum. With disc brakes, a disc attached to the wheel hub is clenched between two brake pads. P6 鼓式制动器的制动鼓和轮毂连接，制动蹄张开压紧制动鼓内侧从而产生制动。在盘式制动器上，连着轮毂的制动盘被紧紧夹在两个制动块之间。 1)Linking the piston by a connecting rod to a crankshaft causes the gas to rotate the shaft through half a turn.The power stroke"uses up"the gas,so means must be provided to expel the burnt gas and recharge the cylinder with a fresh petrol-air mixture:this control of gas movement is the duty of the valves;An inlet valve allows the mixture to enter at the right time and an exhaust valve lets out the burnt gas after the gas has done its job . P10 活塞通过连杆和曲轴连接，使得气体带动曲轴旋转半圈。作功冲程耗尽了所有的气体，这样就必须采取相应的措施排出废气并且向气缸内充入新的可燃混合气：气体的运动由气门来控制。进气门使可燃混合气在恰当的时刻进入气缸，排气门使燃烧后的废气排出气缸。 2)The spark-ignition engine is an internal-combustion engine with externally supplied in ignition,which converts the energy cntained in the fuel to kinetic energy.The cycle of operations is spread over four piston strokes. To complete the full cycle it takes two revolutions of the crankshaft. P11 火花点火式发动机是由外部提供点火的内燃机，从而将含在燃料内的能量转化成动能。发动机的一个工作循环分布在活塞的四个行程中，一个完整的工作循环曲轴需要转动两圈。 3)The oil pump in the lubricating system draws oil from the oil pan and sends it to all working parts in the engine. The oil drains off and runs down into the pan. Thus,there is constant circulation of oil between the pan and the working parts of the engine. P15
机电专业英语期末复习试题 一．选择题 1.If all points in a linkage move in parallel planes the system undergoes plan ar motion and the linkage may be described as a . A.planar motion B. planar linkage C. joints D. slide 2.Though frame material and design should handle damping, are sometimes built into frame sections to handle specific problems. A .beams B. holes C. dampers D. screw 3.The maximum allowable deflection of a shaft determined by critical s peed, gear, or bearing requirements. A. often B. must C. was D. is usually 4.We will have to to better and better solutions as we generate more in formation. A. repeat many times B. iterating C. iterate D. try ways 5.If a product configuration is specified and then examined to determ ine whether the performance requirements are met. A. finally B. tentatively C. temporary D. have been 6.Manufacturing can be defined as the of raw materials into useful prod ucts through the use of the easiest and lest-expensive methods. A. transformation B. processing C. process D. transforming 7.The planer and knee types of milling machine is because of its flexibi lity. https://www.doczj.com/doc/8918966915.html,ed most commonly B. most popular C. the most commonly used D. mo st powerful 8.As a result, the system will vibrate at the frequency of the force re gardless of the initial conditions or natural frequency of the system. A. action B. excitation C. out D. act 9.Before two components are assembled together, the relationship between the d imensions of the mating surfaces . A.must be giving out B. should printed clearly C. must be specified D . should be clearly noted 10.The main practical advantage of lower pairs is their better ability to trap lubricant between their surfaces. A. enveloping B. mating C. outer D. outside 11.The word itself usually refers to the deterioration of metals and cer amics, while similar phenomena in plastics generally called . A. recrystallization…. corrosion B. recrystallization…degradation C. degradation…corrosion D. corrosion… degradation 12.Most frames cast iron, weld steel, composition, or concrete. A. are made from B. are made up of C. was produced by D. was consist of 13.Rotating shafts particularly those that run at high speeds, must be designe d to avoid operation at speeds. A . low B .overload C. critical D. hollow
