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Leeds Metropolitan University
Leeds Metropolitan University

Authoring Educational Hypermedia Using a Semantic Network

D.J. Mullier, M.B. Dixon

Faculty of Information and Engineering Systems

Leeds Metropolitan University

England

[d.mullier][m.dixon]@https://www.doczj.com/doc/8b12241646.html,

Abstract: Authoring hypermedia is a difficult process and any deficiencies in the

authoring process are likely to be reflected in the student’s educational experience.

This paper is concerned with providing the author with a framework and process so

as to reduce the possibility of producing a poorly structured domain. The discussion

is centred on practical experiences with an educational hypermedia system produced

at Leeds Metropolitan University that helps the author to structure the domain by the

use of a semantic network which is used to represent the essential structure of the

domain. Since it is an educational system tutorial nodes are used within the

hypermedia to provide the student with tasks to reinforce their learning. The location

and use of these tutorial nodes is discussed, in that they may be used as landmarks to

help orientate a student.

Introduction

It has been argued by Pereira et al (1991) that all hypermedia systems should have a semantic network (or similar structure) defined within them to aid both the author and the end user. Jonassen and Wang (1993) have further suggested that structures such as semantic networks provide the student with structural information that aids them in the retention of hypermedia material. Further studies have shown that complex information and arguments can be represented in semantic network-like web like structures, termed mind-maps or concept maps and that the use of such structures can aid the author of the structure to remember the information stored within them (McAleese 1998, Holmes 1999). Given this, this paper discusses the implications and the process of defining a semantic network.

In order to explore the issue of authoring an educational hypermedia domain, and other issues described in Mullier et al (1998) and Mullier (1999), a prototype educational hypermedia system, called “Hypernet”, has been developed at Leeds Metropolitan University. The remainder of the discussion uses Hypernet as an example of an educational hypermedia system, but the discussion is not restricted to Hypernet itself.

Domain Types

The exemplar domain designed for the conception and implementation of Hypernet was an astronomy domain. This domain was chosen for the reason that it is highly structured and hierarchical, making it ideal for application to this system, since it allows the rapid design of a semantic network. However, the goal of the project as a whole is to devise a paradigm that is as generic in approach as possible, so that it can be applicable to a multitude of domains. In practice, however, it is likely to be the case that some domains are easier to describe as a semantic structure than others. This is because some domains do not exhibit an obvious and generally accepted structure. This could result in a new hypermedia problem similar to “Linkitis” (Conklin 1987), in that if an author is unsure how a domain may be structured then they may be tempted to force a structure on the domain that may not necessarily exist or be helpful. This may result in the student becoming confused and hence render the domain difficult to navigate, exacerbating the lost in hyperspace problem. It is not an ideal situation, however, to allow the students to identify the shortcomings of a domain’s design. It is suggested, therefore, that it is the author’s responsibility to ensure that the domain is designed correctly before it is exposed to students. It is accepted that this is not a trivial task however.

The authoring process is a complex one and has often been overlooked by hypermedia designers (Theng and Thimbleby 1998, Conklin 1987). It is, however, fundamental to the student’s learning needs that the domain is authored to a sufficient standard (Jonassen and Wang 1993). This is especially

true for “fixed-link” systems (systems that do not provide dynamic links). In fixed-link systems it is vital that the author provides the correct links for every possible user of that hypermedia system. Bell (1995) argues that people are not good at writing in a non-linear fashion, therefore hypertext (hypermedia) documents tend to become linear and do not model the true (semantic) structure of the domain itself. By producing hypermedia systems that require a semantic network forces the domain author to consider the structure of the domain and hence is far more likely to result in a domain that provides an adequate structure for the student to navigate. Further, if dynamic links are employed the student is provided with links that more closely meet their requirements and so reduces their cognitive loading.

Defining A Domain

Here Hypernet is used as an example hypermedia tutoring system. The process of defining a domain for use in Hypernet involves the following steps:

? Structuring the domain into a semantic network (defining its structure) by providing typed links between class nodes (class nodes may also be used as hypermedia nodes).

? Forming a semantic hypermedia domain by attaching instance nodes to the class nodes (instance nodes may be used as hypermedia nodes).

? Storing suitable exercises within tutorial nodes, which are connected to the semantic hypermedia.

For a standard hypermedia system it would usually be the case that none of the above stages would be employed, since the majority of hypermedia systems remain unstructured (Dillon and Gabbard 1998). Instead, the author determines for every node in the domain how it connects to all of the other nodes, typically an extremely complex task. However, the application of the semantic network encourages the domain author to organise the domain in a more logical fashion. The final stage is unique to a computer based learning system, as opposed to a general browsing hypermedia system. Since it is difficult for a student to learn in an undirected environment (Jonassen and Wang 1993) it is appropriate for the domain author to require the student to accomplish some task, at least until they have become proficient enough in the domain to be allowed to browse freely.