About car engine Of all automobile components,an automobile engie is the most complicated assembly with dominant effects on the function of an autombile.So, the engine is generally called the"heat"of an automobile. 在汽车的所有部件中，汽车发动机是最复杂的组件，其对整车性能有着决定性的作用。因而发动机往往被称作发动机的“心脏”。 There are actually various types of engines such as electric motors,stream engines,andinternal combustion engines.The internal combustion engines seem to have almost complete dominance of the automotive field.The internal combustion engine,as its name indicates,burns fuel within the cylinders and converts the expanding force of the combustion into rotary force used to propel the vehicle. 事实上，按动力来源分发动机有很多种，如电动机、蒸汽机、外燃机等。然而内燃机似乎在发动机领域有着绝对的统治地位。就像其字面意思一样，内燃机的染料在气缸内燃烧，通过将燃烧产生气体的膨胀力转换成转动力来驱动发动机前进。 Engine is the power source of the automobile.Power is produced by the linear motion of a piston in a cylinder.However,this linear motion must be changed into rotary motion to turn the wheels of cars or trucks.The puston attached to the top of a connecting rod by a pin,called a piston pin or wrist pin.The bottom of the connecting rod is attached to the crankshaft.The connecting rod transmits the up-and-down motion of the piston to the crankshaft,which changes it into rotary motion.The connecting rod is mounted on the crankshaft with large bearings called rod bearing.Similar bearings, called main bearings,are used to mount the crankshaft in the block. 发动机是整部车的动力来源。能量来自于活塞在气缸内的（往复）直线运动。然而这种（往复）直线运动必须要转换成旋转运动才能驱动车轮。活塞与连杆通过一个销来连接，这个销称为活塞销。连杆的下部连接于曲拐。连杆把活塞的上下往复运动传递给曲拐，从而将往复直线运动转变成旋转运动。连杆和曲拐的连接使用大的轴承，称之为连杆轴承，类似的轴承也用于将曲轴连接到机体，称之为主轴承。 They are generally two different types of cooling system:water-cooling system and air-cooling system.Water-cooling system is more common.The cooling medium, or coolant, in them is either water or some low-freezing liquid, called antifreeze.A water-cooling system consists of the engine water jacket, thermostat, water pump, radiator, radiator cap, fan, fan drive belt and neccessary hoses. 主要有两种类型的冷却系统：水冷和风冷。水冷系统更为普遍。系统所用冷却介质或是冷却液常委水或其他低凝固点液体，称为抗凝剂。一个完整的水冷系统包括机体水套，节温器，水泵，散热器，散热器罩，风扇，风扇驱动皮带和必需的水管。 A water-cooling system means that water is used as a cooling agent to circulate through the engine to absorb the heat and carry it to the radiator for disposal.The ebgine is cooled mainly through heat transfer and heat dissipation.The heat generated by the mixture burned in the engine must be transferred from the iron or aluminum cylinder to the waterin the water jacket.The outside of the water jacket dissipates some of the heat to the air surrounding it, but most of the heat is carried by the cooling water to the radiator for dissipation.When the coolant temperature in the system reaches 90°,the termostat valve open fully, its slanted edge shutting off
修改过程装备与控制工程专业英语翻译Unit 16 压力容器及其部件 压力容器时不泄露的容器。它们有各种尺寸。最小的直径不到一英寸，最大的直径能达到150英尺甚至更大。某些是埋在地下或海洋深处，多数是安放在地上或支撑在平台上，还有一些实际上是在航天飞行器中的贮槽和液压装置中。 由于内部压力，容器被设计成各种形状和尺寸。内部的压力可能低到1英寸，水的表面压力可能达到300000多磅。普通的单层表面建筑压力是15到5000磅，虽然有很多容器的设计压力高出或低于这个范围。ASME锅炉和压力标准中第八卷第一节指定一个范围从15磅在底部到上限，然而，内部压力在3000磅以上，ASME 标准，第八卷第一节，指出考虑特殊设计的情况是必要的。 压力容器的典型部件描述如下: 圆柱壳体在石化工业中对于结构压力容器圆柱壳体是经常被用到的，它是很容易制造、安装并且维修很经济。虽然在一些场合应用载荷和外压控制，要求的厚度通常由内压决定。其他因素如热应力和不连续压力可能有要求厚度决定。 成型的封头许多的端封头和过度部分有设计工程师选择。用一种结构相对另一种依靠很多因素，如成型方法、材料成本、和空间限。一些经常应用的成型封头是: 带凸缘的封头这些封头通常在较低压力的压力设备中，例如汽油罐和锅炉。有些也应用在较高压力的但是较小直径的设备中。设计和结构的许多细节在ASME 标准，第八卷第一节中给出。 半球形封头通常，在一个给定温度和压力下半球形的要求厚度是相同直径和材料圆柱壳体的一半。假如我们用镍和钛昂贵的合金建造实心或覆盖形半球形封头，这样是很经济的。假如使用碳钢，然而，由于这高价的制造费用就不比凸缘形