Figure 1 An Example Domain

The Semantic Network

A semantic network can be defined as a graphical representation relating concepts and information et al Beynon-Davies 1994). A concept in a semantic network is defined as a node and labelled arcs (links) define the relationships between concepts. The example semantic network, shown in figure 1, describes part of a simple astronomical solar system domain. The oval nodes represent class nodes and form the

overall structure of the domain. The square nodes represent the instance nodes that are subsequently attached to the class nodes. Each class node is therefore used as an anchoring point for instance nodes. Therefore every instance node in the hypermedia is connected directly to the class structure of the semantic network. For example, the instance node “Earth” is attached to the class node “Planet”, thus all “Planets” are logically collected around the “Planet” class node. Each instance and class node is visible to the student as a hypermedia node. It is therefore of potential use to the student and author to utilise the class nodes for presenting higher-level information that relates to the nodes connected to it. For example, the instance nodes “Earth”, “Mars” and “Jupiter” are attached to the class node “Planet”. The instance nodes contain information that relates purely to the node itself (the “Earth” node contains information about the Earth). The class node “Planet” may therefore hold information, useful to the student, about the higher level “Planet” node (which may not have been present without the need for the semantic network) and may provide information as to why each node attached to it, should be attached to it. In many hypermedia systems the only way to discover this fact is to traverse a link that exists between the two and rely upon the domain author providing the information within both nodes that each is a volcano. If the student is forced to undergo this procedure in order to discover the relationship between two nodes then they are further exposed to the “risks” of navigation in a complex information structure. The semantic network however reduces the danger of the cognitive loading problem and navigation problem associated with the hypermedia paradigm, by providing a student with contextual information and by forcing the author to structure the domain more logically (Pereira et al 1991, Jonassen and Wang 1993).

Link Types

This standardised set of link types, described fully in (Beynon-Davies et al 1994) are defined below as: ISA – relates an object to a class, i.e. it defines an instance of a class. For example “Mars” ISA “Planet”, “Mars” being the instance of the class “Planet”. This link is unidirectional in that properties are inherited in one direction only. For example the “Mars” node inherits all properties from the “Planet” node by virtue of this link (such properties or attributes may include the fact that a Planet orbits the Sun, thus Mars orbits the Sun). However “Planet” does not inherit properties from “Mars”. The IS-A relationship usually represents information towards the top of a hierarchy and therefore represents more general information (Tudhope and Taylor 1997).

AKO (a-kind-of) – relates a class to another class, or may define a subset. This link type demonstrates the relationship between classes. This type is fundamental in connecting a class nodes together to form one semantic network. For example “Planet” AKO “Solar System Body”, meaning that a “Planet” is a kind of “Solar System Body” and that a “Planet” inherits all properties of the class “Solar System Body”. Tudhope and Taylor (1997) have referred to the AKO link as “narrower-than”, since it represents information at the bottom of a hierarchy, which is usually more detailed or narrower in scope.

PARTOF (part-of) – represents how an object is composed of other objects, or inherits only part of the parent class. This link type demonstrates how a class may be associated with component parts. For example, “Geographical Feature” PARTOF "Planet". The part-of link implies that there is a relationship between instances of classes connected via a part-of link.

HASA (has-a) – relates an object to a property or attribute. This is not used to represent structural information (it is not used as a link type). Instead it may be used to represent knowledge within a class. For example, a “Planet has-a Diameter”. This may be used to ensure that an object conforms to a class exactly (i.e. the author is aided in deciding if a node belongs to a particular class by virtue of it having the same attributes). As noted by Beynon-Davies et al (1994), this link type also aids queries in that a search may search for exact matches, such as “Planets with diameters greater than 100”.

The above link types allow the structure of a domain to be represented. However, further link types may be required to represent course material. For example, it may be necessary to represent dependencies, if one concept must be learned before another, or to represent counter arguments. Extra link types such as "dependent-on" could be used by hypermedia systems to determine whether a node is relevant to a particular student. If a student has not visited the node at one end of the link then the node at the other end is not relevant and may be hidden or greyed out in accordance with the hiding method discussed in Brusilovsky (1996). The "dependent-on" link can therefore be used to represent course information, where it is common to lead a student through topics that are dependent upon each other.