Unit 1 history ['histri] n. 历史，历史学 narrative ['n?r?tiv] n. 记事，叙事 Herodotus [h?'r?d?t?s] n. 希罗多德 circa ['s?:k?] prep. （拉丁语）大约（简写c., ca., cir., circ., C.）Thucydides [θju'sid?di:z] n. 修昔底德 chronological [.kr?n?'l?d?ik?l] adj. 年代学的，按年代顺序的territorial [.teri't?:ri?l] adj. 区域性的，地方性的 thematically [θi'm?tikli] adv. 按主题方式，按专题方式 Big History 大历史（学派） archaeology [.ɑ:ki'?l?d?i] n. 考古学 methodology [.meθ?'d?l?d?i] n. 方法论 approach [?'pr?ut?] n. 研究方法 discipline ['disiplin] n. 学科 perspective [p?'spektiv] n. 观点 the humanities [hju:'m?nitiz] 人文学科 the social sciences 社会科学 classification [.kl?sifi'kei??n] n. 分类 anthropology [.?nθr?'p?l?d?i] n. 人类学 global history 全球史 historiography [.hist?:ri'?gr?fi] n. 历史编纂学，史学史，文献学biographical [.bai?'gr?fik?l] adj. 传记的，传记体的 thematic [θi'm?tik] adj. 主题的，专题的 medieval [medi'i:v?l] adj. 中世纪的 philosophy of history 历史哲学 meta-level ['met? 'lev?l] 总体层面，元级 teleological [.teli'?l?d?ik?l] adj. 目的论的 diplomatic [.dipl?'m?tik] adj. 外交的 historical method 史学方法 primary sources 原始材料 epistemology [i.pisti'm?l?d?i] n. 认识论 Peloponnesian [.pel?p?'ni:??n] adj. 伯罗奔尼撒半岛的 divine [di'vain] adj. 神的，神圣的 chronology [kr?'n?l?d?i] n. 编年史 cyclical ['saiklikl] adj. 循环的 posthumous ['p?stjum?s] adj. 身后的，死后的 dynastic [dai'n?stik] adj. 王朝的 Saint Augustine [seint ?:'g?stin] n. 圣奥古斯丁 Christian ['kristj?n] adj. 基督教的，基督教徒的 the Renaissance [r?'neis?ns] n. 文艺复兴，文艺复兴时期religious [ri'lid??s] adj. 宗教的 Hegel ['heigl] n. 黑格尔 secular ['sekjul?] adj. 世俗的 Ranke [r??k] n. 兰克 epic ['epik] adj. 史诗的，叙事的；史诗，叙事诗nationalistic [.n???n?l'istik] adj. 民族主义的 Fernand Braudel [fer'nan br?'del] 费尔南?布罗代尔
A Abnormal psychology 变态心理学Accommodation 调节，顺应 Adaptation 适应 Adoption 收养 Aggression 攻击 Altuism 利他主义 Amnesia 健忘症，记忆缺失 Androgyny 两性体，女性男化 Animal testing 动物试验 Anxiety 焦虑 Approaches to psychology 心理学研究方法Arousal:cost-reward model 唤起：成本-回报模型Asch,S S.阿施 Assimilation 同化 Attachment 依恋 Divided auditory 听觉分配 Focused auditory 听觉集中 Attitudes 态度 Attraction 吸引 Autism 孤独症，自闭症 Automatic processing 自动加工 Aversion therapy 厌恶疗法 B Bandura,A A.班杜拉 Behaviour analysis 行为主义 Behaviourism 行为主义 Behaviour shaping 行为塑造 Bias in research 研究倾向 Binaural tests 双耳试验 Biofeedback 生物反馈 Biopsychology 生物心理学 Biosocial theory 社会生物学理论 Bottom-up theories 瓶颈理论
Brain 大脑 Scanning 大脑扫描 Brainstorming 脑力激荡 Bruner,J J.布鲁纳 C Case study method 个案研究法Catharsis 宣泄 Classical conditional 经典条件作用Classification systems 分类系统Cognitive development 认知发展Cognitive dissonance 认知失调论Cognitive labelling theory 认知标签论Cognitive neuropsychology 认知神经心理学Cognitive psychology 认知心理学Collective unconscious 集体无意识Comparative psychology 比较心理学Concrete operational stage 具体运算阶段Conformity 遵从，从众 Conscience 良心 Consciousness 意识 Conservation 守恒 Constructivist theories 建构主义理论Correlations 相关 Critical time period 关键时期 Cross-sectional studies 横断研究 D Data 数据 Interval data 等距数据 Nominal data 名义数据 Ordinal data 序级数据 Ratio data 比率数据 Deindividuation 去个性化 Depth perception 深度知觉 Dependent variable 因变量 Depression 抑郁 Deprivation 剥夺
Fuel Supply System of Gasoline Engine(UNIT SEVEN) All the gasoline engines have substantially identical fuel systems and run on a mixture consisting of fuel vapor and air. The fuel system comprises the units designed to store, clear and deliver fuel, the units intended to clean air and a unit for preparing a mixture from fuel vapor and air. In a fuel system different components are used to supply fuel from the fuel tank into the engine cylinder. Some of the important components are fuel tank, fuel pump, fuel filter, carburetor, intake manifold and fuellines or tubes connecting the tank, pump and the carburetor. The fuel tank is a fuel container used for storing fuel. It is made of sheet metal. It is attached to the vehicle frame with metal