Further link types may include "example-of", "counter-example-of", “supported-by” and “disputed-by”. Link types such as these provide a greater depth of information about a particular node. Therefore it may be necessary to separate a node into several nodes representing various levels of detail. It is arguable that some node types such as "counter-example-of" may not be beneficial to lower-level students, since they may contain contradictory or otherwise confusing information, therefore there may be a case to make such links available to only the higher level students. Further, in the area of concept mapping, which can be said to share some common attributes with hypermedia, there can be any number of author (of the concept map) definable link-types (McAleese 1998). In essence it does not matter whether the domain author uses a predefined set of link types or whether they use their own. Other researchers have attempted to produce automatic links differently, depending upon the link types that connect two remote nodes. Tudhope and Taylor (1997) calculate automatic links by giving a stronger relationship between nodes connected by AKO relationships than IS-A relationships. The reason for this is that relationships at the bottom of hierarchies, represented by AKO relationships, are thought to be more closely related than those at the top, represented by IS-A relationships (Tudhope and Taylor 1997). The use of different strengths of relationships has not been explored as part of this research project, although it may prove to be beneficial as part of further work. Further, it may be possible to combine the information potentially available from the student’s browsing pattern to dynamically alter the strength of the link types, in that if a user is determined, by virtue of their browsing pattern, to be interested in general information then the strength of the IS-A link type could be increased and vice versa.

Adding Nodes to the Domain

Once a semantic network has been defined for the domain in terms of class nodes, then instance nodes may be added to it. The author must decide to which class a new node belongs, a class being represented by a class node (connected to other class nodes via ISA and/or AKO link types). If there is no such class node, then the semantic network has not been sufficiently defined for the domain or the new node does not belong to the domain. This is an important restriction, since there may be more than one author for the domain. It is possible that a domain may be initially defined by an author, but extra nodes are added to it subsequently, perhaps after students have begun using the hypermedia. The addition of the semantic network is an aid to all such authors, since it has the potential to help them to decide if a node should belong to the domain. An author who is unsure as to the legitimacy of a node’s relationship with the domain, may succumb to the “Linkitis” problem, i.e. if unsure then link. The semantic structure aids such an author by providing them with a structure into which the node must fit. It is possible that the responsibility for deciding whether a node should be added to the domain lies with the original semantic network author, since it could be stated that if a node cannot be typed to an existing semantic network node, then it should not belong to the domain. This could be achieved by allowing only certain classes of author to modify or otherwise add to the semantic network. Thus, the integrity of the domain is protected to a far higher degree than would be the case with a hypermedia system without a semantic network.

Once a node has been correctly typed, it is connected to the semantic network. This immediately connects the new node to all the other nodes in the hypermedia system, via paths of varying lengths, thus the author need not specify any other direct links. It is likely however, that an author wishes to add a series of related nodes. For example, the author may wish to add the node "Pluto" to the domain. This could involve the addition of several new nodes, namely the node “Pluto” representing the planet itself and “Charon”, representing Pluto’s only satellite. The author therefore types “Pluto” is-a “Planet” and “Charon” is-a “Satellite”. Once “Charon” has been correctly typed, the author is required to connect it to a host “Planet”, since this is an explicit requirement of the “Satellite” type (a reasonable requirement since satellites do not exist in isolation). The original author of the semantic network encodes this requirement within the semantic node itself.

The semantic network is therefore a structure that connects the entire domain together. It is vital that the author connects the class nodes together in an accurate fashion. As discussed above, it may not be clear cut decision whether to connect a node to a particular class node or not. The author may have to make a decision about connecting two class nodes together when the relationship between them is not a definite one. The author should detail this relationship within the class node so that any future author is clear about the defined relationship. It may not always be the case that such a one to one relationship can be defined, i.e. an instance node may not fit exactly into the semantic structure of the domain, but may still be valuable to the student studying the domain. In this situation the author should provide a suitable “non specific” semantic node. For example, the domain author may wish to add information

about probe missions to various planets. The author may decide that it is not appropriate to add the semantic node “Probe Missions” as a-kind-of “Planet”. However, it may be appropriate to have information about the Voyager missions to Jupiter, with the "Jupiter" instance node. The author could therefore define the semantic node “Related Material” as part-of “Planet”. It is important that this facility is used sparingly, otherwise the benefits of structuring the domain could be lost.

Defining Tutorial Nodes

Tutorial nodes are employed by Hypernet as a means to aid the student’s retention of the domain contents. Jonassen and Wang (1993) suggest that information is retained by providing a context into which the information fits, thus aiding the student in determining where the information fits within their own knowledge representation structures (schema). In Hypernet this is aided by providing the students with tasks to complete, via the tutorial nodes. Tutorial nodes may take the form of a simple question and answer session, or they may involve a more complex task that requires that the student to visit several nodes. Such tasks may require the student to traverse the hypermedia looking for various pieces of information. Requiring the student to find and examine the relationship between concepts may also aid their retention of structural knowledge of the domain (Jonassen and Wang 1993). It is therefore paramount that tutorial nodes are designed and placed within the hypermedia in order to render this transfer of knowledge as efficient as possible.