traps and is located at the rear of the vehicle. They are mounted in a boot or boot-floor pan in case of front-engined cars and small commercial vehicles. In order to strengthen the tank as well as to prevent surging of fuel when the vehicle rounds a curve of suddenly stops, baffle plates are attached to the inside of the tank. A cap is used to close the filler opening of the tank. The fuel line is attached at or near the bottom of the tank with a filtering element placed at the connection. The other components of the fuel tank are the fuel gauge sending unit, a vent pipe, receiving unit. To prevent the dirt and water from entering the luggage compartment, a sealing strip is fitted between the fuel tank and boot floor pan. Moreover to limit the transmission of frame distortion to the tank giving rise to squeaking as the metal parts get rubbed together, rubber or felt pads are often fitted between the mountings and the tank. Provision is also made against drumming of the tank by these mountings. The tank may be placed at the side of the chassis frame for convenience in case of large commercial vehicles. The length of the connecting lines or tubes from the tank to the carburetor is also restricted by this at the same time. A porous filter is attached to the outlet lines. By drawing fuel from the tank through the filter, any water in the bottom of the tank as well as any dirt into the fuel gathers on the surface of the filter. To keep the fuel always under atmospheric pressure, the filter pipe or tank is vented. In order to prevent dirt in the fuel from entering the fuel pump or carburetor, fuel filters and screens are used in the fuel system. If the dirt is not removed from the fuel, the normal operation of these units will be prevented. The engine performance will also be reduced.
abrasiveness 研磨；腐蚀absolute 绝对的accumulate 堆积；积累 acid 酸；酸性的，酸味的actuator 执行机构 adjust 调整；调节agitation 搅拌 air preheater 空气预热器 air register 空气调节器airflow 气流 alkali 碱 allowance 公差，容差，容许量alloy 合金 alternating current 交流电 angle 角度，角 apparatus 装置，仪器，仪表application 应用 artificial 人造的；仿造的assembly 装配 atmospheric 大气的，大气层的austenite 奥氏体 automation 自动化，自动操作auxiliary 辅助设备，附属机构backflow 回流 baffle 挡板；折流板；隔板batch 一批，批量 bearing 轴承 bellow 波纹管 belt 带；腰带；地带blade 叶片 blower 鼓风机 boiler 锅炉
bolt 螺栓 bonnet 阀盖，阀帽，机罩box furnace 箱式炉 brittle 易碎的，脆弱的burner 燃烧器 bushing 轴衬；套管butterfly valve 蝶阀capacity 容积 carbon steel 碳钢，碳素钢casing 机壳 cast 浇铸 catalyst 催化剂category 分类，种类cavity 腔；洞，凹处centrifugal force 离心力chamber 腔，室，船舱check valve 止回阀checklist 检查表，清单classify 分类；分等clockwise 顺时针方向的coating 涂层，覆盖层coefficient 系数 coil 盘管，线圈 coking 结焦，焦化 column 圆柱，柱形物combination 结合 combustion 燃烧，氧化 component 成分；组件；零件composition 组成，成分 compressor 压缩机 concentration 浓度 concentric 同轴的，同心的
Unit 1 1.他相当足球明星的梦想随着时间的推移慢慢消退了。 His dream of becoming a football star faded out as time went by. 2.一架波音747飞机没有升到足够的高度以飞越那座高山，转瞬间一头撞向大山爆炸了。机上无人生还。 A Boeing 747 aircraft didn’t gain enough height to clear the mountain. In a twinkling, it crashed into the mountain and blew up. No one survived the accident. 3.学生们可以很容易地获得图书馆的资源，所以他们应该充分地利用好图书馆。 Students have easy access to the resources in the library, so they are supposed to make the best of it. 4.当时世界上最豪华的游轮泰坦尼克号在她前往美国的途中撞到了冰山，结果轮船沉没在大西洋中，成百上千的人死于这场海难。 Titanic, the most luxurious ship in the world at that time , hit an iceberg when she was under way to the US. Consequently, the ship sank into the Atlantic Ocean and thousands of people died in this shipwreck. 5.每天夏天，游客们都涌向这一著名的海滩。来此享受日光浴的游客像沙丁鱼一样挤满了海滩。 Every summer, all the tourists pour into this famous beach. They lie packed like sardines on the beach to enjoy the sunbathing. 6.他们曾经到圣路易斯去过一次，对于哪里的新奇事物稍微知道一个大概，可是现在他们的光荣时代已经成过去了。他们从此自知没趣，再也不说话了，而且每逢这个毫不留情的机匠走过来的时候，他们就知道赶快躲开。 The have been to St. Louis once and have a vague general knowledge of its wonders, but the day of their glory is over now. They lapse into humble silence and learn to disappear when the ruthless engineer approaches. Unit 2 1.有些网络专家认为因特网可以防止战争、减少污染，还能克服种种形式的不平等。Some cyber gurus claim that the Internet will prevent wars, reduce pollution, and combat various forms of inequality. 2.不可否认，因特网可以增进交流，但他却无法消除战争，因为战争的爆发并不仅仅是由于不同种族间缺乏充分理解而引起的。 Although the Internet undeniably fosters communication, it will not put an end to war, since wars are by no means caused simply by the failure of different peoples to understand each other adequately. 3.只有当网上的活动能够真正取代现实世界中的行为时，因特网才能帮助节约能源，减少污染。 The Internet can help reduce energy consumption and pollution only if doing things online genuinely displaces real-world activities. 4.穷人不用因特网并不是因为他们买不起，而是因为他们缺乏必要的技能来有效地利用它，所以提高老百姓的文化水平要比给他们提供上网机会更有意义。 The poor are not shunning the Internet because they cannot afford it. The problem is that they lack the skills to exploit it effectively. Therefore, it makes more sense to aim for universal literacy than universal Internet access. 5.因为有了因特网，在不同国家从事类似工作的人们之间收入上的不平等减少了，但是贫穷
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE 引擎燃烧室 1. principle of operation 原理 Engine and power : Engine is used to produce power. The chemical energy in fuel is converted to heat by the burning of the fuel at a controlled rate. This process is called combustion. If engine combustion occurs with the power chamber. ,the engine is called internal combustion engine. If combustion takes place outside the cylinder, the engine is called an external combustion engine. Engine used in automobiles are internal combustion heat engines. Heat energy released in the combustion chamber raises the temperature of the combustion gases with the chamber. The increase in gas temperature causes the pressure of the gases to increase. The pressure developed within the combustion chamber is applied to the head of a piston to produce a usable mechanical force, which is then converted into useful mechanical power. 译: 引擎和能量: 引擎为汽车提供能量，燃料的化学能通过燃烧，转化为热能，这个过程叫燃烧。假如燃烧在燃烧室，这样的发动机叫内燃机。假如燃烧在气缸外，这样的发动机叫外燃机。 用在汽车上的一般是内燃机，热能在燃烧室释放，燃烧室气体温度升高。气体温度的升高使气体的压力曾加，燃烧室内的高压气体作用在活塞头部产生可以利用的化学能，化学能转化为机械能。 Engine T erms : Linking the piston by a connecting rod to a crankshaft causes the gas to rotate the shaft through half a turn. The power stroke “uses up” the gas , so means must be provided to expel the burnt gas and recharge the cylinder with a fresh petrol-air mixture :this control of gas movement is the duty of the valves ;an inlet valve allows the new mixture to enter at the right time and an exhaust valve lets out the burnt gas after the gas has done its job. Engine terms are : TDC(Top Dead Center):the position of the crank and piston when the piston is farther away from the crankshaft. BDC(Bottom Dead Center):the position of the crank and piston when the piston is nearest to the crankshaft. Stroke : the distance between BDC and TDC; stroke is controlled by the crankshaft. Bore : the internal diameter of the cylinder. Swept volume : the volume between TDC and BDC Engine capacity : this is the swept volume of all the cylinder e.g. a four-stroke having a capacity of two liters(2000cm) has a cylinder swept volume of 50cm. Clearance volume: the volume of the space above the piston when it is at TDC. Compression ratio = (swept vol + clearance vol)\(clearance vol) Two-stroke : a power stroke every revolution of the crank.