The tutorial nodes are designed to remove the danger of passivity from the system, i.e. the student is not always left to wander through a hypermedia system, without a task or guidance, especially if they are a novice of the domain. It could be argued that a human teacher could present the student with a learning task before they are exposed to the hypermedia system. However, this would require the human teacher to supply the student with a complete task that would detail requirements for the student, as they become more proficient with the domain. Alternatively, it would require that the human teacher is constantly present, in order to gauge when the student requires a new more advanced task. The latter situation is not always possible, since the human teacher is an expensive resource and the need for ITSs has been driven by this fact (Woods and Warren 1995). The former situation is also not desirable, since providing the novice student with expert level tasks (for their future use), may be providing the student with a level of complexity that is not beneficial to them (Ridgeway 1989, Kinshuk and Patel 1997).

Tutorial Nodes are embedded within the hypermedia, although they do not strictly form part of the semantic network, in that they do not represent the structure of the domain. A tutorial node may be triggered by a simple rule, defined by the domain author. For example: “Activate Tutorial Node 1 when the student enters the system”. The student is therefore given a task to complete as soon as they enter the system. It is advised that such a task should concentrate on providing the student with information about how to use the hypermedia tutoring system itself and not necessarily be related to the domain, since initially, a user who is new to a system expends most of their “cognitive power” learning how to use a new system .

Linear and Non-Linear Tutorial Nodes

Tutorial nodes may exist in “linear hyperspace” and “non-linear hyperspace”. They may be designed to be encountered one after the other, guiding the student through the hypermedia (linear hyperspace). Alternatively, they may be activated by a student following their own interests into a particular area of the hypermedia (non-linear hyperspace). Linear hyperspace is similar to Trigg’s (1988) idea of paths authored into a hypermedia system. Trigg’s system, "TexNet", allows the author to specify default paths for the student to follow, in order to reduce the chances of them becoming lost. Such a method has been criticised by Jonassen and Wang (1993), for providing the student with a path that they may “blindly” follow, i.e. they are encouraged not to search the hyperspace. The same criticism cannot however be levelled at the linear hyperspace tutorial nodes (LTN) employed by Hypernet, since they are not providing a node to node path. Instead the LTNs are providing the student with useful landmarks with which to orientate themselves, in that the student can navigate from one LTN to the next. They may therefore travel through the hypermedia in freedom, between such tutorial nodes. These nodes are suitable for novice students, since they are guided (as opposed to forcefully directed) by the tutorial nodes.

The non-linear hyperspace tutorial nodes are intended for more advanced students, since they do not provide the guidance that the LTNs provide. This is because the NLTNs do not appear in a predefined

sequence. Instead, it is a matter of when the student uncovers them. They therefore do not offer the same landmark qualities as their linear counterparts. Such nodes are therefore more suited to students of higher levels, since the student may randomly encounter them and are not lead from one to the next. The LTNs may be useful for lower level students and the NLTNs for higher level students. It may be desirable in some instances to use the two types of tutorial nodes interchangeably; for example, using LTNs for an expert level student who has entered an unvisited section of the domain. It may also be desirable for the author to target certain tutorial nodes at certain levels of students, or to have slightly different tutorials, for each student level, present within the same tutorial node. Figure 9.3.1.A (shown previously) shows two NLTNs, labelled "Planet Tutorial" and "Volcano Tutorial". These nodes are invoked when the node to which they are connected to via an "Invoked-by" link is selected. For example, the "Volcano Tutorial" is invoked when the "Volcano" class node is visited. Conclusion

Experiences with Hypernet suggest that the use of a semantic network does indeed help the author to represent their knowledge in a formalised way, suitable for expression as a hypermedia domain. Whether this domain representation is more of less useful to the student is open to educational debate, however, the literature concerning the use of semantic networks would strongly indicate that it is (Tudhope and Taylor 1997, Pereira et al 1991, Jonassen and Wang (1993).

References

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McAleese R, 1998 The Knowledge Arena as an Extension to the Concept Map: Reflection in Action; In Interactive Learning Environments, Vol. 6, No. x. (Available from https://www.doczj.com/doc/8b12241646.html,/~ray. Mullier D J, Hobbs D J, Moore D J, A Hybrid Semantic/Connectionist Approach to Adaptivity in Educational Hypermedia Systems. In Proceedings of ED-MEDIA’99, Seattle, WA. 1999

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